SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Lecture 4 – Concepts and approaches of soil fertility evaluations - Liebig’s Law, Mitscherlich’s
law, Bray’s nutrient mobility concept. Inductive and deductive approaches. Isotopic and crop
logging technique
Fertility concepts
Justus Von Liebig (1980) - Law of restitution - whatever is being taken by the plants from the
soil needs to be restored to maintain the nutrient supplying system of the soil. To maintain soil
fertility, nutrients removed from the soil by crops must be restored through application of manures
and fertilizers. Even a highly fertile soils gets exhausted of reserve nutrients as crops are grown &
harvested continuously and hence needs replenishment. Selection of right kind of nutrients to be so
replenished and proper quantity to be applied based on the nutrient requirement of the crops and the
nutrient supplying capacity of soil. The assessment of nutrient supplying capacity of soil is nothing
but soil fertility evaluation.
Purpose of soil fertility evaluation
 To assess the nutrient status of soil-crop system
 To diagnose suspected nutrient imbalances
 To monitor effects of management on crop nutrient status and soil fertility
It provides basis for making fertilizer recommendations for
 Improving crop yield and quality
 Improving fertilizer use efficiency
 Decreasing impacts on water quality
 Assess availability of toxic elements
 Improve soil quality
Concepts of soil fertility evaluation
Growth curve is helpful to understand general pattern of plant development. Plant is a
product of both genetic constitution (potential for maximum growth) and its environment (variable)
Therefore, growth may be expressed as G = f (x1, x2, x3……...xn)
Where, x1, x2, x3 are the various growth factors
If all the growth factors are present in adequate quantities, but one is not in adequate quantity,
an increase in quantity of that factor will generally result in increasing plant growth
Liebig’s Law of minimum (1862)
One of the earliest hypothesis put forward by Justus von Liebig on the relationship between
the amount of plant nutrient in the soil and yield/ growth of the plant
The law states that, If a soil contains optimum / adequate amounts of all but not one
nutrient element, crop growth is regulated by that single nutrient. i.e. crop growth can be varied by
varying its amount. This law is valid up to the stage at which growth falls
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Mitscherlich approach
In 1909, developed an equation relating growth to the addition of growth factors. As per
Mitscherlich ‘Law of physiological relationship’, ‘Yield can be increased by each single growth
factor even when it is not present in the minimum as long as it is not present in the optimum. Growth
is increased with each successive addition of that nutrient
dy / dx = (A-y)
Where,
dy - Increase in yield from the increment in growth factor dx
dx - Increment in growth factor
A – Max. possible yield resulted from the opt. supply of all growth factors
y - Yield obtained after any given quantity of factor x
As per Mitscherlich growth law, ‘Increase in the yield of a crop as a result of increasing a single
growth factor is proportional to the decrement from the maximum yield obtainable by increasing that
particular growth factor’. Implies that the plant growth follows a diminishing increment type of
curve – yield curves. Increase in yield was progressively smaller with each successive addition of the
element
dy/dx = (A-y)c
log (A-y) = log A - cx
Where,
A – Potential yield of the crop when the nutrient is not deficient
y – yield when x amount of a given form of nutrient is present
c – proportionality constant (N = 0.122, P2O5 = 0.60 and K2O = 0.40) – efficient coefficient or factor

Spillman approach
Developed the same principle and expressed the relation
Y= M(1-Rx)
Y - amount of growth produced by given quantity of growth factor x
M - maximum yield possible, when all the growth factors and at optimum level
R - constant
His equation and Mitscherlich could be reduced to
Y = A (1-10-cx) or Y = A – A.10-cx
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Baule percentage yield concept (1918)

