Electronics I

Chapter 1

Semiconductor Materials and Diodes

“Doing the Right Things is More Important

than Doing Things Right.”

Chap 1, No. 1
Electronics I
Introductions
 Gain a basic understanding of semiconductor material properties
 Two types of charged carriers; positive and negative charges
that exist in a semiconductor
 Two mechanisms; drift and diffusion that generate currents in
a semiconductor
 Determine the properties of a pn junction
 Ideal current–voltage characteristics of a pn junction diode
 Examine dc analysis techniques for diode circuits using various
models to describe the nonlinear diode characteristics
 Develop an equivalent circuit for a diode that is used when a
small, time-varying signal is applied to a diode circuit
 Gain an understanding of the properties and characteristics of a
few specialized diodes; such as solar cell, LED, photodiode.

Diode Various Diodes Chap 1, No. 2

Electronics I Introductions
The following introduction of device physics is somewhat simplified;
but it should provide sufficient background for diode operation and
also for the physical operations of transistors. Both are semiconductor
devices.
Basic Semiconductor Concepts
Metal contact Metal contact
Conductivity of
semiconductor is between
Anode n-type Cathode conductor and insulator
p-type
silicon silicon

Simplified physical structure

of the pn junction diode
The controlled flow of charged particles is the fundamental to the
operation of all electronic devices
Silicon (Si, 矽), germanium (Ge, 鍺), and gallium arsenide (GaAs, 砷化鎵 )
are the three most widely used semiconductor. For example, gallium
arsenide and related compounds are used for very-high speed devices
and optical devices.
Gallium arsenide is a group III-V compound (三五族) semiconductor.
Chap 1, No. 3
Electronics I Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductor can be classed into two main categories:
1. Intrinsic semiconductor (純質半導體). Ideally 100% pure material
2. Extrinsic semiconductor (異質半導體，帶有雜質)

Elemental semiconductors
Silicon (Si) : Most common
semiconductor

Germanium (Ge) : First semiconductor

used in p-n diodes

Compound semiconductors
Used for high-speed or optical devices
IV – IV: e. g.
Silicon Germanium (SiGe)
III – V: e. g.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
II – VI: e. g.
Indium Phosphide (InP)

Chap 1, No. 4
Electronics I Basic Semiconductor Concepts
We will briefly examine the physical properties of the semiconductor
material; silicon.
Semiconductor devices, such as diodes and transistors are the
central components used to process the electrical signals that
arise in communication, computer, control system, etc.
Intrinsic Semiconductor (純質半導體):
An intrinsic semiconductor is a single-crystal (單晶) semiconductor
material with no other types of atoms within the crystal.
Consider a silicon atom: a net charge of +4
14 protons, 10 core electrons (tightly bound)
4 valence electron (in the outer shell, loosely bound,
responsible for most chemical properties)
=
+4
Simplified Si
symbol
Si atom density: 5  1022 cm 3
Tetrahedral configuration
Chap 1, No. 5
Electronics I
Actual crystal structure of silicon: diamond lattice
Five non-interacting silicon atoms:
Covalent bond
=
Si
Form a crystal Si
(2 Dimensional)
Si Si Si Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Available to additional atoms to form larger
single-crystal structure

Covalent Bond

Source: Thomas L. Floyd, Electronics Fundamentals, 6e Chap 1, No. 6

Electronics I

Actual crystal structure of silicon: diamond lattice

Moving of Valence Electrons:

Si Si Si Si Hole Si Si Si Si
(電洞) + free
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si electron
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

T = 0 K (an insulator, T>0 K

no free electron)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRV-KDy4sHQ
Intrinsic semiconductor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6rQI7t9XM4
Extrinsic semiconductor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-PPbmMm0eA
Intrinsic And Extrinsic Semi Conductors1
See from 1:50 to 2:46 Chap 1, No. 7
 Electronics I
Higher temperature will cause more free electrons and more holes
created.
The net flow of free electrons in a semiconductor causes a current.
Moving of Electrons and Holes:
Step 1 Step 2

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Step 3 Analogy
Si Si Si Si Electron moving direction
Si Si Si Si Time 1
Hole
Time 2 moving
Si Si Si Si
Time 3 direction

