Chapter 1 Electrons and Holes

in Semiconductors

• Factors determining the electrical properties of semiconductors

q [C]: What is the charge that contributes to the

formation of current? 𝐼𝐼
(electron : -q, hole :+q) 𝑉𝑉 → 𝐽𝐽 = = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐴𝐴
N [cm-3]: What is the unit volume concentration of 𝑁𝑁𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
the charges contributing to current flow? 𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
𝐷𝐷(− )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝒗𝒗 [cm/s]: How fast does it move by the given
transport process

Slide 1-1
 Types of crystals

amorphous Polycrystalline Single-crystalline

• A crystal has long range order, a polycrystalline material has only short
range order and an amorphous material has no order.

- Single-crystalline Si : High Performance Electronic Devices, Integrated Circuits

- Polycrystalline Si : Solar cells, Transistors for displays, MOSFET gates, 3D
NAND flash memory
- Amorphous Si : Transistors for large-area displays

From “semiconductor physics and devices”, D. Neumen, 3rd ed. 2003 Slide 1-2
 Atomic Structure and Periodicity
• Single-crystal structure with periodic atomic arrangement

• Electrostatic energy barrier created by the periodic atomic arrangement

structure of Si
Coulombic Coulombic energy
energy barrier barrier distribution

From “semiconductor engineering”, D. M. Kim, 2017

Slide 1-3
 Potential function of a one-dimensional single crystal

𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟 = −𝑞𝑞 𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟)

+𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍𝑞𝑞 2
= −𝑞𝑞 = [J]
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟

Coulombic
energy barrier

• The electron in the atom is attracted by a central force that is always

directed towards the positive nucleus.

From “semiconductor physics and devices”, D. Neumen, 3rd ed. 2003, Fig. 3.5 Slide 1-4
 1.1 Silicon Crystal Structure

• Unit cell of silicon crystal is

cubic.

• Each Si atom has 4 nearest

neighbors.

Slide 1-5
 Basic crystal structures
• Type of unit cell

simple cubic body-centered cubic face-centered cubic Diamond structure

(SC) (BCC) (FCC)

• How many silicon atoms are there in each unit cell and in one cubic centimeter?

# 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

From “semiconductor engineering”, D. M. Kim, 2017

Slide 1-6
 Diamond structure

Find the distance x between Si atoms.

(T=300K, a=0.543nm)
From “semiconductor engineering”, D. M. Kim, 2017 3
2 2 1
𝑥𝑥 = ( 𝑎𝑎) + ( 𝑎𝑎)2 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 = 0.235𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
4 4 4

Slide 1-7
 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

• Miller indices; 1) take intercept, 2) take reciprocal

-plane: (hkl), equivalent plane; {hkl}
-direction: [hkl], equivalent direction; <hkl>
-(hkl) ┴ [hkl]

From “semiconductor physics and devices”, D. Neumen, 3rd ed. 2003

Slide 1-8
Slide 1-9
 Silicon Wafers and Crystal Planes

z z
y y
z
• The standard notation for
crystal planes is based on
the cubic unit cell.
y

x x
(100) x (011) (111)

• Silicon wafers are usually

cut along the (100) plane
with a flat or notch to help
orient the wafer during IC
fabrication.
Si (111) plane

Slide 1-10
 1.2 Bond Model of Electrons and Holes
Si Si Si • Silicon crystal in
a two-dimensional
Si Si Si representation.
• Covalent bonding
Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

• When an electron breaks loose and becomes a conduction

electron, a hole is also created.
Slide 1-11
 Dopants in Silicon

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si As Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

• As, a Group V element, introduces conduction electrons and creates

N-type silicon, and is called a donor.
• B, a Group III element, introduces holes and creates P-type silicon,
and is called an acceptor.
• Donors and acceptors are known m0 q 4
as dopants. Dopant ionization Hydrogen: E ion = = 13.6 eV
energy ~50meV (very low). 8ε02h2

Slide 1-12
 Electron volts (eV)
• One eV is the energy acquired by an electron when accelerated by a 1V
potential difference

1V
− +
1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J

• Energy acquired by the electron is qV. Since q is 1.6 × 10−19 C, the energy is
1.6 × 10−19 J. Define this as 1eV.

