MODULE 5: ARMATURE REACTION.

 The current to the load is the current in

the armature conductors and is equal to
the sum of the current from the parallel
paths in the armature.
 The current flow in the armature
 Consider Fig. 5.2, which shows the
conductors of a dynamo has an
armature rotating in the magnetic field
important and undesirable effect upon
and the resulting armature current when
the dynamo’s operation. a load is connected to the generator.
 The current in the armature produces
a flux, and it is the interaction
between this flux and the field flux.
 When there is no load connected to
the generator, the current in the
armature conductor is zero.
 Under these conditions, there is only
one magnetic field in the generator,
and that field is produced by the
main-field poles of the generator.
 When several conductors are placed
 This field is represented by an arrow, together, the flux from each conductor is
which indicates the direction of the combined to produce a resultant flux.
magnetic flux from the north pole to Note the direction of this resultant flux.
the south pole as shown below in Fig.  The flux from the conductors on the left
5.1 side of the armature and the flux from the
conductors on the right side of the
armature and the flux from the
conductors on the right side of the
armature and the flux in the center of the
armature that is downward in direction.
 The flux from the conductors on the left
side of the armature and the flux from the
conductors on the right side of the
armature;
 and the flux from the conductors on the
right side of the armature ;
 and the flux in the center of the armature
 A load is now connected to the generator,
that is downward in direction.
and of course current flow exists.
 This is resultant flux can be represented
 The current to the load is the current in
by an arrow as indicated, noting that the
the armature conductors and is equal to
arrow passes through both top and
the sum of the current from the parallel
bottom brushes.
paths in the armature.
 The flux from the conductors on the left
 Consider Fig. 5.2, which shows the
side of the armature ;
armature rotating in the magnetic field
and the resulting armature current when
a load is connected to the generator.
 and the flux from the conductors on the
right side of the armature and the flux
from the conductors on the right side of
the armature
 and the flux in the center of the armature
that is downward in direction.
 This is resultant flux can be represented
by an arrow as indicated, noting that the
arrow passes through both top and
bottom brushes.
 There are now two fluxes inside the
generator, one produced by the main-
field poles of the generator and the other
by the current in the armature
conductors.
 These two fluxes now combine to form a
new resultant flux as shown in Fig. 5.3.
 This new resultant flux is not in the same
direction as the original main-field flux;
 But runs from the tip of one of the poles,
across the armature, to the tip of the other
poles.
 The armature conductors are now cutting
this new resultant flux that is not in the
same direction as the main-field flux
which the conductors were originally
cutting.
 The brushes, it will be recalled from
previous module, are supposed to be
located at the points of minimum flux,
which of course are at right angles to the
direction of the flux,
 Since the brushes were at right angles to
the main field flux, they certainly cannot
be a right angles to the new resultant
flux.
 With the brushes in their present location
they will be short-circuiting coils in
which there is a voltage induced,
 thereby producing sparking at the
brushes, undue brush wear, and other
unfavorable conditions.
EFFECT OF BRUSH SHIFTING
 If the brushes are no longer at the points
of minimum flux, or magnetic neutral, as
the points of minimum flux are known,
 It might appear to be a simple solution to
shift the brushes until they do fall on the
magnetic neutral, and then brushes will
once again be at the points of minimum
flux.
 However, the following problem arises.
If the brushes are shifted to the new
magnetic neutral, will the magnetic
neutral remain fixed or will it shift
again?
 It has just been seen that the direction of
the resultant flux depends upon both the
flux from the main-field poles and the
flux produced by the current in the
armature conductors.
 The flux from the main –field poles is
fairly constant and will remain constant
even though the generator is supplying
current to a load.
 If the load current is small, the armature
current will be small and the flux
produced by the armature conductors
will be small; hence the shift in the
resultant flux will be small as compared
with the main –field flux.
 The greater the current delivered by the
generator, the greater the current in the
armature conductors, and therefore the
greater the flux produced by the armature
conductors, ending with a greater shift in
the direction of the resultant flux.
 The flux from the main –field poles is
fairly constant and will remain constant
 even though the generator is supplying
current to a load.
 If the load current is small, the armature
current will be small and the flux
produced by the armature conductors
will be small; hence the shift in the
resultant flux will be small as compared
with the main –field flux.
 The greater the current delivered by the
generator, the greater the current in the
armature conductors, and therefore the
greater the flux produced by the armature
conductors, ending with a greater shift in
the direction of the resultant flux.
 The flux from the main –field poles is
fairly constant and will remain constant
even though the generator is supplying
current to a load.
 If the load current is small, the armature
current will be small and the flux
produced by the armature conductors
will be small; hence the shift in the
resultant flux will be small as compared
with the main –field flux.
 The greater the current delivered by the
generator, the greater the current in the
armature conductors, and
 Therefore the greater the flux produced
by the armature conductors, ending with
a greater shift in the direction of the
resultant flux.
 If the load on the generator were
somewhat constant, the position of the
magnetic neutral would be stationary to
some extent and the brushes could then
be shifted to the new magnetic neutral as
in Fig. 5.3.
 If the brushes are shifted to the new
magnetic neutral, it has been seen that the
direction of the resultant flux depends
upon both the flux from the main-field
poles and the flux produced by the
current in the armature conductors.
 The flux from the main-field poles is
fairly constant and will remain constant
even though the generator is supplying
current to a load.
 If the load current is small, the armature
current will be small and the flux
produced by the armature conductors,
and
 Therefore the greater the flux produced
by the armature conductors, ending with
a greater shift in the direction of the
resultant flux.
 If the brushes are to be moved to a neutral
position, the new position will depend
upon the load.
 With the load on a generator constantly
varying, it would be impossible to preset
the position of the brushes and expect
satisfactory results.
 If the load on the generator were
somewhat constant, the position of the
magnetic neutral would be stationary to
some extent and the brushes could then
be shifted to the new magnetic neutral as
in Fig. 5.3.
 The brushes must be moved in the
direction of rotation of the armature
when moving from the original position
of the magnetic neutral to the new
position.
 It is advisable to analyze the effects of
shifting the brushes to the new position,
that is, with the brushes on the new
magnetic neutral.
 It should be apparent that the flux from
the main-field poles is dependent upon
the field current, and therefore sifting the
brushes to the new magnetic neutral
would have no effect upon the magnitude
or direction of this flux.