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtEckh3L9Q Hole Electron

The pn Junction. How diodes work? See from 1:00 min Chap 1, No. 8
 Electronics I Concept of Energy Band
An eV (electron-
• EV ：the max energy of valence energy band volt) is the energy
• EC ：the min energy of conduction energy band of an electron that
has been
• Eg ： Energy required to break the covalent bond accelerated
– bandgap energy, E g = EV – EC through a potential
» Eg of the insulators is in range of 3 - 6 eV. difference of 1 volt,
and 1 eV =
» Eg of the semiconductor is on the order of 1 eV.
1.6  1019 joules
• Forbidden bandgap
– No electron exist within this region
• Electron gaining energy
– moving into EC from EV
Conduction
Conduction (-) Band
The generation process EC
Band
EC of creating an electron in Electron
Forbidden the conduction band and generation
Eg
Band the positively charged Ev
“empty state” in the Valence
Ev valence band. (+)
Valence Band
Band Slides, Floyd, Electronics Chap 1, No. 9
Electronics I Carrier Concentration
In semiconductors, two types of charged particles contribute to
the current: the negatively charged free electron with 1.6  1019 C
, and the positively charged hole with 1.6  1019 C .
The concentration ( # cm 3 ) of electrons and holes will directly
influence the magnitude of the current. Free electrons and holes
are called carriers.
Intrinsic Carrier (純質載子) Concentration:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the densities of free electrons and
holes are equal. When a bond is broken, an electron and a hole are
generated simultaneously.
Define the intrinsic carrier concentration, a very strong function of
temperature: 3  Eg
  Eg

 n  BT e
2 3 kT

ni  BT 2 e 2 kT  i 
 
B : material-dependent parameters, T : temperature, in Kelvin
k : Boltzmann’s constant, E g : bandgap energy (eV)
ni is an important parameter that appears often in the I-V
(current-voltage) equation for semiconductor devices.
Chap 1, No. 10
Electronics I Extrinsic (雜質) Semiconductor
Only a few amount current is induced in an intrinsic semiconductor
due to small ni
Adding certain amount impurities can increase the concentration
and thus increase the amount of current.
Donor Impurity:
Consider the atom phosphorus (磷) which has 5 valence electrons.
Valence Electron
When dopes a phosphorus atom in a
Silicon silicon atom, it donates a free
+5 electron without creating a hole.
+4 This process is called doping.

phosphorus
donated electron (Free moving)

Si Si Si Si A semiconductor containing donor

impurity is called an n-type semiconductor
Si P Si Si (for the negatively charged electrons)
Si Si Si Si
P is a net positive charge.
Chap 1, No. 11
Electronics I Extrinsic Semiconductor (cont.)
Acceptor Impurity:
Consider the atom boron (B, 硼) which has 3 valence electrons.
Valence Electron
boron When dopes a boron atom in a silicon
Silicon atom, it creates a hole without adding a
+3 free electron.
+4
This process is also called doping

created hole At room temperature B will receive an

electron from adjacent silicon and thus
Si Si Si Si called an acceptor impurity.

Si B Si Si
A semiconductor containing acceptor
Si Si Si Si impurity is called a p-type semiconductor
(for the positively charged holes created)
B is a negative charge
The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic
semiconductors, or doped semiconductors.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6rQI7t9XM4
Chap 1, No. 12
Extrinsic semiconductor
Electronics I
Donor Impurity and Acceptor Impurity
Donor Impurity Acceptor Impurity

Free electron
from P atom Hole from
B atom

Figures are removed due to IP

Source: Thomas L. Floyd, Electronics Fundamentals, 6e

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtEckh3L9Q
The pn Junction. How diodes wowk? See from 2:00 to 3:30 min
Chap 1, No. 13
Electronics I Extrinsic Semiconductor (cont.)
Doping process:
Allow us to control the concentrations of free electrons and holes.
Thus determine the conductivity and current in the material.
Relationship between the electron and hole concentrations:
From semiconductor physics, under thermal equilibrium, the
product of the free electron and hole concentrations is a constant,
independent of the amount of donors and acceptors.
no  po and no  po  ni no po  n2i
no : the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons
po : the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes
ni : the intrinsic carrier concentration, ni  1.5  1010 cm 3 at T  300 K
no , po , and ni are in thermal equilibrium
For example, Silicon:
5
B : 5.4  1031 , T : 300 K, k : 8.62  10 eV K , E g : 1.12 eV
3  Eg