1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 CV = 1.6 × 10−19 J

Slide 1-13
GaAs, III-V Compound Semiconductors, and Their Dopants

Ga As Ga

As Ga As

Ga As Ga

• GaAs has the same crystal structure as Si.

• GaAs, GaP, GaN are III-V compound semiconductors, important for
optoelectronics.
• Wich group of elements are candidates for donors? acceptors?
(Group IV elements ; amphoteric dopants, Si donor (↔Ga), Ge acceptor (↔ As)

Slide 1-14
 1.3 Energy Band Model

• Electrons in an atom occupy discrete energy levels

• If two atoms are in close proximity, each energy level will split into two due
to Pauli exclusion principle
(no two electrons can have the same set of quantum state)

• When many atoms are brought into close proximity, the discrete energy
levels are replaced with bands of energy states separated by gaps

From “semiconductor physics and devices”, D. Neumen, 3rd ed. 2003. Fig.3.3 Slide 1-15
 1.3 Energy Band Model
} Empty upper bands

(conduction band)
2p

2s
(valence band)
Electron energy [eV]

1s
} Filled lower bands

Distance [m] (a) (b)

• Energy states of Si atom (a) expand into energy bands of Si crystal (b).
• The lower bands are filled and higher bands are empty in a semiconductor.
• The highest filled band is the valence band.
• The lowest empty band is the conduction band .

Slide 1-16
 1.3.1 Energy Band Diagram

Conduction band Ec

Band gap
Eg

Ev
Valence band

• Energy band diagram shows the bottom edge of conduction band,

Ec , and top edge of valence band, Ev .
• Ec and Ev are separated by the band gap energy, Eg .

Slide 1-17
 Measuring the Band Gap Energy by Light Absorption
electron
Ec
photons
Eg
photon energy: h v > E g
Ev
ℎ= 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
[6.63 × 10−34 J � s]
hole
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 [Hz = s−1 ]

• Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (hν) of

photons that are absorbed by the semiconductor. (photoconductor)
Bandgap energies of selected semiconductors
Semi-
conductor InSb Ge Si GaAs GaP ZnSe Diamond

Eg (eV) 0.18 0.67 1.12 1.42 2.25 2.7 6

Slide 1-18
 EXAMPLE: Measuring the Band-gap Energy
Question: If a semiconductor is transparent to light with a wavelength
longer than 0.87um, what is its band-gap energy?

Solution: Photon energy of light with 0.87um wavelength is

𝑐𝑐 where ℎ = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 [6.63 × 10−34 J � s]
𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑣𝑣 = ℎ 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 [Hz = s −1 ]
𝜆𝜆 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 [3 × 108 m/s]
𝜆𝜆 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 [m]

𝑐𝑐 6.63×10−34 (J�s)×3×108 (𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) 1.99×10−19 (J�μm)

ℎ𝑣𝑣 = ℎ = =
𝜆𝜆 0.87μm 0.87μm

1.99×10−19 (eV�μm) 1.24 (eV�μm)

= = = 1.42eV
1.6×10−19 ×0.87μm 0.87μm
The semiconductor is perhaps GaAs (Table1-1)
1.24
Useful Relationship : ℎ𝑣𝑣 (eV) =
𝜆𝜆 μm
Slide 1-19
EXAMPLE: Measuring the Band-gap Energy

1.24
𝜆𝜆 μm =
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
Eg of Si: 1.12 eV λ = 1.1 μm (visible)
Eg of InSnO: 4.8 eV λ = 0.26 μm (transparent)

Slide 1-20
 1.3.2 Donor and Acceptor in the Band Model
Conduction Band Ec
Donor Level Ed
Donor ionization energy