When more than one nutrient is deficient, the final percentage sufficiency is the product of
the individual sufficiency
Eg. If P is adequate for 80 % of the yield, K is adequate for 70 % of the yield, then the final yield is
70 % of the 80 % yield, that is 56 % of the yield obtainable when both the nutrients are adequate
Baule unit (1920)
Developed idea of ‘half-way points’. Using the identical relationship as Mitscherlich, Baule
concluded that,
Y = A – A(1/2) as Baule units
Where, A – maximum possible yield
Y – actual yield
Baule unit – the amount of nutrient that when added results in moving Y one-half way closer to A.
i.e. the unit of fertilizer or any other growth factor to produce a yield that is 50 % of maximum
possible yield that unit was added
1 Baule unit of growth factor = 1 Baule unit of any other growth factor in terms of growth
promoting ability
Baule unit in pounds per acre (lbs) of N, P2O5 and K2O are 223, 45 and 76, respectively
Calculation of relative yields from addition of increasing amounts of a growth factor
If A, the maximum yield is considered as to be 100 %, then the Mitscherlich equation reduces
to log (100-y) = log 100 – 0.301(x)
Where, 0.301 is constant, (when, A is 100 and x is 1)
If none of the growth factor is available, that is x = 0, then y = 0
But suppose that 1 unit of x is present, then
log (100-y) = log 100 – 0.301(1)
log (100-y) = 2 – 0.301
log (100-y) = 1.699
100 – y = Antilog 1.699
100 – y = 50
y = 50
The same operation may be repeated until 10 units of the growth factor have been added
Units of growth Yield (%) Increase in
factor (x) yield (%)
0 0 0
1 50 50
2 75 25
3 87.5 12.5
4 93.75 6.25
5 96.88 3.125
6 98.44 1.562
7 99.22 0.781
8 99.61 0.390
9 99.80 0.195
10 99.90 0.098
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Agro biology concept of O.W. Wilcox (1929)

 Employed Mitscherlich equation to extend a branch of science, called quantitative agro
biology
 Comprises the general and specific quantitative relations between plants and factor of their
growth and yield
 Further develops “inverse nitrogen yield concept”
 Says that the yield of a crop is in reversely proportional to its nitrogen content.
 Y= K/N, where Y is yield, N is % of nitrogen in crops and K is constant
 K= 318 lb/acre - maximum amount of N that can be absorbed in one season by an annual crop
on an acre of land
Brays nutrient mobility concept
Bray modified the Mitscherlich, Spillman, Baule concept
As the mobility of a nutrient in the soil decreases, the amount of that nutrient needed in the
soil to produce a maximum yield (soil nutrient requirement) increases from a variable net value
(magnitude of yield and the optimum % composition of the crop). Stated that nutrients percentage
sufficiency concept is applicable for elements which are immobile in soil
Modified the equation as
Log (A – Y) = log A – C1b – Cx
Where,
A – maximum possible yield
Y – actual yield
C1 - soil efficiency of b
b - represents the amount of immobile but available form of nutrient
C - fertilizer efficiency (x)
x - fertilizer dose
Deductive approach (Colwell,1967)
 Followed in Australia
 Involves conduct of multi-location trials and the data generated are pooled and used to
establish the STV correlation
 Interaction effect of different nutrients is studied
 From the multiple regression analysis, fertilizer recommendations are developed
 Results are directly applied to soils of that area
Inductive Approach (Ramamoorthy, 1971)
 Four fertility gradients artificially developed in one field by applying fertilizers
 A gradient crop (different from main crop) is grown to equilibrate the applied fertilizers
 After gradient crop, main crop will be grown with treatments
 Yield date will be statistically processed
 Relationship between STV and fertilizer doses are derived for max. yield and profit per
hectare
 The results extended to soil of similar native
 For conduct of experiment areas with low to medium fertility and responsive to nutrient
application
 A quadratic multiple regression equation is fitted for STCR relationship
Tracer techniques
 Used to estimate the contribution of nutrients from soil as well as fertilizer sources.
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

 Also used to assess the phosphate fixation capacities, potassium release studies and studies on
soil organic matter etc.
 Radioactive elements viz., 32P,65Zn,59Fe,35S etc. are used
 Available nutrients can be calculated from A, E and L values
A Value technique (Fried and Dean, 1952)
A values are the amount of nutrients in soil which behaves in a similar way as that of the
nutrients added through fertilizers
A = B (1 - Y)
Y
A – Amount of nutrient available in soil
B - Amount of nutrient added through fertilizer
Y – Fraction of fertilizer nutrient taken up by the crop
For example; radioactive 32P with super-it will differentiate the amount of added fertilizer
taken up by the plant and from the soil. Best reliable method of evaluating soil fertility
E value (Paneth and Vorwerk,1922), using Thorium, isotope of Pb
In this concept it is assumed that an exchange of ions results in the addition of an isotope of
the same ion (E* with E)
E (surface) + E* (solution)→ E*(surface) + E (solution)
E*surface = E Surface
E* solution E solution
Based on this, Spinks and Barber (1946) measured the P taken up both from fertilizer and soil
L value (Larsen, 1952)
 When labelled P fertilizer was added to soil at different rates and the plants were grown,
specific activity analysis of plant material would give a constant value, if isotopic dilution of
added chemical was assumed to take place in soil system
 Equilibrium reached between the added phosphate and the exchangeable phosphate in soil –
reason for constant value
 The isotopically exchange P of the soil was calculated using the formula:

Where, Co and C were the specific activities of the applied P and plant P, respectively
X is the amount of phosphate added
L is the quantity of soil P taken part in the isotopic dilution of the added P
Russel et al. (1957) stated that, E and L values were similar
Fried (1964) and Larsen (1967) made clear that A value had no relationship to E and L
values, even though an identical formula was used in both A and L values
Crop logging technique (Clements, 1961)
 Used in Hawaai for Sugarcane
 Graphical record of the progress of crop contains a series of chemical and physical
measurements
 Indicates the general condition of plant and suggest changes in management that are
necessary to produce maximum yields
 Uses tissue nutrient concentration, sheath moisture to diagnose N, P and K deficiency
 During the growing season, plant tissue is sampled at every 35 days and analysed for N,
sugar, moisture and weight. P and K are analysed at critical period and adjustments in
management practices are introduced as needed
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Soil Fertility Evaluation

 Gives an idea about the nutrient supplying power of the soil
 Optimum productivity depends on adequate nutrient supply
 Quantity of nutrients required by plant depends on,
 Plant species and variety
 Yield level
 Soil type
 Environment (climate, water, temperature, sunlight, etc.)
 Management
 For optimum productivity, nutrient requirement of the crop and nutrient supplying power of
the soil are to be known
 Based on that, fertilizer recommendation could be given
Diagnostic techniques
Various diagnostic techniques employed to evaluate soil fertility i.e., to assess the nutrient
status of a soil
– Nutrient deficiency symptoms of plants
– Analysis of tissue from plants growing on the soil
– Biological tests – growth of higher plants or microorganism
– Soil analysis
Two important tools are
– Soil testing
– Plant analysis
Nutrient deficiency symptoms
 Growing plants act as integrator of all growth factors
 Identification and observation of nutrient deficiency in plants
 Visual evaluation of nutrient stress used as a supplement to other diagnostic techniques (soil
and plant analysis)
 Apparent visual deficiency symptoms caused by many factors other than specific nutrient
stress
Precaution in interpreting deficiency symptoms include:
– Symptom may be caused by more than one nutrient
– Deficiency of one nutrient may be related to an excessive quantity of another
– Difficult to distinguish between deficiency symptoms and damage caused by insect,
disease or herbicide
– Symptom may be caused by more than one factor
Abbreviate outline of visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency

A. Older leaves mostly affected, stunted growth, slender stems

1. Chlorosis of tips and then whole leaf, stunted. Nitrogen
2. Dark green over all, reddish purple colors, stunted Phosphorus
3. Spots of dead tissue (dead brown tip and margins), stunted growth, tall, grains Potassium
may lodge easily
4. Spotty or slender streaks of interveinal chlorosis, tips cupped, may redden Magnesium
5. Interveinal spots, thick waxy leaves, short internodes (Rosettes of leaves) Zinc
B. Younger leaves or buds mostly affected
1. Terminal bud dies or is deformed Calcium, Boron
2. Overall chlorosis of leaves Sulphur
3. Dead spot scattered in leaves, veins green, a checkered effect on leaves Manganese
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

4. Veins green, intricate interveinal chlorosis, even to white in extreme deficiency Iron
5. Leaves permanently united, may be some chlorosis Copper

Hidden hunger
 Refers to a situation in which a crop needs more of a given nutrient without showing
deficiency symptoms
 Plant shows no obvious symptoms yet the nutrient content is not sufficient to give the top
profitable yield.
 Plant analysis is more valuable tool to identify hidden huger or to verify the nutrient stress
suspected from visual symptoms