 ni  BT e 2 kT  1.5  1010 / cm 3
2

However the concentration of atom in silicon is 5  1022 / cm3

much higher than the concentration of free electrons or holes, caused by
the thermal equilibrium. Chap 1, No. 14
Electronics I Extrinsic Semiconductor (cont.)
If the donor concentration Nd is much larger ( Nd  ni ) than the
intrinsic concentration of n-type material ni , then nn 0  ni  Nd  Nd
intrinsic silicon Doping P in silicon
where nn 0 is the concentration
n-type of free electrons in the n-type
silicon in thermal equilibrium.
ni electron nn 0 Nd
Note that from semiconductor physics nn 0 pn 0  n i
2

Thus the hole concentration of the n-type silicon in thermal equilibrium

becomes p  n2 N
n0 i d

Similarly, if the acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the

intrinsic concentration of p-type material, then
ni2
pp 0  pi  Na  Na and np 0 
Na
 Na  ni 
pp 0 : the hole concentration in p-type material in thermal equilibrium
np 0 : the electron concentration in p-type material in thermal equilibrium
Chap 1, No. 15
Electronics I Extrinsic Semiconductor (cont.)
Majority Carrier (多數載子) and Minority Carrier (少數載子):
Majority carrier : free electrons in n-type ( nn 0 ) Hole (minority)
and holes in p-type ( pp 0) n-type due to thermally
generated
Although the majority of current carriers in
n-type material are electrons, there are also Electron
a few holes that are created when (majority)
electrons-holes pairs are thermally due to thermally
generated. generated
Electron (majority)
due to doping
Minority carrier : free electrons in
p-type ( np 0 ) and holes in n-type ( pn 0)
Electron p-type
Although the majority of (minority)
current carriers in p-type
material are holes, there are Hole (majority)
also a few electrons that are due to thermally
created when electrons-holes generated
pairs are thermally
generated. Hole (majority)
due to doping Chap 1, No. 16
 Electronics I Two Mechanism: Drift and Diffusion Currents
Two types of currents in semiconductor devices :
1) Drift current : moving electrons and holes by an electric field.
2) Diffusion current: the movement is caused by concentration gradients.
1) Drift Currents:
The electric field E (V/cm) produce a force that acts on the free electrons
and holes, which then experience a net drift velocity and net movement.
n-type semiconductor v dn   nE (cm/s) (drift velocity)
+ - E (V/cm)  n :electron mobility (cm2 /V - s)
Applied electric field E

 n indicates how well an electron can
v dn e move in a semiconductor
electron
Jn The electron drift produces a drift current
generated drift 2 density Jn (A/cm2 ) given by
(A/cm )
current density Jndrift  qnv dn  qnnE
n : the electron concentration (# /cm3 ) , q: the magnitude of the electronic
charge
The drift current in an n-type semiconductor is in the same
direction as the applied electric field
Chap 1, No. 17
 Electronics I Two Mechanism: Drift and Diffusion Currents
p-type semiconductor v dp   pE  cm / s 
+ -
E (V/cm)  p :hole mobility (cm2 /V - s)
Applied electric field  p indicates how well a hole can move
h v dp in a semiconductor
hole
Jp The hole drift produces a drift current
generated drift density J p (A/cm2 ) given by
(A/cm 2 )
current density
J pdrift  qpv dp  qppE p : the hole
The drift current density is concentration
J  Jndrift  J pdrift  (qnn  qpp )E  E /  (a form of Ohm’s law)
J : the overall drift current density (A/ cm 2 )   1 / q(nn  p p )
 : the resistivity of semiconductor (   cm )
Remarks:
1) For low-doped silicon,  n is 1350 cm2 /V - s , while  p is 480 cm2 /V - s,
typically.
2) The conductivity can be changed from strong n-type to strong p-type by
giving different concentration of doping materials.
3) Selecting doping to control the conductivity allows us to fabricate
various electronic devices available. Chap 1, No. 18
Electronics I Two Mechanism: Drift and Diffusion Currents
2) Diffusion Current
In a semiconductor, free electrons (holes) will diffuse from the region
of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.
Diffusion of electrons Diffusion of holes
electron hole

n p

x Jn x JP q : charges
Electrons diffusion dn Holes diffusion dp
current density J n  qDn current density J p  qDp dx
dx
Dn ,DP : the diffusion constants of electrons and holes, respectively
The total diffusion current
Note that Jn ,JP  0