Acceptor ionization energy

Acceptor Level
Ea
Ev
Valence Band
• Donor ionization energy (~50mV) to free the extra energy from the donor atom
into conduction electron.
• The donor electron must occupy a state at about 50meV below Ec
• Ec-Ev is the donor ionization energy
• As, P, Sb, and B makes shallow levels for Si. Cu, Au makes deep leves.
Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon
Donors Acceptors
Dopant Sb P As B Al In
Ionization energy, E c –E d or E a –E v (meV) 39 44 54 45 57 160

Slide 1-21
 1.4 Semiconductors, Insulators, and Conductors
Ec
Top of
conduction band
E g= 9 eV empty
Ec
E g = 1.1 eV filled
Ev Ev Ec

Si (Semiconductor) SiO (Insulator) Conductor

2

• Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow

current flow. (Just as there is no motion of liquid in a
. totally empty bottle.)
totally filled or
• Metal conduction band is half-filled.
• Semiconductors have lower Eg 's than insulators and can be
doped.
Slide 1-22
 1.5 Electrons and Holes

electron kinetic energy

increasing electron energy

increasing hole energy

Ec

Ev

hole kinetic energy

• Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

energy positions.
• Electrons tend to fall in the energy band diagram.
• Holes float up like bubbles in water.

Slide 1-23
 1.5.1 Effective Mass
• In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.

holes
electrons
• 𝑴𝑴𝒏𝒏 and 𝑴𝑴𝒑𝒑 is called the effective mass for electrons and holes.

• Electrons and holes in a crystal interact with a periodic coulombic field

• They surf over the periodic potential of the crystal, therefore electrons and
holes in a crystal interact with a periodic coulombic field
• Therefore, 𝑴𝑴𝒏𝒏 and 𝑴𝑴𝒑𝒑 are not the same as the free electron mass

Coulombic energy
barrier distribution

Slide 1-24
 1.5.1 Effective Mass
• A complete description of the electrons must be based on their wave characteristics

• The electron wave function is the solution of the three-dimensional

Schrodinger wave equation
𝑝𝑝2 (𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣)2 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣
Kinetic energy of electrons as particles 𝐸𝐸 = =
2𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 2𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛
E=qV 𝐽𝐽=𝑞𝑞𝑁𝑁𝑣𝑣(E) ħ
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛
k(E)
𝑝𝑝2 (ħ𝑘𝑘)2 𝑝𝑝 = ħ𝑘𝑘
Kinetic energy of electrons as waves 𝐸𝐸 = =
2𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 2𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 sin( 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡 ◀사인형 파동의 일반적 형태
𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇
Wave vector 2𝜋𝜋 Angular frequency 2𝜋𝜋
𝑘𝑘 ≡ 𝜔𝜔 ≡ = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
(파수) (각진동수) 𝑇𝑇
𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 𝜔𝜔
𝑣𝑣 = = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 =
𝑇𝑇 2𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 • The Wave Equation (General Physics 2)

Slide 1-25
 The Schrödinger Wave Equation
1. Each particle in a physical system is described by a wavefunction Ψ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡).
This function and its space derivative are continuous, finite, and single valued.
2. Classical quantities ↔ quantum mechanical operators
Classical variable Quantum operator
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) ħ 𝜕𝜕
𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
E ħ 𝜕𝜕
−
𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
3. The probability of finding a particle with wavefuncion Ψ in the volume 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is
Ψ ∗ Ψ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
∞
� Ψ ∗ Ψ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
−∞
The average value < 𝑄𝑄 > of any variable 𝑄𝑄 is calculated by using the eq. below
∞
Slide 1-26
< 𝑄𝑄 > = � Ψ ∗ 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 Ψ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞ From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 The Schrödinger Wave Equation

K. E. + P. E. = Total E (target: electron)

𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 + 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝐸𝐸
𝑝𝑝2
+ 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐸𝐸
2𝑚𝑚
quantum mechanics