 Hence, the flux from the poles is now the
same as it was before the brushes were
shifted.
 The flux from the armature must now be
considered. Referring to Fig. 5.4, it is
seem by Fleming’s right-hand rule that
the conductors under the north pole carry
current away from the observer and the
conductors under the south pole carry
current toward the observer.
 The flux from these conductors is
indicated on the diagram, and of course,
the combined flux from all the
conductors is still in a direction from the
top of the brush to the bottom of the
brush. As indicated before that the brush
were shifted.
 Note that the flux from the armature
conductors is not at right angles to the
flux from the main-field poles.
 The effects of the armature flux may be
analyzed by considering the flux to
consist of two components that are at
right angles to each other as shown in
HIGH – RELUCTANCE POLE TIPS
Fig. 5.5. One component is a right angles
to the main field, and because this
component crosses the main -field flux.
 It is known as the cross-magnetizing
component of the armature flux. The
second component is in the same plane as
the main-field flux, with the result that it
tends to reduce the effect of the main-
field flux, with the result that it tends to
reduce the effect of the main-field flux.
 This component of the armature flux is
known as the demagnetizing component
of the armature flux.
 It appears momentarily, that shifting the
brushes has not improved the situation. It
seems to have become worse. Before the
brushes were shifted, the armature flux
was at right angles to the main-field flux
and therefore produced only a cross-
magnetizing field,
 Somewhat reduced in magnitude,
additionally, there is now a
demagnetizing field which tends to
reduce the main-field flux, resulting in
lower generated voltage.
 This demagnetizing component was
obtained only after the brushes were
shifted, and the brushes were shifted
because of the change in direction of the
resultant flux, which was due to the
armature conductors carrying current.
 The application of some means to
prevent the shift of the resultant flux
would eliminate the necessity of shifting
the brushes, and hence no demagnetizing
field would be produced.
 Referring to Fig. 5.3, it can be seen that
the flux from the current in the armature
conductors causes the main-field flux to
shift from the center of the main-field
poles to the tips of the poles.
 Because of this shift in the resultant flux,
the brushes should be moved to the new
magnetic neutral.
 If moving of the brushes is to be avoided,
then the resultant flux must be brought
back to its original position, with current
still flowing in the armature conductors.
 Applying the knowledge that most of the
flux follows the path of least reluctance,
poles are designed where the reluctance
at the ends of the poles is greater than the
reluctance at the center.
 This variation in reluctance is obtained
by chamfering the poles; that is, the pole
is so constructed that the greater the
distance from the center of the pole, the
 greater the air gap between the pole and
the armature.
 The greater the air gap, the greater the
reluctance. With no current in the
armature conductors, the flux will be
concentrated at the center of the pole, and
when current flows in the armature
conductors, the flux will tend to shift to
the end of the pole.
HORIZONTAL SLOTS IN MAIN-FIELD
 The air gap will offer an increase in
POLE
reluctance to the flux as it moves from
the center of the pole, thereby tending to
keep the flux in the same original
position. The shape of this pole is shown  The high – reluctance pole-tip
in Fig. 5.6. construction reduced the effects of
armature reaction by not allowing the
flux to shift.
 The shift in the resultant flux was caused
by the armature flux. If the armature flux
could be reduced to a negligible value,
 Then its cross-magnetizing effect upon
the main –field flux would be small and
the brushes would have to be shifted.
 Figure 5.8 shows that the part of the path
 The same effect on the flux can be of the magnetic flux is through the field
obtained by a different design of the poles.
main-field pole. The field pole, it should  By cutting horizontal slots in the poles,
be recalled, is built up of laminated sheet several air gaps are introduced in the path
pole. Cutting each lamination into a of the flux.
shape indicated in Fig. 5.7a, we can  These slots increase the reluctance to the
immediately see that there is only one armature flux while having very little
pole tip available from each lamination, effect on the main-field flux. The
and not two. armature flux is materially reduced, and
 When these laminations are stacked so the brushes need not be shifted.
that the first lamination has the tip on the
right, the second lamination has the tip on
left, etc.
 A field pole is developed that has a low
value of reluctance at the center of the
pole while the tips of the pole have a
higher reluctance.
 The effect of this pole construction,
shown in Fig. 5.7c, is the same as the
chamfered-pole construction.
 The flux is concentrated at the center of COMPENSATING WINDINGS
the pole.
 Another method of reducing the armature
flux on large machines is by the use of
compensating windings.
 These windings are placed in the pole
faces of the field pole can run parallel to
the armature conductors.
 A connection is made from one brushes
to one end of this winding, so that the
current from the armature must first pass
through this winding before going to the
load.
COMMUTATION
 The direction of current through the
winding is opposite to that of the
current in the armature conductors
under that pole.
 The location of the compensating
winding and of the connection to the
winding is shown in Fig. 5.9.
 Figure 5.9 indicates that the current
in the armature conductors located
under the north pole carry current
away from the observer;
 Therefore the direction of current
flowing in that part of the
compensating winding situated in the
north pole is toward the observer.
 The direction of flux due to the
current in the armature conductors
shown in Fig. 5.9 will be from the top
brush to the bottom brush.
 Since the current in the
compensating winding is opposite in
direction to the current in the
armature conductors, the flux
produced by the current in the
compensating winding will be
opposite in direction to the armature
flux.
 If the armature current increases, the
compensating current increases, so
that the armature flux us canceled for
all load conditions.
 The compensating flux, being
opposite in direction to the armature
flux, tends to cancel the armature
flux.
 If the armature current increases, the
compensating current increases, so
that that the armature flux is canceled
for all load condition
 At this point, let us review the process of
commutation in greater detail.
 Commutation is the process a coil
undergoes after leaving the magnetic
field of one pair of poles and just before
entering the magnetic field of the next
pair of poles.
 The brushes are located between the
poles at the point of minimum flux so that
the brushes will not short-circuit a coil
while there is a voltage induced in the
coil.
 The current in the coil also undergoes a
change in direction; that is, the current in
the coil is in one direction before
commutation, and after commutation the
direction of current in the coil is reversed.
 Figure 5.10 above, exhibits the current in
the coils of a two-pole generator having
a gramme-ring armature, the direction of
current having been determined by the
right hand rule.
 The armature of the generator is rotating;
therefore the coils are always changing
their position with respect to the poles.
 In a consideration that any conductor
located to the left of the brush carries
current in one direction when
approaching the brush and in the opposite
direction when moving away from the
brush.
 Thus a coil rotates it carries current first
in one direction; then this current must