2. Analysis of tissue from plant (Plant analysis)

 Two general types of analysis
– Tests on fresh tissue in the field
– Tissue analysis performed in the laboratory
Tissue tests / Plant analysis are made for
– To help in identifying deficiency symptoms and to determine nutrient shortages
before they appear as symptoms
– To aid in determining the nutrient supplying capacity of the soil
– To aid in determining the effect of fertility treatment on the nutrient supply in the
plant
– To study the relationship between the nutrient status of the plant and crop
performance
Tissue tests
 Rapid tests for the determination of nutrients in fresh tissue
 Concentration of nutrients in the cell sap
 Plant parts may be chopped up and extracted with reagents
 In more rapid tests, plant tissue is squeezed with pliers to transfer plant sap to filter paper and
colour developing reagent are added
 In both the methods, the intensity of resulting colour is compared with standards / standard
chart
 Easy to conduct and interpret
 Otherwise, for a particular growth period, specific plant parts are tested and they give the best
indicators of the nutritional status
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Ex: Corn – Flowering – Base of stalk for NO3,

Midrib, first mature leaf for PO4 and K
Soybean – Midseason – Pulvinus, first mature leaf for SO4,
Petiole, first mature leaf for K
Cotton – Early bloom – Petiole basal leaf for NO3, PO4 & K
 In general, latest mature leaf is used for testing, while immature leaves at the top of the plant
are avoided
 Plant parts and time of testing are important
Total Analysis
– Performed on the whole plant or on specific plant parts
– Dried, ground, digested with H2SO4/ Triacids (9:2:1)/ Diacids (5:4) and determined
the nutrient content
– Critical nutrient concentration (CNC) is commonly used in interpreting plant analysis
results and diagnosing nutritional problems.

Biological tests
I. Use of higher plants – By field plot method
A) Simple fertilizer trials(SFT)
– Results of research stations not applicable to farmer’s field
– SFT gives an idea about the hidden hunger
– Usually the effect of macronutrients is tested
– Ex: 8 treatments – C, N, P, K, NP, NK, PK & NPK
B) Complex field trials:
– Micronutrients can also be included
– Many interaction studies are possible
– Recommendations can be extrapolated to other soils with similar characteristics
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

– Plant analysis of samples collected from various treatments help to establish CNR
C) Strip tests on farmer’s fields
– Narrow field strips with selected nutrient treatments can help to verify the accuracy of
recommendations
– Place treatments in as similarly uniform areas as possible
– If several soil types or condition occur, each soil type occurs equally in each treatment
– Yield - monitoring is needed
D) Laboratory and greenhouse tests
– Simpler and more rapid techniques utilize small amounts of soil to quantify nutrient
availability
– Soils are collected to represent a wide range of soil properties
– Specific nutrient is evaluated
– Crops sensitive to specific nutrient is used (Ex: Sorghum for Fe)
– This test reports Fe – deficient and Fe – sufficient soils
– Decreasing Fe deficiency with increasing DTPA extractable Fe
1. The Neubauer seedling method
 This technique is based on the uptake of nutrients by a large number of plants grown on a
small amount of soil.
 The roots thoroughly penetrate the soil, exhausting the available nutrient supply within a
short time
 The nutrients removed are usually determined quantitatively by chemical analysis of entire
pant.
 In this technique hundred seedlings of rye or oats are made to feed exhaustively on 100 g of
soil mixed with 50 g of sand which is filled in dishes of 11 cm diameter and 7 cm depth for
17 days and compared with blank having no soil.
 The total P2O5 and K2O uptake is calculated and the blank value is deducted to obtain the root
soluble P2O5 and K2O in 100 g of dry soil.
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

The values are represented as Neubauer number which are expressed as mg/100 g of dry soil
having following limits to determine the deficiency
Nutrients N limit values (mg/100g of dry soil) for crops
Barley Oats Rye Wheat Turnip Potato Sugar beet
P2O5 6 6 5 5 7 6 6
K2O 21 21 27 20 39 37 25