ħ2 𝜕𝜕 2 Ψ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡 ħ 𝜕𝜕Ψ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡

− + 𝑉𝑉(𝑥𝑥)Ψ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) = −
2𝑚𝑚 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡

In three dimensions
ħ2 2 ħ 𝜕𝜕Ψ
− 𝛻𝛻 Ψ + 𝑉𝑉 Ψ = −
2𝑚𝑚 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
where 2 2 2
2
𝜕𝜕 Ψ 𝜕𝜕 Ψ 𝜕𝜕 Ψ
𝛻𝛻 Ψ = + +
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2
Slide 1-27
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 The Schrödinger Wave Equation
Separation of variables: time-independent
Ψ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥)𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡)
ħ2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡 ħ 𝜕𝜕(𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡 )
− + 𝑉𝑉(𝑥𝑥)(𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥)𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡)) = −
2𝑚𝑚 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
divide by 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓
ħ2 1 𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) ħ 1 𝑑𝑑𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡)
− + 𝑉𝑉(𝑥𝑥) = −
2𝑚𝑚 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑗𝑗 𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Since both the left and right sides are functions of energy, let it be E

𝑑𝑑𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Time dependent-equation + 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡 = 0 -
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ħ
Time-independent Schrödinger equation
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) 2𝑚𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 )𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) = 0 -
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ
Slide 1-28
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 The Schrödinger Wave Equation
Time dependent-equation -
𝑑𝑑𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
+ 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡 = 0 ←first-order differential eq.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ħ
solution: 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗/ħ = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 (𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑣𝑣= ħ𝑤𝑤)

Time-independent Schrödinger equation -

𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) 2𝑚𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 )𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ
2𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑘(𝐸𝐸) = (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 ) ; 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
ħ 2

k real number, 𝐸𝐸 > 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 , 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 > 0 ; undamped motion

k imaginary number, 𝐸𝐸 < 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 , 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 < 0 ; damped motion

Slide 1-29
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 The Schrödinger Wave Equation

k 2 ħ2
(ħk)2
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = =
2𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣 = ħ𝑘𝑘 = 𝑝𝑝
p2 (𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣)2
Kinetic energy of electrons as particles 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = =
2𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) 2𝑚𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 )𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) = 0 -
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ
solution: 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴 sin𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵 cos𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑘 = (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 )
ħ2

𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡 = (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 )𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Slide 1-30
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 The Schrödinger Wave Equation
EXAMPLE: Free electron
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) 2𝑚𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 )𝜓𝜓(𝑥𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ
V(x) 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 2𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
+ 2 𝐸𝐸𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 0, where 𝑘𝑘 =
E’ 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ ħ

x 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
E’
𝑘𝑘 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝐸 =
2𝑚𝑚
∞ ∞
To find 𝐴𝐴 � 𝜓𝜓 𝜓𝜓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
∗ → 𝐴𝐴 = very small constant value
−∞ −∞

2 2
𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥

t x
Slide 1-31
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
EXAMPLE: Infinite Potential Well Problem

0, 0 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 =
∞, 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝐿𝐿

𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 2𝑚𝑚
+ 2 𝐸𝐸𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 0 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ

𝑑𝑑 2 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= −𝑘𝑘 2 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 , where 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 ħ
𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 sin𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐵𝐵 cos𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Boundary conditions:
𝜓𝜓 0 = 𝜓𝜓 𝐿𝐿 = 0
𝜓𝜓 0 = 𝐴𝐴 sin0 + 𝐵𝐵 cos0 = 𝐵𝐵 = 0
Slide 1-32
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 EXAMPLE: Infinite Potential Well Problem
2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 sin𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 =
ħ
If 𝜓𝜓 is to be zero at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿, 𝜓𝜓 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐴𝐴 sin𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
n𝜋𝜋
𝑘𝑘 = , n = 1, 2, 3, …
𝐿𝐿