J  Jn  Jp A / cm 2 
In intrinsic silicon, typical value for the diffusion constants are
Dp  12 cm2 / s, Dn  34 cm 2 / s Dn Dp
  VT  25 mV
Einstein Relationship: n p Chap 1, No. 19
Electronics I The pn Junction
pn junction
A pn junction forms p-region n-region
between two regions if a
piece of intrinsic silicon is
doped so that half is n-type
and the other half is p-type

The p region has many

holes (majority carriers)
from the impurity atoms and randomly drifting
only a few thermally hole
free electron
generated free electrons
(minority carriers) p-region concentration
Na n-region
Nd
The n region has many
electrons (majority carriers) ni2 ni2
npo  pno 
from the impurity atoms and Na Nd
only a few thermally
generated holes (minority
carriers)
Chap 1, No. 20
Electronics I The pn Junction (cont.)

Before the pn junction is formed, there are as many electrons as

protons in the n-type material making the material neutral in terms of
net charge. p-type material has the same situation with holes.

pn junction
p-region n-region

Open
circuit

hole randomly drifting

free electron
At the instant of junction formation, free electrons in the n region near
the pn junction begin to diffuse across the junction and fall into holes
near the junction in the p region.
Chap 1, No. 21
 Electronics I The pn Junction (cont.)
For every electron that Depletion region (no mobile electrons or holes)
diffuses across the p-region n-region
junction and combines - +
with a hole, a positive - +
charge is left in the n - +
region and a negative - +
charge is created in the - + E E
p region, forming a - +
barrier potential. - +
- +
This action continues until
the voltage of the barrier Barrier V V  Open
0 bi
repels further diffusion. In potential circuit
the other words, the action
creates a charge separation Depletion
(depletion region) and setup region
n-region
an electric field E.
VT  0.025 V , V0  0.6  0.8 V p-region
(typically for silicon in room temp.) V0
kT  NaNd   NaNd 
V0 Vbi   ln  2   VT ln  2 
q  i 
n  i 
n Chap 1, No. 22
Electronics I The pn Junction (cont.)

Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly and is very
thin, compared to the n region and p region.

The term depletion refers to the fact the region near the pn junction is
depleted of charge carriers (electrons or holes) due to diffusion across
the junction.
If there is no voltage applied to the pn junction, the diffusion of holes and
electrons must eventually cease.
The larger the built-in barrier voltage, V0 , the smaller the number of
carriers that will be able to be overcome the barrier, and thus the lower
the magnitude of diffusion current.
External energy must be expended to get the electrons to move across
the barrier of the electric field in the depletion region.

A certain amount of voltage equal to the so called barrier potential and

with the proper polarity must be applied across a pn junction before the
electrons can move to across the junction.

Chap 1, No. 23
Electronics I
Reverse-Biased (逆向偏壓) pn Junction
In electrons, the term bias (偏壓) refers to the use of a dc voltage to
establish certain operating conditions for an electronic devices
v R induces an applied electric
field E A
Depletion
The amount of the electric p-region region n-region
field in the space-charge
(depletion) region increases
above the thermal EA
equilibrium value Figures are removed due to IP
E
When the electric field in the
depletion region increases,
the number of positive and
negative charges are also - V +
R
increased.

If Na and Nd are not changed, the increasing charges only

occur if the width of the depletion region increases.
Chap 1, No. 24
 Electronics I Reverse-Biased pn Junction (cont.)
Junction capacitance Cj
- Increase in space-charge width, W, as
VR increases to VR + DVR.
- More fixed charges (-DQ and +DQ) leads
to junction capacitance Cj.
1/ 2
 VR 
Cj  Cj0  1 V0  Vbi

 V0  In textbook

• Depletion layer capacitance

– Cj0 is the junction capacitance without applied voltage.
– VR increases  The addition of (-) and (+) ions increase.
– VR increases  The Cj decreases
– The magnitude of the Cj is usually at or below the pF.
• The capacitance – voltage characteristics is useful for electrically
tunable resonant circuits.