drop to zero during commutation; and
when the coil moves away from the brush
the current in the coil must reverse.
 This process is shown in Fig. 5.11. this
diagram shows the commutator
segments, the coils connected to the
commutator segments, and one of the
brushes.
 Thus a coil rotates it carries current first
in one direction; then this current must
drop to zero during commutation; and
when the coil moves away from the brush
the current in the coil must reverse.
 This process is shown in Fig. 5.11. this
diagram shows the commutator
segments, the coils connected to the
commutator segments, and one of the
brushes.
 The coils to the left of the brush carry
current to the brush from left to right.
 The coils to the right of the brush also
carries current to the brush, but from
right to left. Let us follow coil A as it
rotates from left to right and undergoes
commutation.
 In Fig. 5.12a current flows through coil
A from left to right and the magnitude of
the current is indicated in Fig. 5.13 as
point 1. as the armature rotates, the brush
makes contact with the commutator
segment 1 and just touches the segment
2,
 Creating a partial shot circuit across coil
A as shown in magnitude of the current
in the coil as shown as point 2 of Fig.
5.13. With further rotation of the coil, as
indicated in Fig .5.12 c, it seen that coil
A is completely short-circuited, causing
the current to reduce to zero at point 3 of
Fig. 5.13.
 With further rotation of the coil, as
indicated in Fig. 5.12 c, it is seen that the
coil A is completely short-circuited,
causing the current to reduce to zero at
point 3 of 5.13. as the coil continues past
the brush, the short circuit is gradually
removed and currents begins to flow
through coil A again.
 However, now that the coil is on the other
side of the brush, the current in the coil
will be in the other direction. When the
short is completely removed from the
coil, the current will again reach to its full
value (Fig. 5.12 d).
EMF OF SELF- INDUCTION
 It is a well known fact that whenever
there is current in a conductor, magnetic
field is set up about the conductor.
 The greater the current through the
conductor, the greater the strength of the
magnetic field about the conductor.
 If the current in the conductor changes,
the magnetic field around the conductor
also changes.
 This magnetic field surrounds and links
the conductor, and whenever there is a
change in the flux of the magnetic field,
this flux cuts the conductor and induces a
voltage in the conductor.
 The direction of this induced voltage is
such that it will oppose any change in the
magnitude of the current.
 It is a well known fact that whenever
there is current in a conductor, magnetic
field is set up about the conductor.
 The greater the current through the
conductor, the greater the strength of the
magnetic field about the conductor.
 If the current in the conductor changes,
the magnetic field around the conductor
also changes.
 This magnetic field surrounds and links
the conductor, and whenever there is a
change in the flux of the magnetic field,
this flux cuts the conductor and induces a
voltage in the conductor.
 The direction of this induced voltage is
such that it will oppose any change in the
magnitude of the current.
 As the manifestation, assuming a voltage
is applied to a circuit producing a current
flow.
 The current in the circuit was originally
zero and is to be changed to some finite
value. As the current begins to increase
in value, the surrounding flux increases
in magnitude, thereby cutting the
conductor and producing an induced emf.
 Since the induced voltage is in a
direction as to oppose the change in
current, from zero to a finite value, the
direction of the induced voltage must be
of such as to oppose the applied voltage.
Therefore:
 The net voltage has been reduced and the
rise in current has also been reduced.
 The same would be true if the current had
some finite value and were increased to
a larger value.
 It should be recalled that a voltage is
induced only when there is a change in
the magnitude of the current.
 When the current reaches a steady value
the induced voltage does not exist
because the flux does not change.
After effect done by EMF of Self Induction
 If the current in a circuit were induced,
the field about the conductor would
collapsed to some extent.
 This collapsing field cuts the conductor
to produce an induced voltage.
 The direction of the induced voltage is to
oppose the change of current,
 and since the current is decreasing, the
induced emf is in the same
 direction as the applied voltage. This
additional voltage, aiding the
 applied voltage, tends to slow the
decrease in current.
 The coils in the armature of the generator
carry, and when a coil carrying current
undergoes commutation, the current in
the coil drops to zero rather quickly.
 This reduction in current causes the
magnetic field about the coil tro
 collapse quickly , creating an induced
voltage in the coil.
 This emf is in a direction that is the same
as the applied voltage because the current
is decreasing. How about the applied
voltage in this instance?
  It is the voltage that was induced in the
coil when the coil cut the flux of the
main-field pole.
 If the coil undergoing commutation had
just left the magnetic field of the north
pole, the emf of self – induction would be
in the same direction as a coil cutting the
flux of the north pole.
 Because of the emf of self- induction
would be in the same direction as a coil
cutting the flux of the north pole.
 Because of this emf of self-induction , the
brush short-circuits as coil in which a
difference of potential exists, causing a
large circulating current causes sparking
at the brushes, undue heating of the
brushes and commutator, and
unnecessary wear of these components.
Naturally, this effect is undesirable, and
the circulating current must be
eliminated.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERPOLE
 There are two effects resulting from the
current in the armature conductors.
 The First Effect was the change in the
direction of the magnetic flux, where it
was seen that the brushes were shifted in
the direction of the rotation of the
armature.
 The Second Effect of the armature
conductors carrying current is the emf of
self-induction.
Explanation of the First Effect.
 Referring to the top brush of Figure 5.14
above as to draw an illustration, the brush
would have to be:
 Moved away from the north pole;
otherwise coils undergoing commutation
would be cutting flux from the north
pole.
 If it is desirable to keep the brush in the
same position and not move it away from
the north pole, then it becomes necessary
to reduce the flux from the north pole that
is cutting the coil from the commutation.
 To do this another pole is placed
between the main-field poles, and the
flux from this added pole opposes the
flux from the north pole to make the net
flux to zero.
 Now that the net flux between the main
poles is zero, there is no need to shift the
brushes because the brushes are located
at the points of minimum flux.
 The same reasoning applies to the bottom
brush of Fig. 5.14.
 The bottom brush would have been
shifted toward the north pole, away from
the effects of the south pole.
 To keep the brush in the same position,
the effects of the south pole must be
eliminated. This would be accomplished
by placing a north pole at the point where
the flux should be zero.
Explanation of the Second Effect.
 Referring to Figure 5.14 above as an
example, a coil having just left the north
pole and now undergoing commutation
will have:
 An emf induced in the coil, and the
direction of this voltage will be the same
as the voltage induced when the coil was
under the north pole.
 This emf of self – induction cannot be
eliminated, but if the coil is made to cut
flux so that another voltage is induced in
the coil, and if the new induced voltage is
equal and opposite to the emf of self-
induction, the net voltage in the coil will
be zero.