2𝑚𝑚𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛 n𝜋𝜋
=
ħ 𝐿𝐿

n2 𝜋𝜋 2 ħ2
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛 = → Energy is quantized!
2𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿2
To find 𝐴𝐴 ∞ 𝐿𝐿
n𝜋𝜋 2 𝐿𝐿
∗ 2 2 2
� 𝜓𝜓 𝜓𝜓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐴𝐴 (sin 𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐴𝐴 = 1 → 𝐴𝐴 = ,
−∞ 0 𝐿𝐿 2 𝐿𝐿

2 n𝜋𝜋
𝜓𝜓 𝑛𝑛 = sin 𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

Slide 1-33
From “Solid state electronic devices”, Ben G. streetman, 2016
 Kronig-Penney model

Kronig-Penney model
(one-dimensional)

Schrödinger Wave Equation

(one-dimensional)

Schrödinger Wave Equation

(three-dimensional)

From “semiconductor physics and devices”, D. Neumen, 3rd ed. 2003. Fig.3.3 Slide 1-34
 1.5.1 Effective Mass
The electron wave function is the solution of the three
dimensional Schrodinger wave equation
2
− ∇ 2ψ + V ( r ) ψ = ψ
2m 0
The solution is of the form exp( ± k ⋅ r)
k = wave vector = 2π/electron wavelength
For each k, there is a corresponding E.

𝑝𝑝2 𝑘𝑘 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝐸 = =
2𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚

Slide 1-35
 1.5.1 Effective Mass

Derivative of E 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℏ2 𝑘𝑘 ℏ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

= = = ℏ𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑 2 𝐸𝐸 ℏ2
2nd derivative of E =
𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘 2 𝑚𝑚

ℏ2
effective mass ≡ 2
𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸/𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘 2
qε d 2 E F
accelerati on = − 2 2
=
 dk m

Curvature between Si and GaAs ?

Slide 1-36
 1.5.1 Effective Mass

In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.

electrons

holes

Electron and hole effective masses

Si Ge GaAs InAs AlAs

mn/m0 0.26 0.12 0.068 0.023 2
mp/m0 0.39 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3

Slide 1-37
 1.5.2 How to Measure the Effective Mass

Cyclotron Resonance Technique B

- -

Centripetal force = Lorentzian force

mn v 2 Microwave
= qvB
r
•fcr is the Cyclotron resonance frequency.
qBr
v= •It is independent of v and r.
mn •Electrons strongly absorb microwaves of
v qB that frequency.
f cr = =
2πr 2πmn •By measuring fcr, mn can be found.

Slide 1-38
 1.6 Density of States
E
Dc
∆Ε
Ec Ec
D
Ev Ev

Dv

number of states in ∆E  1 
Dc ( E ) ≡  3 
∆E ⋅ volume  eV ⋅ cm 

8πmn 2mn (E − Ec )
Dc ( E ) ≡
h3
8πm p 2m p (Ev − E ) Derived in Appendix I
Dv ( E ) ≡ 3
h
Slide 1-39
 1.7 Thermal Equilibrium and the Fermi Function
1.7.1 An Analogy for Thermal Equilibrium

Sand particles

Thermal Equilibrium

Dish

Vibrating Table

• There is a certain probability for the electrons in the conduction band to occupy
high-energy states under the agitation of thermal energy.

• Thermal Equilibrium means a state in which external forces such as voltage

do not act on the semiconductor.