Chap 1, No. 25
Electronics I Reverse-Biased pn Junction (cont.)
The extremely small reverse Depletion
current IS in a reversed-biased p-region region n-region
pn junction is due to the minority
carriers from thermally generated
electron-hole pairs
Figures are removed due to IP

The small number of free IS

minority electrons in the
reverse current - V +
p-region are “pushed” toward R
the pn junction by the negative
bias voltage.

When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they “fall
down the energy hill” and combine with the minority holes in the n-
region as valence electrons and flow toward the positive bias
voltage, creating a small hole current IS .

Chap 1, No. 26
Electronics I Forward-Biased (順向偏壓) pn Junction
v D induces an applied electric field
E A , which opposes E and thus Depletion
p-region region n-region
decrease the potential barrier
v D : forward bias
The net result is that the electric Figures are removed Edue to IP
A
field in the space-charge region
is lower than the equilibrium E
value
A forward-biased pn junction + V barrier -
showing the flow of majority forward current + VD -
carriers and the voltage due
to the barrier potential across
the depletion region
This upsets the delicate balance diffusion and E-field force. Then
1) majority carrier electrons diffuse to p region
2) majority carrier holes diffuse to n region

The process continues as long as the voltage VD is applied, thus

creates a current in the pn junction
Chap 1, No. 27
 Electronics I Forward-Bias a pn Junction Depletion
As the majority carriers cross into the p-region region n-region
opposite regions, they become minority
carriers in those regions, causing the
minority carriers concentration to Figures are removed due to IP
EA
increase.
E
The excess minority carriers diffuse
into the neutral n- and p- regions, iD + V bi -
where they recombine with major
carriers, thus establishing a state- + -
VD
steady condition as shown. n-region
p
p-region n
To maintain equilibrium, pn  x n 
an equal number of
electrons will have to be

np  x p 
supplied by the external
circuit, thus replenishing
np  x  pn  x 
the electron supply in
the n material. It is also np 0 pn 0
true in the p material.
 xp xn x
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyC02DWq3mI Chap 1, No. 28
How a pn junction work?
Electronics I The Current-Voltage Relationship
Derive the equation: iD  IS evD nVT  1  
From semiconductor physics, the law of the junction is
pn  x n   pn 0eV VT V: the forward voltage
The hole concentration can be expressed as
  x  x n  Lp
pn  x   pn 0   pn  x n   pn 0  e Lp : diffusion length of
hole in the n-type
Also L  D 
p p p silicon; the smaller the
value, the faster the
where  p is called the excess carrier lifetime: injected hole will
the mean time over which an electron and recombine with the
hole exist before recombination majority electrons,
resulting in a steeper
Typical Lp is about 1  m to 100  m and
 p is in the range of 1 ns to 10,000 ns. decay of minority-carrier
concentration.
The hole current density from diffusion is
dpn  x 
J p  qDp
dx
Chap 1, No. 29
 Electronics I The Current-Voltage Relationship (cont.)
dpn  x  1  x  xn  Lp
  pn  x n   pn 0  e
dx Lp

   
Dp   x  x n  Lp Dp   x  x n  Lp
 Jp  q pn 0e V VT
 pn 0 e ,  Jp  q pn 0 eV VT  1 e
Lp Lp
At x  x n , J p is the largest and thus electrons will be supplied from
the external circuit to the n region at a rate that will keep the current
constant at the value it has at x  x n .

 
Dp
Thus at x  x n , Jp  q pn 0 eV VT  1
Lp Ln : diffusion length of electrons
D
Similarly, for J n , Jn  q n np 0 eV VT  1
Ln

in the p-type region.

The total current for pn junction (A is area here)
ni2 ni2
 Dp pn 0 Dn np 0  V V np 0  pn 0 

iD  AJ  A J p  J n  Aq 
 Lp
 Ln 
 e T
1 N a  Nd

 Dp Dn  V VT
iD  Aqni 
2

 Lp Nd Ln Na   e 
 1  IS eV VT  1 , 
IS  Aqni 
2


 Dp
 
Dn 

  L
 p dN L N
n a 
Note that IS ~ A and IS ~ ni2 Chap 1, No. 30
 Electronics I pn Junction Diode
Ideal Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics
The p-n junction only conducts