ELABORATION  The strength of the interpole will also be
greater, to produce the required increase
 Since the net voltage induced in the coil
in the flux.
undergoing commutation is now zero, the
brushes will be short-circuiting a coil
with no induced voltage, and no
circulating current will exist between the
coil and the brush.
 This new induced emf must be opposite
to the emf of self-induction, and
therefore the coil just having left the
north pole must cut flux from a south
pole.
 Fortunately, a south pole was required to
eliminate the first effect of the armature
conductors carrying current.
 If the strength of this magnetic south pole
is increased, the necessary voltage will
be induced in the coil and the generator
will perform satisfactorily. Figure 5.14
shows the location of the added south
pole and the added north pole necessary
for the second brush of the generator.
 Added poles are located between the
main-field poles, they are called
Interpoles.
 Figure 5.15 exhibits the manner in which
the interpole flux opposes the armature
flux.

 The interpoles are connected in a similar

manner to the series field of a compound
generator; that is the situation:
 The load current passes through the coils
of the interpoles and produces flux, thus
the greater the current through the
armature conductors, the greater the
distortion of the flux; The greater the emf
of self-induction.
MODULE 6: PARALLEL OPERATION
OF GENERATOR
Parallel Operation of Generators
 One of the electrical considerations
in the planning of any building
requiring direct current from local
generators is the selection of either
one large generator or two smaller
ones to supply the load.
 In general, while one large generally
be selected. This is because some
time in the future, as components
show signs of wear, maintenance
work will be performed on the
generator.
 If one large generator is used, this
work can be done only during odd
hours when the plant is not on
operation. If two generators are used,
one generator may have the
necessary repairs made during slack
periods while the other can furnish
power.
 In the event of the generator failure it
is still desirable to have tow small
generators rather than one large one.
Failure of the large generator means
complete plant shut down. But
failure of one small generator means
that the plant still has the use of two
small generators operating in parallel
is generally the most desirable.
These are the factors which may
dictate the selection of large
generator.
 These factors may include such items
as initial investment, maintenance,
space requirements, and type of plant
operation. The requirements of each
installation will determine the type of
plant operation. The requirements of
each installation will determine the
type of power plant to be selected. If
a choice is available, two units are
preferable.
 The current a generator can safely
supply is stated on the nameplate of
the machine and is known as “ rated”
current.
 This value of current should not be
exceeded for fear of possible damage
to the generator.
 Now of a generator is supplying
power to a load and the demand upon
the generator is such that the value of
rated current is to be exceeded, a
second generator is required to assist
the first in supplying the demand.
 Just as batteries are connected in
parallel to supply a load that is too
relatively simple; it is not as simple
to connect two generators in
parallel.
 First some preliminary adjustments
must be made, and then a set
procedure must be followed. The
procedure to connect two shunt
generators is different from the
procedure to connect cumulative
compound generators in parallel;
CONNECTING SHUNT GENERATORS IN
PARALLEL
 Figure 6.1 shows two generators and a
load. Let us assume that generator 1 is
operating and supplying current to the
load.
 The polarity of the voltage at the
terminals of the generator is indicated in
the diagram. Fuses or circuit breakers are
used to protect the equipment in the event
of an overload or short circuit, and meters
are included to determine the generator
output voltage and generator current.
Since the second generator is not
operating, it is not connected to the load.

 The load on generator 1 now increases to
the point where the rated current is
exceeded. The second generator must be
placed in operation to share the load.
 The prime mover of the second generator
is started, and the voltage builds up in
generator 2. Before anything else is done
after the voltage of generator 2 is built up,
the polarity of the incoming generator (2)
should be compared with the running
generator (1). Since both of these
generators are to be connected in parallel,
the positive terminals of each generator
are to be connected and the negative
terminals of each generator are to be
connected together.
 If the generators are not properly
connected, as just indicated, the improper
connections will place both generators in
series, with only the internal resistance of
each generator limiting the magnitude of
the current.
 In as much as the internal resistance of
the generator is very small, an
exceedingly large value of current will
flow which will trip the circuit breaker or
blow fuses.
 Note: The student working in the
laboratory should check this point very
carefully to avoid unnecessary delay in
the completion of the experiment.
 With the polarity of the incoming
machine determined, the next step is the
correct setting of the terminal voltage.
Generator 2 cannot be connected in
parallel with generator 1 without due
regard to the value of its terminal
voltage.
 If the terminal voltage of generator 2 is
lower than that of generator 1, and then
both machines are connected in parallel,
generator 1, with the higher terminal
voltage, will supply power not only to the
load, but also to the second generator.
 This result requires additional
explanation. Figure 6.2a shows the
electrical relationship existing in
generator 2 before being connected in
parallel with generator 1.
 There is no load connected to generator
2; thus the terminal voltage Vt2 equals
the generated voltage E2, neglecting the
small Ia Ra drop in the armature due to
the field current being supplied by the
armature.
 The direction of the armature current
inside the generator is from the - brush
to the + brush.
 he field circuit being connected across
the terminals of the generator has current
flowing through the windings from the +
terminal to the – terminal of the
generator.
 When the generator 2, with its low value
of terminal voltage, is connected in
parallel with generator 1, conditions are
set up that are indicated in Fig. 6.2b. The
greater voltage from generator 1, Vt1,
will cause current to flow through
 generator 2 from the + terminal to the –
terminal.
 The current through the armature of
generator 2 is still in the same director,
for now, instead of receiving power from
the terminals of generator 2 is still in the
same direction.
 The current in the field circuit of
generator 2 is still in the same direction,
for now, instead of receiving power from
the terminals of generator 2, it is
receiving power from the terminals of
generator 1, and the polarity of the
voltage impressed across the field circuit
has not changed.
 Thus, we see that the direction of the field
current remains the same.
 The current through the armature of
generator 2 is still in the same direction,
for now, instead of receiving power from
the terminals of generator 2, it is
receiving power from the terminals of
generator 1, and the polarity of the
voltage impressed across the field circuit
has not changed. Thus we see that the
direction of current in the armature of
generator 2 has reversed while the
direction of the field current remains the
same.
 In the next module, we can refer that
when a dynamo takes electrical energy it
will convert this energy into mechanical
energy, thus making it a motor.
 It is now apparent that the voltage of
generator w should not be too low before
being connected in parallel with
generator 1.
 it should also be evident that the voltage
of generator w should not be too high
when compared with the terminal voltage
of generator 1.
 In fact, if the two voltages are exactly the
same, the incoming generator will neither
receive nor deliver anyu power but will
remain floating on the line.

 If the generated voltage of the incoming
machine is then increased, the incoming
generator be a few volts higher than the
terminal voltage of the incoming
generator be a few volts higher than the
terminal voltage of the first machine.
DIVISION OF LOAD-SHUNT
GENERATORS
 With two generators connected in
parallel, adjustments can be made for one
generator to deliver all or any part of the
load.
 If the resistance of the field rheostat of a
generator is lowered, the resulting
increase in field current will cause the
generated voltage to increase.
 This increase in generated voltage causes
the load delivered by the generator to
increase. Naturally, of one generator
“takes” more load, the other generator “
drops” some load. Hence, by adjusting
the field rheostats of the generators, the
load can be shifted from one generator to
the other or divided in any proportion
desired.
 Division of load between generators by
rheostat adjustment is rather simple, but
normally, when two generators are
placed in parallel, adjustments are made
so that each generators carries equal
load. This adjustments is made at the
time the generators are placed in parallel
and is usually not readjusted as long as
the generators are to remain in parallel.
 Will this equal division of load remain as
the total load on both generators is
increased or decreased? To answer the
questions let us look at Fig. 6.3, which
shows the external characteristics of the
generator.