Slide 1-40
Appendix II. Probability of a State at E being Occupied
•There are g1 states at E1, g2 states at
E2… There are N electrons, which
constantly shift among all the states
but the average electron energy is
fixed at 3kT/2.
•There are many ways to distribute
N among n1, n2, n3….and satisfy the
3kT/2 condition.
•The equilibrium distribution is the distribution that
maximizes the number of combinations of placing n1 in g1
slots, n2 in g2 slots…. :
ni/gi =

EF is a constant determined by the condition ∑n

i =N
 1.7.2 Fermi Function–The Probability of an Energy State
Being Occupied by an Electron
1 ; Fermi-Dirac distribution function
f (E) = ( E − E f ) / kT Ef is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level.
1+ e
1 1
when E = EF 𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸) = =
1 + exp( 0) 2

when T > 0 K 𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸) ≠ 1, 𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸) ≠ 0

1
when 𝑇𝑇 = 0𝐾𝐾, 𝐸𝐸 < 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸) = = 1
1
Remember: there is only
when 𝑇𝑇 = 0𝐾𝐾, 𝐸𝐸 > 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹
one Fermi-level in a system 1
𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸) = =0
at equilibrium. ∞

From “semiconductor physics and devices”, D. Neumen, 3rd ed. 2003. Fig.3.3 Slide 1-42
 1.7.2 Fermi Function–The Probability of an Energy State
Being Occupied by an Electron
E
Boltzmann approximation:
(
− E−E f ) kT
f (E) ≈ e
(
− E−E f ) kT
f (E) ≈ e E − E f >> kT
Ef + 3kT
Ef + 2kT
Ef

Ef + kT
Ef

( )
− E f − E kT E − E f << −kT
f (E) ≈ 1 − e
Ef – kT
Ef – 2kT

Ef – 3kT
( )
− E f − E kT
f (E) ≈ 1 − e

f(E)
0.5 1

Slide 1-43
 1.8 Electron and Hole Concentrations
1.8.1 Derivation of n and p from D(E) and f(E)

Slide 1-44
 1.8 Electron and Hole Concentrations
1.8.1 Derivation of n and p from D(E) and f(E)
probability of occupancy
top of conduction band
n=∫ f ( E ) Dc ( E )dE
Ec

density of states ∝ 𝐸𝐸
(see Append. IV)

8πmn 2mn ∞ ( ) kT
∫
− E−E f
n= E − Ec e dE
h3 Ec

∞
8𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 2𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 −𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
= 3
𝑒𝑒 � 𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑(𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)
ℎ 0

Slide 1-45
 Electron and Hole Concentrations
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce Nc is called the effective
32 density of states (of the
 2πmn kT 
N c ≡ 2 2  conduction band) .
 h 
− ( E f − Ev ) / kT
p = Nve
Nv is called the effective
32
 2πm p kT  density of states of the
N v ≡ 2 2  valence band.
 h 
Remember: the closer Ef moves up to N c , the larger n is;
the closer Ef moves down to Ev , the larger p is.
For Si, Nc = 2.8 ×1019 cm-3 and Nv = 1.04 ×1019 cm-3 .

Slide 1-46
 1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
Where is Ef for n =1017 cm-3? And for p = 1014 cm-3?
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
Solution: (a) n = N c e

( )
Ec − E f = kT ln (N c n ) = 0.026 ln 2.8 ×1019 / 1017 = 0.146 eV

(b) For p = 1014cm-3, from Eq.(1.8.8),

( )
E f − Ev = kT ln ( N v p ) = 0.026 ln 1.04 ×1019 / 1014 = 0.31 eV
0.146 eV
Ec Ec
Ef

Ef
0.31 eV
Ev Ev
(a) (b)

Slide 1-47
 1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations

Ec

− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce
E f = Ec − kT ln ( N c n )

Ev
1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020

N a or N d (cm-3)
Slide 1-48
1.8.3 The np Product and the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT − ( E f − Ev ) / kT
Multiply n = N c e and p = Nve

− ( Ec − Ev ) / kT − E g / kT
np = N c N v e = Nc Nve
32
 2πmn kT 
where N c ≡ 2  2 
np = ni
2  h 
32
 2πm p kT 
N v ≡ 2 2 
 h 
− E g / 2 kT
ni = N c N v e

• In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .

• ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, ~1010 cm-3 for Si.

Slide 1-49
 EXAMPLE: Carrier Concentrations
Question: What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor
with 1015 cm-3 of donors?