i D  IS e v D nVT

1 significant current in the forward-
bias region.
iD is an exponential function in this
region. With only a small change
in the forward-bias voltage, v D the
corresponding forward-bias
current iD increases by orders of
magnitude.
Essentially no current flows in
Forward-bias reverse bias.
region
n = 1 most of the time in this
Reverse-bias course; that is
region
 
iD  IS evD VT  1

Chap 1, No. 31
Electronics I pn Junction Diode
Ideal Diode Equation log  iD 

i D  IS e v D nVT

 1  IS e v D nVT

vD
log  iD    log  I s 
nVT
The y ( log  iD  ) intercept is equal to IS.
The slope is proportional to 1/n.
When n = 1, iD increased by ~ one
order of magnitude (about ten times)
for every 60-mV increase in vD.
Circuit Symbol
Conventional
current
direction and
polarity of
voltage drop
is shown
Chap 1, No. 32
Electronics I pn Junction Diode
In the diode equation the constant n has a value between 1 and 2,
depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode.
In this course, we shall assume n = 1 unless otherwise specified.
For v D  0.1 V , the exponential relationship becomes
 
iD  IS evD nVT  1  ISevD nVT
This can be expressed in the logarithmic form i
iD D
v  nVT ln
IS
2mV C
The exponential relationship of the current
iD to the voltage v holds many decades of
current. This is quite remarkable and has
been exploited in many interesting
applications.
Since both IS and VT are function of
temperature, the forward i-v characteristic
varies with temperature, 2mV C for a
given silicon diode.
Chap 1, No. 33
Electronics I Breakdown Voltage
The magnitude of the breakdown voltage (BV) is
smaller for heavily doped diodes as compared to
more lightly doped diodes.
In the breakdown region the reverse
current increases rapidly, with the
associated increase in voltage drop
being small.
Diode breakdown is normally not
destructive provided that the power
dissipated in the diode is limited by
external circuitry to a “safe” level.
It therefore is necessary to limit the
reverse current in the breakage region
to a value consistent with the
permissible power dissipation.
Break-down Mechanisms
Two mechanisms for the reverse-biased breakdown
1) Zener Effect: a pn junction breaks down with BV < 5 V.
2) Avalanche Effect: a pn junction breaks down with 5 V < BV < 7 V.
Chap 1, No. 34
Electronics I Characteristics of Junction Diodes

In this section we study the characteristics of real diodes – specifically,

semiconductor junction diode made of silicon. i
As indicated, the characteristic curve forward-bias
consists of three distinct regions: region
1. The forward-bias region, determined VBV
by v > 0
reverse-bias v
2. The reverse-bias region, determined
by v < 0 breakdown region
region
3. The breakdown region, determined
by v < VBV
The ideal diode i-v model in Sec. 1.3 +
i forward-bias v
region i -
reverse-bias
region v

Chap 1, No. 35
Electronics I Diode Circuits: DC Analysis and Models
Current-Voltage Characteristic
The ideal diode may be considered the most fundamental nonlinear
circuit element, having two terminal with the i-v characteristic as shown.
The following is a piecewise linear model. i – v characteristic

Simplified model

+ v -
Diode circuit symbol vD
vD
Ideal model
Reverse biased; Forward biased; Original model
iD Cut off; OFF Turn on; ON
iD
+ vD -  i D  0, v D  0 
vD
 v D  0, i D  0  + -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=51CZ676u7JE&list=
Chap 1, No. 36
PLmn9xU8feUMuCwYrKJoTgSwWCdTeXlEao
 Electronics I Example
Use an external circuit to limit the forward current Reverse biased;
+10 V cut off; OFF
+10 V

1 k
i 1 k

+ -
-
0V v v i=0
- + +
Forward biased; i  10  10 mA
turn on; ON 1k KVL: -10 - v = 0
The reverse voltage v = -10 V
Equivalent circuit
Ideal +10 V Equivalent
+10 V + + 1 k i -
+ 1 k i model - v circuit
- 0V
+
-
vD Chap 1, No. 37
 Electronics I
Diode Rectifier (Using Ideal Model)
One of the important applications of diodes is rectifier (整流器).
Rectifier: rectify signal. It is the first step to convert an ac voltage to dc
voltage.
Rectifier circuit Input signals
Ideal model
Forward biased;
Turn on; ON
+ vD -
 iD  0, v D  0 
Output signals
vO  v I