 If both generators are identical, then of
course both have identical characteristics
and the curve applies to both generators.
It should be strongly emphasized that the
terminal voltages of the two generators
connected in parallel are exactly the same
and remain the same as long as the
generators are in parallel. When the
generators are placed in parallel the +
terminals are connected together and –
terminals are connected together, so that
the terminal voltage of one generator
must be the same as the terminal voltage
of the other. This is true of all generators
connected in parallel, even though the
terminal voltages were not originally the
same.
 With the terminal voltage known, the
load delivered by each generator as
determined from the curve is I L2.
 The total load is now increased both
generators are identical, then of course
both have so that the generators deliver
more load. An increase in load causes the
terminal voltage of the generators to
decrease.
 A reduction in the terminal voltage, say
to V12 of Fig.6.3, will be obtained when
a current of IL2 is delivered by the
generator. Since the terminal voltages of
both machines are the same and the
characteristics of each machine are the
same, each generator will supply a
current of IL2, as indicated by Fig. 6.3,
the generators will share equally any
increase or decrease in load.
 When two generators having different
characteristics and different full-load
ratings are connected in parallel, each
machine will supply a portion of the
load. The portion that each machine will
supply depends upon the characteristics
of the generator. This may be seen from
the characteristics curve of Fig. 6.4. the
characteristic curves for two generators
are shown.
 The reference point selected is the
full-load rating of the generator. At
the full – load point each generator
has the same terminal voltage and
each generator supplies 100 percent
of rated current.
 Inasmuch as the two generators two
generators have different current
ratings, 100 percent full of one
generator might represent, say, 80 A,
while 100 percent full load of the
second generator might represent
60A. But for either generator the
terminal voltage is the same when
the generator is delivering full load.
 This point is shown in fig. 6.4, at the
intersection of the two characteristics
curves. The terminal voltage for this
point is indicated as Vt FL and the
current for each machines is 100
percent of its full-load rating. When
the demand upon the generators is
decreased, the terminal voltage will
rise, but the terminal voltage of each
generator must be the same.
 Should the terminal voltage of the
generators rise to a value of say, Vt1,
 it can be seen from the characteristics
curve that generator1 must be
supplying 75 percent of its full load
current while the generator 2 is
supplying only 60 percent of its full
load current.
 These generators will always share
the proportionate part of the load.
The portion each will share can be
determined from Fig. 6.4.
 Stability of operation is an important
factor in the parallel operation of
generators. We have just seen that
shunt generators share the load
proportionately. Should anything
occur to upset this proportionate
division of load, it would be
desirable for the generators to
restore automatically the division
load.
 For instance, assume that the speed
governor of one of the motors
driving the generators is such that it
will not hold the speed constant, and
because of this condition the speed of
generator 2 will increase. The
increase in speed will produce a
larger induced voltage in generator
2, which will in turn will cause the
generator 2 deliver more load.
 Of course if generator 2 delivers
more of the load, then generator 1
delivers less. This larger load upon
generator2 will cause more current to
flow in the armature of generator 2,
producing a larger Ia Ra drop, a
larger drop due to armature reaction.
An a larger reduction in the field
current, all which tends to oppose the
increase in the induced voltage and
thereby not allow the generator to
deliver more current.

 In the meantime the load on
generator 1 has decreased with a
corresponding reduction in the Ia R a
drop and armature reaction, and the
field current increases slightly. All of
these factors tend to increase the
generated voltage of generator 1. An
increase in the generated voltage will
cause the generator to deliver more,
not less, load. Therefore generator1
will tend to deliver the same amount
of load instead of reducing the load.
 Thus the actions of both generators
combine it maintain the
proportionate division of load as
originally set. Any factor which
tends to change the division of loads
sets up a reaction to oppose the
change in the division of load.
 This was accomplished by reducing
the generated voltage of the machine
which was to take on more load and
by increasing the generated voltage
of the machine that was to lose some
of the load.
 An equilibrium condition is reached,
with one generator taking a small
amount of additional load from the
other generator.
STABILITY OF COMPOUND
GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
 In direct contrast with shunt generators,
the parallel operation of overcompound
generators present a very unstable
condition. Where shunt generators tend
to oppose any factor upsetting the
division of load, the overcompound
generators tend to aid the upsetting factor
until one generator delivers all the load
and the second generator takes load.
 This phenomenon may be explained with
the aid of Fig. 6.5. the rising external
characteristics of two overcompound
generators are indicated in Fig. 6.5.

 The characteristics of the two generators
are not the same, and the ratings of the
two generators are not the same . The
reference point for the diagram is the
full-load point, where both machines
deliver rated loads at rated voltage.
 Let us assume that the generators are
connected in parallel and the terminal
voltage of the generators is Vt1 from 6.5
generator 1 will deliver a load current of
I L1 while generator 2 delivers a load
current of I L2 now let us assume that for
some reason or the other induced voltage
of generator 1 increases so that generator
1 tends to take on some additional load.
 Since all or part of the load current must
go through the series field , the increased
current will increase the flux produced by
the series field so that the generated
voltage becomes still larger.
 This larger generated voltage causes
generator 1 to take still more of the load,
which in turn produces a still reduces
voltage. In the meantime the load on
generator 2 has been reduced.
 This reduction in load current reduces
the series-field ampere-turns, which aids
the shunt field in producing flux, thereby
producing the induced voltage.
 Thus any condition which tends to upset
the proportionate division of load
between cumulative compound
generators sets of events resulting in one
generator is a function of the induced
voltage and not the terminal voltagte for
any given connected load.

 The reduction of the induced voltage of
generator 2 causes generator 2 to drop
some more of the load. This process
continues whereby generator 1 takes
more and more of the load while
generator2 takes less and less of the load.
When generator 2 delivers no current, the
voltage of generator 2 is high compared
with generator 2 delivers no current, the
voltage of generator 2 is high compared
with generator 2,
 So that it will cause generator 2 to take
power and run as a motor. Thus any
condition which tends to upset the
proportionate division of load between
cumulative compound generators sets of
events resulting in one generator is a
function of the induced voltage and not
the terminal voltage for any given
connected load.
EQUALIZER CONNECTION
 An equalizer, as can be seen in from Fig.
6.7, is nothing more than a very low
resistance conductor connecting together
that junction point of the series field and
the armature of each generator.
 The function of the equalizer is to
eliminate the instability just described in
the previous section.
 he terminals of each generator joined by
the equalizer are equipotential points,
that is, they are points having the same
potential. Inasmuch as the potential of
these two points is the same, the
difference of potential between these
points zero, and there is no current in the
equalizer.
 For this condition to exist, the voltage
across the armature of each generator
must be the same. As long as the voltage
of each generator is the same, each
generator will deliver its proportionate
share of the load. This indicates stable
operation.
 However, when some factor changes this
stable operation, a situation is created
whereby the induced voltage of one
generator increases because of the
additional load and the rising
characteristics of the generator.
 Let us assume that the generator 1 of fig.
6.7 tends to take more of the load.
 As the current from generator 1 also
increases slightly because of the increase
in the field flux produced by the increase
in the series-field ampere-turns.
 Because of the increase in the induced
voltages are no longer the same, and the
difference of potential between the ends
of the equalizer is no longer zero; a
current is therefor established in the
equalizer connection.
 The direct current in the equalizer
connection is from generator q to
generator 2 because of the higher voltage
across the armature of generator 1.
 The current delivered by generator 2
decreases slightly as the current
delivered by generator 1 increases.
Because of the decrease in current in the
series-field ampere-turns of generator
decreases, resulting in a somewhat lower
induced voltage, and therefore the
voltage across the armature decreases
slightly.
 This reduction creates a larger difference
of potential across the equalizer
connection, which causes an even greater
current to flow through the equalizer.
 As indicated, the current through the
equalizer flows from generator 1 to
generator 2, and at generator 2 it joins
the current from the armature of
generator 2 and the total current flows
through the series field of generator2.
this additional current, from the
equalizer, flowing through the series
field increases the flux in generator,
which in turn increases the generated
voltage so that the generator 2 will “
pick-up” some of the load it dropped.
 The equalizer connection also reduces
the generated voltage of generator 1 so
that it will not tend to take con more load.
 This may be understood by realizing that
the current through the equalizer
connection comes from the armature of
generator 1. this current does not flow
through the series field of generator 1;
therefore it cannot increase the ampere-
turns, thus increasing the generated
voltage.
 Any factor which tends to upset the
stable operation of the generators causes
current to flow through the equalizer
connection from the generator; tending to
deliver more of the load, but does not
flow through the series field of the other
generator.
 The equalizer current therefore reduces
the induced voltage of one generator and
increases the induced voltage of the
generator, thus maintaining stable
operation between the two generators.
 To have the equalizer connection
maintain stable operation of the
generators, it is essential that the
resistance of the equalizer wire be very
small otherwise too large a difference of
potential will be required across the
equalizer before an appreciable amount
of current will flow.
 The size of wire to use as an equalizer
connection should be the same size as the
wire used to connect the generators to the
load. This large-size wire assures low
resistance. In addition, all connections
between generators should be well made
so as to eliminate the possibility of
contact resistance. Switches should be of
good quality and should be inspected
regularly to see that contact pressures are
correct and contact areas are free of
corrosion.