2. Mitscherlich pot culture method

 Oats or a cereal grown to maturity in pots containing 2.72 kg soil
 Ten treatments – N, P, K in different combinations
No - one pot
Po – three pots
Ko – three pots
NPK – three pots
 Yield from NPK considered as maximum yield (100%)
 Yield of other nutrients converted as percentage increase
 Percentage increase in yield is calculated by using Mitscherlich table from addition of given
quantity of fertilizers over native fertility status (Control)
3. Jennys pot-culture method
 Pots containing 1.81 Kg soils used
 Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa longifolia) tested for six weeks
 Treatments: N0,P0,K0; N150,P150,K100; No-N, No-P, No-K combinations with four replications
 Percentage values grouped into three categories and a table was arrived
Jenny’s Values
Per cent yield
Nutrient
Definite Probable Uncertain
tested
deficiency deficiency deficiency
N 20 20-50 51-70
P 20 20-50 51-65
K 70 70-75 76-80
S 66 66-76 77-83
Lime 55 55-73 74-80

4. The Stanford and DeMent’s technique

 Similar to Neubauer technique with certain modifications to determine all those nutrients
studied by Neubauer technique
 Here round waxed cardboard cartons of about 100 g capacity with bottom removed, which
are rested in similar containers having intact bottom filled with 680 g of sand. The seeds are
sown about 1.25 cm deep
 After growing for 2 - 3 weeks, carton containing the plants are rested on the 2nd carton
holding 200 g of soil or soil mixed with fertilizers. Plant roots enter the 2 nd carton when these
plants are allowed to feed for 3 - 5 days
 4 plants of maize & 30 plants of wheat & oats are maintained for studies.
 After 5 days the plant samples are taken to determine the nutrient status
 The nutrient status is classified as marked deficiency, moderate deficiency and little or no
deficiency
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

5. Sunflower pot culture technique for boron

 Tested for vigorous extraction for boron from 0.5 kg soil by sunflower seedlings
 5 seedlings allowed to grow
 Soil fertilized with solution containing all nutrients except boron.
 Deficiency of boron is noticed and ranked
Days after B
Deficiency class
deficiency in noticed
Marked deficiency < 28
Moderate deficiency 28-36
Little or no deficiency < 36
Use of indicator plants
 Certain plants are very similar to deficiency of specific plant nutrient and they produce
special symptoms which are different from other deficiency
 These symptoms give a definite clue for deficiency of a specific nutrient and such plants are
called as biological indicator or indicator plants
Elements Deficiency indicator plants
N Cauliflower, Cabbage
P Rape seed
K Potato
Ca Cauliflower, Cabbage
Mg Potato
Fe Cauliflower, Cabbage, Potato
Na Sugar beet
Mn Sugar beet, Oats , Potato
B Sugar beet

II. Use of microorganisms (Microbiological methods)

General requirements of mineral nutrients for certain microbes is similar to that of crop plants
1. Azotobacter plaque test - Sackett and Stewarts technique
 Used to find out P2O5 and K2O status of soil
 Soil culture is prepared with P added in one portion, K in another portion and both in a third
portion
 Inoculated with Azotobacter and incubated for 72 hours
 Based on the amount of colony growth, the soil is rated
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Soil rating based on colony growth

Class Deficiency Description
Class I Very deficient None or few to numerous extremely small pin point colonies on the
unfertilized plaque
Class II Moderately Few to numerous but small and weak colonies with little or no pigment
deficient on the unfertilized plaque
Class III Slight deficient The colonies on unfertilized plaques are equal in number and
development
Class IV Not deficient Colonies on both fertilized and unfertilized plaques are equal in
number and development. Thus a qualitative assessment can be made
from the growth and development of Azotobacter colonies

2.Cunninghamella plague test (Mehlich, Fred and Truog)

 To determine P2O5 deficiency
 Cunninghamella is very sensitive to P
 Soil is mixed with nutrient solution, paste is prepared and spread in clay dish
 Inoculated on the surface with Cunninghamella (centre of the paste)
 Allowed to incubate for 4 - 5 days
 Diameter of mycelial growth denotes P deficiency
Diameter of colonies (mm) Degree of deficiency
< 10 Very deficient
11 - 15 Moderately deficient
16 - 21 Slightly deficient
> 22 Not deficient