Solution: n = 1015 cm-3.

2
ni 10 20 cm -3
p= ≈ 15 −3 = 105 cm -3
n 10 cm

After increasing T by 60°C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

− E / kT
increases by about a factor of 2300 because ni 2 ∝ e g .
Question: What is n if p = 1017cm-3 in a P-type silicon wafer?

Solution: ni
2
10 20 cm -3
n= ≈ 17 −3 = 103 cm -3
p 10 cm

Slide 1-50
 1.9 General Theory of n and p
EXAMPLE: Complete ionization of the dopant atoms
Nd = 1017 cm-3. What fraction of the donors are not ionized?
Solution: First assume that all the donors are ionized.

n = N d = 1017 cm −3 ⇒ E f = Ec − 146meV
45meV 146 meV
Ed Ec
E f = Ec − kT ln ( N c n )
Ef

Ev

Probability of not
1 1
≈ = = 0.04
being ionized 1 ( E − E ) / kT 1
1+ e d f 1 + e((146−45) meV ) / 26 meV
2 up/down spin 2
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd .
Slide 1-51
 1.9 General Theory of n and p
Charges:
1) Electrons (-) mobile carriers 𝑛𝑛
2) Holes (+) mobile carriers 𝑝𝑝
3) Positive donor ions (+) immobile 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑
4) Negative acceptor ions (-) immobile 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎
Charge neutrality: 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑
2
np = ni
1/ 2 1/ 2
N a − N d  N a − N d   N d − N a  N d − N a  
2 2
2 2
p= +   + ni  n= +   + ni 
2  2   2  2  

Slide 1-52
 1.9 General Theory of on n and p
I. N d − N a >> ni (i.e., N-type) n = Nd − Na
2
p = ni n
2
If N d >> N a , n = Nd and p = ni N d

II. N a − N d >> ni (i.e., P-type) p = Na − Nd

2
n = ni p

2
If N a >> N d , p = Na and n = ni N a

Slide 1-53
 EXAMPLE: Dopant Compensation
What are n and p in Si with (a) Nd = 6×1016 cm-3 and Na = 2×1016 cm-3
and (b) additional 6×1016 cm-3 of Na?
n = 4×1016 cm-3
(a) n = N d − N a = 4 ×1016 cm −3 ++++++
......

2
Nd = 6×1016 cm-3
p = ni / n = 10 20 / 4 ×1016 = 2.5 ×103 cm −3

. . . .N.a.=. .2×10
. . . cm
16 -3

(b) Na = 2×1016 + 6×1016 = 8×1016 cm-3 > Nd

16 16 16 −3 ++++++
......
p = N a − N d = 8 ×10 − 6 ×10 = 2 ×10 cm
Nd = 6×1016 cm-3
2
n = ni / p = 10 20 / 2 ×1016 = 5 ×103 cm −3 Na = 8×1016 cm-3
-------- ......
p = 2×1016 cm-3

Slide 1-54
1.10 Carrier Concentrations at Extremely High
and Low Temperatures
intrinsic regime

n = Nd
ln n

freeze-out regime

1/T
High Room temp Cryogenic temp
temp
− E g / 2 kT
high T: n = p = ni = Nc Nv e
1/ 2
 N c N d  −( Ec − Ed ) / 2 kT
low T: n =
 2  e
 
Slide 1-55
 Infrared Detector Based on Freeze-out
•To image the black-body radiation emitted by tumors
requires a photodetector that responds to hν’s around 0.1 eV.
•In doped Si operating in the freeze-out mode, conduction
electrons are created when the infrared photons provide the
energy to ionized the donor atoms.
electron

photon Ec
Ed

Ev

Slide 1-56
1.11 Chapter Summary

Energy band diagram. Acceptor. Donor. mn, mp.

Fermi function. Ef .
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce
− ( E f − Ev ) / kT
p = Nve
n = Nd − Na
p = Na − Nd
2
np = ni

Slide 1-57