CONNECTING OVERCOMPOUND
GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
 First and foremost either for student and
practitioners must do is to determine
whether the generator is connected as a
cumulatively compound generator or as
a differentially compound generator.
 This may be determined quite readily by
applying a load to the generator.
 If the terminal voltage rises as load is
applied, then the generator is connected
as a differentially compound generator.
To change from a differential connection
to a cumulative connection it is only
necessary to reverse the series-field
connections.
 Another method that can be used is to
short temporarily the series-field winding
after applying load and observing the
change in the generator terminal voltage.
 Shorting the series field causes the
generator to operate more as a shunt
generator than a compound generator.
 Therefore a drop in the terminal voltage
as the result of shorting the series field
indicates a cumulative compound
connection.
 A rise in the terminal voltage indicates
the generator was differentially
connected, the leads to the series field
should be reversed.
 The second condition to be investigated
is the electrical position of the series field
with respect to armature. Two
cumulative compound generators are
shown in Fig. 6.7. Each generator, by
itself, will operate satisfactorily. But
these generators with the connections
indicated cannot be operated in parallel.
The dotted connections of Fig. 6.7 are
required for parallel operation.
 It can be seen that the low-resistance
series field of one generator is place
directly across the armature of the other
generator.
 The resulting large current and heavy
load on the prime mover will operate
overload devices, removing one or both
units from the line.
 Should the student experience the above
results in the laboratory, the leads
connecting the machines in parallel
should be removed and each generator
reinvestigated with respect to generator
polarity and location of the series field.
 It is very possible that the large current in
the series field produced a flux that is
greater than the flux of the main field,
thereby changing the direction of the
residual flux and causing the generator
to build up in the opposite direction.
 The readings of all meters should be
checked to prevent damage.
 The use of two switches to connect the
generators in parallel is preferable to the
use of one switch.
 If one switch were used, the voltage of
the incoming generator would increase to
a value larger than that of the running
generator and immediately supply load.
 This sudden application of load may not
be desirable; hence the use of two
switches so that the load may be
gradually applied.
 The two –pole switch in Fig. 6.8 is closed
first, thus placing both series fields in
parallel.
 The field rheostat of the incoming
machine is adjusted so that both
voltmeters read alike.
 The single-pole switch is then closed.
 The load on the generator can be
increased by decreasing the resistance of
the field rheostat.
MODULE 7: MOTORS  THE LENGTH OF THE
CONDUCTOR IN THE MAGNETIC
FIELD,
 Supposed a conductor is placed in  THE MAGNITUDE OF THE
magnetic field and current is allowed to CURRENT IN THE CONDUCTOR.
flow through the conductor, the
conductor will tend to move.
 A force eventually is exerted on the
conductor because the latter is carrying
the current and it is located in a
magnetic field.
1. A magnetic field must exist, then a conductor
must be located in the magnetic field, and finally
current must flow in the conductor.
Conditions Arises:
Force (conductor)=0; if magnetic field =0.
magnitude (B) = > 0 (greater than than 0 value) ;
if greater (B ) value the greater the Force exerted
on the conductor …. In variable proportion.
2. The length of the conductor determines the
magnitude of the force on the conductor:

 The smaller the conductor, the smaller

the force;
 The longer the conductor, the greater the
force exerted on the conductor.
3. In producing a force it requires the magnitude
of the current of the conductor.

 With no current in the conductor, the

force produced would be zero.
 The greater the current through the
conductor, the greater the force exerted
on the conductor.

DIRECTION OF FORCE
SUMMARY:
THE FORCE EXERTED ON A CONDUCTOR
DEPENDS UPON:  As per illustration Fig.7.2 it shows that a
conductor is carrying current while in
 THE FLUX DENSITY OF THE magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD,  The arrow in the diagram indicates
direction of force on the conductor.
 The direction of the flux from North  Referring 7.3a, the flux due to the poles
Pole to the south pole is from left to right is from north to south. The flux due to
(L - R). conductor carrying current is clockwise
direction.
 The resulting magnetic field will cause
the concentration of flux lines on top of
the conductor and reduction of flux lines
below the conductor as indicated in Fig.
7.3b.
 If it is assumed that these flux lines act as
the elastic bands, then it will be apparent
that the conductor will move in a
downward direction. Either method is
 The direction of current flow is away equally correct for determining the
from the observer, or into the page.The direction force on a conductor.
direction of force on the conductor is
downward.
 Mentioned three directions is at right
angle to each other, and the direction of
force can be found if the other two
directions are known.
 The left hand rule is used in this instance.
 (Recall that the right hand rule was used
when finding current flow in a
generator). The thumb, index finger, and
middle finger are held at right angles to TORQUE
each other.
 As per figure 7.4 shown that the
 The index finger is used to indicate the
conductor could rotate in the magnetic
direction of flux from north pole to the
field unless the current through the
south pole.
conductor would exert a force.
 The middle finger points in the direction
 The conductor would tend to rotate in
of the current, and the thumb points in the
clockwise direction.
direction of force on the conductor.
 This tendency to produce a rotation is
 Should the hand rule for a motor or a
known as TORQUE.
generator be forgotten, it can be recalled
by the following a complete unit that is
used to generate power is known as a
motor-generator set (abbreviated M-G
set) if the motor-generator is associated
with left and right, this will indicate
which hand rule to use: motor-generator,
left-right.
 Another method commonly used to
determine the direction of force is by
analysis of the flux distribution of the
magnetic field.
  The magnitude of torque can be
determined by the product of the force
multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from the force to the center of the
rotation.

 The same current flows through the

Or (in SI units)
 `Where: T= torque, newton-meters (N.m)
 F= force, newtons (N)
 r= distance measured perpendicularly
from direction of F to center of rotation,
meters (m).
 Thus, a conductor forming a part of a
motor will produce rotation when current
flows through a conductor and the field is
energized.
 The torque produced by a single
conductor is normally very small. Since
practical conditions limit the flux density
and the current through the conductor,
the remaining alternative is to increase
the length of wire in the magnetic field.
conductor Left-Hand Rule, it can be seen
that the conductor under the south pole
will have a force exerted on downward
direction.
 The same current flows through the
conductor under the north pole, but in the
opposite direction,
 Therefore, producing a force in an
upward direction, both of these forces
will aid each other in producing a torque
and therefore rotation in the same
direction.
 The position of the coil as described as
again in Position 1 in Fig. 7.6.
 The force exerted on the coil is such that
the coil will rotate from position 1 to
position 2 and then to position 3.