3. Aspergillus niger test

a) Mehlich technique for available K2O
– To determine available K2O content in soil
– Soil is taken in conical flask and appropriate nutrient solution is added
– Inoculated with Aspergillus niger and inoculated for 4 days
– Weight of mycelial pad and its K2O content are taken into account
K2O absorbed by A. niger
S. No. Weight of pads (g) Degree of K deficiency
per 100 g of soil (mg)
1. < 1. 4 < 15 Very deficient
2. 1.4 – 2.0 15 - 20 Moderate to slight deficient
3. > 2.0 > 20 Not deficient

b) Mulder’s test for Cu and Mg

– Colour of mycelia and spores of Aspergillus niger indicates deficiency levels
– Known standards are prepared in weighed quantity of soil
– Compare the colour of mycelia and spores with those growing on unknown soils
Cu in µg/ g of air dry soils Deficiency degree Mg in µg/ 3g of air dry soil
< 0.4 Very deficient < 50
1.0 – 1.5 Slightly deficient 50 – 100
> 2.0 Not deficient > 100
This method is extended to other nutrients such as Mo, Co, Mn, S and Zn
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

CO2 evolution method

 Soil is incubated in a conical flask with compost, super and potash for 10 days
 CO2 evolution is assessed by absorption in standard Ba(OH)2
 Excess Ba(OH)2 is titrated with standard HCl
 CO2 evolution is a measure of microbial activity which in term a measure of soil fertility
 Addition of deficient nutrient increase CO2 evolution
Soil Analysis
Though plant analyses are valuable in diagnosing the nutrient stress, analysis of soil is so
essential to bridge the nutrient supply and crop demand
Soil test is a chemical method for estimating the nutrient supplying power of a soil
Soil analysis is the must for fertilizer recommendation to enhance / achieve the crop yield
Objectives of soil analysis
 To provide an index of nutrient availability or supply
 To predict the probability of obtaining a profitable response to manures and fertilizers
 To provide a basis for recommendations of fertilizers
 To evaluate fertility status of soils for a village/state/country to develop nutrient management
programmes
 To identify problem areas such as saline, Alkaline or acid condition
 To assess the residual effect of previously added fertilizers, manures and pesticides
Methods of soil analysis
S. No. Nutrients analyzed Methods
1 Total N Digestion with H2SO4 and distillation
2 Available N Alkaline KMnO4
3 Organic carbon Chromic acid oxidation
4 Total P HCl extract by ammonium molybdate
5 Available P Olsens and Bray
6 Total K HCl extract
7 Available K Neutral normal NH4OAc
By digestion with acid / 0.15 % CaCl2
8 Total S/Available S
Gravimetry or turbidimetry
9 Total Ca & Mg Versenate method (0.02N EDTA)
10 Micronutrients By AAS through DTPA/ Hot water/ oxalic acid
In addition, lime requirement for acid soil and gypsum requirement for alkali soils
Soil testing- Nutrient recommendation system
Four consecutive steps:
1. Collect a representative soil sample from the field
2. Determine the quantity of available nutrients
3. Interpret the soil test results (soil test calibration)
4. Estimate the quantity of nutrient required by the crop (Nutrient recommendation)
 SAC 301 - Manures, Fertilizers and Soil Fertility Management (2+1) - Lecture notes

Soil fertility evaluation techniques and approaches

Techniques / methods Approach
Sackett & Stewart technique using Azotobacter (P&K)
Mehlich Cunninghamella for P Biological test by micro organisms
Mulder’s Aspergillus niger for Ca and Mg
Neubauer seedling method
Mitscherlich pot culture
Biological test by plants
Jenny pot culture
Sunflower pot culture for B
Fried and Dean ‘A’ value technique Soil test and plant analysis
Soil analysis and correlation Soil test
Crop logging (Clements, 1961) Plant analysis
Nutrient indexing (Parker et al., 1951) Soil test
Agronomic approach Soil test and field trial
Soil fertility cum survey (Gowsami et al., 1973) Soil test and classification
Critical level approach (Cate and Nelson, 1965) Soil test and field trial
Deductive approach (Colwell, 1967)
Inductive approach (Ramamoorthy, 1968) Soil test and field trial
Mitscherlich-Bray (1909)
DRIS (Beaufils) Plant analysis
Targeted yield with IPNS Soil test and field trail
Leaf colour chart (LCC) Leaf colour observation