 As shown in Fig. 7.5, it shows a coil of

one turn.
 The current direction is indicated on the
conductors by an arrow.
 Using the left - hand rule, it can be seen
that the conductor under the south pole
will have a force exerted in a downward
direction.
 Note: that the force on the conductor has
not changed even though the coil has
rotated.
 This so because the direction of the flux
has not changed nor has the direction of
current in the conductor.
 Torque has been defined as the product
of the force multiplied by a distance
 measured perpendicularly from the axis
of the force to the center of rotation is
zero;
 hence the torque produced is zero.
 Should the inertia of the moving coil
allow the rotation to position 4, then the
torque will again increase in value.
 This time the direction of torque will be
counterclockwise, forcing the coil back
to position 3. and of course forcing it to
stay at position 3.
 For a motor to produce rotation the
direction of torque produced by the coil
must be changed after if passes position
3.
 Should the direction of force exerted on
the conductor change after position 3,
 Then the torque produced with the coil in
position 4 would be in counterclockwise
direction and continuous rotation would
be obtained.
 Figure 7.7 shows the current direction
and the torque produced as the coil
rotates from position 1 to position 4.
 necessary to produce the desired torque
 Note that the current in the conductor
flows away from the page as long as the
conductor has not reached position 3,
 Thereby producing torque in clockwise
direction. Past position 3 note the
direction of current.
 Now it is toward of the page, producing
torque in a clock wise direction.
 Therefore if the direction of current in
the conductor can be made to change as
the conductor passes position 3, then the
torque will move the conductor in the
same direction at all times.
 The commutator is the device that will
change the direction at the desired point.
 During the study of the generator the
action of the commutator was discussed.
 The function of the commutator and
brushes was to act as a switch between
the coils of the machine and the external
circuit.
 For the generator case, the current
reversals in the coils were connected
through the commutator and the output
was always in the same direction.
 The function of the commutator and
brushes was to act as a switch between
the coils of the machine and the external
circuit.
 For the generator case, the current
reversals in the coils were connected
through the commutator and the output
was always in the same direction.
 The commutator switches the current to
the coil to provide the alternating effect
direction.
 In a generator the switching action
occurred when the conductor was a point
of minimum flux; that is the
commutation would occur between the
north and south poles.
 In the motor the action of the commutator
is exactly the same. Unidirectional
current supplied to the motor passes
through the commutator and brushes
before reaching the coils.
RE-EMPHASIZING
 It was stated the torque is a function of
the flux, length of the conductor, and
current through the conductor.
 For any one specific machine the flux and
the current can vary, but all other factors
are fixed and remain constant.
 Referring Fig. 7.7, it is observed that the
switching action for a motor should occur
at position 3,
 Which is between the north and south
poles and corresponds to the point of
minimum flux.

COUNTER -EMF

 The name plate of a motor contains a

great deal of information, including the
voltage rating of the motor and the
current drawn by the motor under full
load conditions.
 Values for a typical 5 hp (horsepower)
motor would be 240V and full- load
current of 20.4 A.
 Additional information from the
manufacturer indicates that the total
resistance of the armature circuit is 0.97
Ω.
 Thus, as per ohm’s law, the current in the
motor should be 240 V divided by 0.97,
or 248 A.
 This current is approximately ten times
the full-load current of the motor, which
is 20.4 A.
 Apparently, there must be some factor
other than the ohmic resistance of the
 armature that limits the current to the low
value. This factor is the counter-emf
produced by the motor armature.
 A closer look of these pictures should
raise some questions. Say for example,
this motor is designed for operation from
a 240 V supply and the resistance in the
circuit is only 0.97Ω.
 Recalling the discussion from the
generator principles, it was stated that a
voltage would be induced in a conductor
if the conductor cut lines of flux.
 The movement of a conductor through  Hence the voltage induced is opposite to
the magnetic field could be performed the applied voltage and therefore is
manually, or by some external prime referred to as the counter-emf.
mover, or by conductor itself.  The net voltage producing current flow
 When current flows through a through the armature is the difference
conductor, a force is exerted on the between the applied voltage and the
conductor that causes the conductor to counter-emf. The armature current may
move in the magnetic field. be stated as
 Movement of the conductor in the
magnetic field produces generator action,
and a voltage is induced in the conductor
in such direction as to oppose the applied
voltage.
 Fig. 7.8 demonstrates this dual action on
the conductor. Fig. 7.8a, a conductor is
located in magnetic field and current
flows through the conductor will move in
a downward direction.
 The same conductor is now moving in
the same magnetic field as shown in Fig.  In a generator the function of the machine
7.8b. Since this is generator action, the is to create and produce an emf.
right hand rule is used to determine the  The developed emf is therefore greater
direction of current, which can be seen and is equal to the sum of the terminal
from the diagram. voltage plus the armature drop.
 It is opposite to the current in Fig. 7.8a.  The function of the motor is to convert
Inasmuch as the two currents are in electrical energy into mechanical energy.
opposite directions, the two voltages are  In this case a voltage is applied to the
in opposition. motor terminals an this terminal voltage
is equal to the sum of the counter- emf
plus the armature volt drop.
 Worthy to note, that under normal
circumstances the counter –emf
developed by the motor can never be
greater than the terminal voltage.
  This is understandable when it is realized
that the applied voltage cause the
armature to rotate, which in turn
produces the counter-emf.
 If the counter-emf were equal to the
applied voltage, the armature current
would be zero, the armature would cease
to rotate, and the counter-emf would be
reduced to zero.
 Therefore the counter –emf can never be
equal the applied voltage without
reducing its own value.

ELECTRICAL POWER MECHANICAL

POWER

 Not all the electrical power supplied to a

motor is converted into mechanical
power.
 Some of the power is dissipated in the
field windings, and some in the armature
circuit. The remainder is available for
conversion into mechanical power. The
power flow diagram of Fig. 7.9 shows the
power distribution.
 The total power supplied to the motor is
equal to the product of the voltage
impressed across the motor, Vt. And the
current to the motor, IL, a portion of this
power is consumed by the shunt field, Vt,
and the current in the shunt field, I f, the
difference between the power delivered
to the motor and the power consumed in
the shunt field is the power delivered to
the armature.

 The electrical power converted into

mechanical power is equal to the product
of the counter-emf and the armature
current.
  As a reminder that this mechanical power
is not available outside of the motor, only
inside.
 This mechanical power must be used to
overcome mechanical losses inside the
machine, including friction of the
bearings and forcing of air through the
machine for cooling purposes.
 The remainder of the power is available
to do work.
EXAMPLE 7.5
 The following information was obtained
from the name plate of shunt motor: 5
hp, 240V d-c; full-load current, 20.4;
field resistance, 202 Ω. If the armature
resistance is 0.71 Ω, determine
1. power delivered to motor;
2. power dissipated in shunt field,
3. power dissipated in armature circuit,
4. electrical power converted into
mechanical power.
SPEED OF MOTOR
 With a constant voltage applied to the
motor, the speed of a motor depends
upon the flux.
 This relationship may be seen from the
equation.
ARMATURE REACTION
 The effect of the magnetic field produced
by the current in the armature was
previously discussed by previous module
on generators.
 The armature flux distorted the main-
field flux, resulting in shift of the
magnetic neutral.
 The current in the conductor is in
clockwise direction of rotation
 Fig. 7.10 a, The current in the conductor
is in clockwise direction of rotation, also
indicated is the direction of flux due to
the main field, φ (field), the flux due to
the current in the armature, φ(armature),
and the resultant flux, φ (Resultant).
 Fig, 7.10 b, but for a motor , the current
direction in the armature must be
indicated if the motor is to run in
clockwise direction.
 It is opposite current direction as that
shown for generator.
SHUNT MOTOR
 The shunt motor is physically the same as torque to meet the new load
shunt generator. The shunt –field coils requirements.
consists of many turns of the fine wire  It is convenient at times to refer to the
and is connected in series with a field horsepower developed by a motor rather
rheostat. The shunt-field circuit is than the torque developed. Horse power
connected across the line in parallel with is the rate of doing the work, or is equal
the armature. to the force multiplied by the distance
 The shunt field is connected across the divided by the time to traverse the
line, the flux in the machine will remain distance; therefore
essentially constant. The torque  hp ∞ [ F x r x 2 π n ] / t
developed by the motor would therefore
Where
be directly dependent upon the armature
current as indicated by the torque  F = force exerted by all conductors, lb
equation, T= Kφ Ia. Increasing the  R2πn = peripheral distance traversed, ft
armature currents would increase the  r = radius of armature, ft.
torque. Decreasing the armature current  n = number of revolutions
would decrease the torque (Fig. 7.11).
 t = time for armature to rotate n times
However, the product of F and r is equal to the
torque, and if n/ t equals revolutions per minute,
then:

 hp ∞ 2 π TS
Where

 T= F x r
 S = n/ t

 To eliminate the proportional sign, 2π TS

 The armature current depends directly
upon the load connected to the motor.
When a load is applied to the motor it will
tend to slow down. This slight reduction
in speed reduces the counter-emf in
accordance with the formula E= K φ S.
The reduction in E will produce a greater
armature current, as can be seen from the
equation
 I a = [ Vt –E ] / Ra
 The increase in armature current results
in an increase in torque to take care of the
added load.
 Thus, it can be seen that a load applied
to the motor results in an increase in
must be divided by 33, 000, which
converts foot-pounds per minute to
horsepower.
 hp = [ 2 π TS ] / 33,000
 hp = [ TS ] / 5252
 A word of caution is now necessary, to
avoid confusion, when introducing the SI
unit for the power output of a motor. As
noted, the input power to a motor, in
English units, the input power is
expressed in watts, but the output power
is also express in watts. Care should be
taken to distinguish between input and
output power.
  The formula for output power of a motor
is :
 P out = T out x rad / s
 = T out x 2 π r / s
Where
 T =output torque, newton – meters
 r = number of revolutions through which
the armature rotates in s seconds.
increases. The torque will increase in
each machine because of the increase in
armature current.
 However, the increase in the compound
motor is greater that in the shunt because
the total flux increases and does not
remain constant as it does in the shunt
motor.

COMPOUND MOTOR

 The construction of the compound motor

is identical to that of the compound
generator. The current in the armature
must also pass through the series-field
winding.
 The series-field winding may be
connected cumulatively where the flux  The speed of the compound motor is
may also be connected differentially so also affected by the increase in flux.
the series – field flux will oppose the Compare the two speed equations:
shunt –field flux.
 The torque developed by a cumulative Shunt Motor S = ( Vt – I a R a ) / ( K φf )
compound motor will be larger than the
torque developed by a shunt motor if the
flux produced by the shunt field of each  S = E / K φf
machine is the same and the armature
current is the same.
Compound Motor S= ( Vt – I aR a – IsR s )/
[K ( φ f + φ s )
 Since the torque is proportional to the
flux and the armature current, the flux in
the compound motor is greater than in the  S= E / Kφ f
shunt because of the additional flux
produced by the series winding. Compare
the following equations:  It is evident that the speed of the
compound motor is less than that of
Shunt motor the shunt motor, all other factors
T = K2 φf I a being equal.
 Figure 7.13 compares the speeds of
Cumulative compound motor
the shunt motor, and the cumulative
compound motor.
T = K2 (φf + φ s ) I a

 Graphically, the effect of the additional

flux is shown in Fig. 7.12 as the load on
the motor increases, the armature current
 SERIES MOTOR

 In a series motor the flux depends upon

 The differentially compound motor has
characteristics opposite to those of the
cumulative compound motor as
compared with the shunt motor.
 The decrease in the flux produces a
reduction in the torque.
the current in the series field, which is the
same current that flows through the
armature. At light loads the armature
current is small; therefore the flux and
torque are small.
 An increase in the load increases both the
armature current and that flux, producing
a much greater increase in the torque.
The torque equation is
 T= KφIa
 Since the current in the series field is the
armature current, the equation may be
written substituting I a for φ .

 T = K’ I²a

 From this equation it can be seen that, as

long as the magnetic material is not
saturated, the torque is proportional to
 Instead of a reduction in the speed of the the square of the armature current.
motor, the speed of the differential  Hence, if the armature current is doubled,
compound motor will be higher than that the torque will increase four times.
of the shunt motor.  Figure 7.15 shows the torque
 In fact, the speed may rise as load is characteristics of the various types of
applied to the motor. Figure 7.14 above motors.
graphically depicted the torque and speed
characteristics of the motors.
 Care should be exercised when starting a
differentially compound motor, the large
inrush current in the series field during
the starting period may produce flux
greater than that produced by the shunt
field. Is will cause the motor to start up in
the wrong direction.
 It is best to short the series field when
starting to prevent such events. At
present there is no commercial use for
this type of motor.
The basic speed equation  Figure 7.17 shows the torque and speed
characteristics of the motors having a
 S = ( Vt - Ia Ra - Ia Rs ) / Kφ
common value at the full-load point.

May be rewritten substituting Ia for φ .

 S = ( Vt – I a R a – I a Rs ) / K Ia

 With no load connection to the motor,

the value of Ia (armature current) is
very small. The numerator of the speed
equation is large, while the denominator
is very small, indicating that the speed of
the motor will be extremely large.
 In fact, the speed of the motor may reach
such a value as to cause the centrifugal
force to destroy the motor.
SPEED REGULATION
 It is for this reason that the series motor
are never used unless they are directly
connected to the load, as in trains and
cranes.
MOTORS OF EQUAL RATING
 The speed-change characteristics of
various motors may be compared by
means of the speed regulation.
 As voltage regulation of a generator is an
indication of the per cent change in
voltage from full load to no load, so does
speed regulation of a motor indicate the
variation in speed from full load to no
load, taken as a per cent of the full-load
speed.
 Thus, a motor whose speed changes
very little when the load is removed has
per cent regulation. The series motor has
a high per cent regulation because the
change in speed from full load to no load
is large.
 The formula for speed regulation is
Percent Speed Regulation = ( S NL - S
FL ) / S FL x 100

 In the preceding discussion, it was

convenient to compare the characteristics
of motors beginning with no-load
conditions.
 When comparing motors of equal rating,
the comparison should begin at a point
that is common to all, the full-load point.
MODULE 9: TRANSFORMERS