vI  0
+ vD -

Reverse biased;
Cut off; OFF
 v D  0, i D  0 
vI  0
Chap 1, No. 38
Electronics I Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic
We wish to analyze this circuit to determine the diode
voltage VD and current ID .
We will use the already known two models; the
ideal model and the exponential model in various
analysis situations. A number of other
models will be developed in this section.
The Exponential Model
The exponential model has a severely Load line
nonlinear nature and is difficult to use.
Assume VDD  0.5 V, then ID  IS ,
and eVD nVT  1  ID  ISe vD nVT Q point
Also from KVL: V  VD
ID  DD (Load line)
R
We can determine VD and ID from above
equations when n and IS are known.
Two alternative ways for obtaining the solution are
graphical analysis and iterative analysis.
Chap 1, No. 39
Electronics I Graphical Analysis Using Exponential Model
The equations: ID  ISevD nVT and I  VDD  VD
D
R
can be performed by using graphical analysis as shown in the figure
in last slide.
Q point: the operating point, the interaction of the two equations,
represented VD and ID .
The graphical analysis may be nonrealistic for too complex circuit.

Iterative Analysis Using Exponential Model

We will skip this section since it is hardly applied.

The Need for Rapid Analysis

For complex circuits, we need the aid of a computer-analysis program
such as Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis (SPICE)

PSPICE is designed for use on personal computers.

Chap 1, No. 40
Electronics I The Piecewise-Linear Model
As shown in the figure, the exponential curve is approximated by
two straight lines, line A with zero slope and straight line B with a
slope of 1 / rf , called piecewise-linear model.
The piecewise-linear model can be
described as
iD  0, v D  V (diode OFF, Line A)
 
iD  v D  V / rf , v D  V (diode ON, Straight
line B
Line B)
The equivalent circuit is
1
a OFF Slope =
ON rf
a
a b

ON OFF
b V
b
In this figure
This model is known as the battery-plus- V  0.65 V , rf  20 
resistance model, in which the ideal
diode is to constraint the direction of iD . Chap 1, No. 41
Electronics I The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model
A even simpler model is obtained if we use a vertical straight line to
approximate the fast-rising part of the exponential curve, called a
forward-conducting diode exhibiting a constant voltage drop V .
Usually V = 0.7 V and is within 0.1 V over the current range 0.1 – 10 mA.

1 / rf   iD a
+ iD V  0.7 V
a ON VD
- rf  0
b
b a
+ iD  0
OFF
V  0.7 V VD
V
-
b

This model is one of the most frequently employed model in the

initial phases of analysis and design, especially for no detailed diode
circuit information.
Chap 1, No. 42
Electronics I The Piecewise Linear Characteristics
Reverse biased
Forward biased
VPS  ID R  VD
VPS  VD
 ID 
R

VPS  IPS R  VD   ID R  VD
VPS VD
 ID   
Load line R R

Chap 1, No. 43
Electronics I Diode circuits: AC equivalent circuit
 When pn junctions are used in linear amplifier circuits, the ac
characteristics of the pn junction become important, because
sinusoidal may be superimposed on the dc.
 Sinusoidal analysis
– v i is sinusoidal (time-varying) signal.
– The total input voltage v I is composed of a dc component VPS and
an ac component v i superimposed on the dc value.
– Circuit analyses: This is not actual circuit, its only convenient for
the explanation. Therefore, separate into dc and ac.
vi
vi Add v i to
time induce v d
+ and id
VPS
time
=

vI
v I  VPS  v i Will be
vi iD  t   IDQ  id  t  discussed
VPS
v D  t   VDQ  v d  t  later
Chap 1, No. 44
Electronics I AC equivalent circuit
Find the Small-Signal Model
1) Find the Q-point: v i  t   0 , then to find VDQ and IDQ . Use ID  ISe D
V VT

2) Find the small-signal model shown and will be determined next.

(I) Using Linearization
Assume that the ac signal is small compared to the dc component, VPS  v i
so that a linear ac model can be developed from the nonlinear diode.
The total instantaneous diode current:

iD  t   ISevD VT  ISe 
VDQ vd  VT
 IS e  IDQevd
VDQ VT
e vd VT VT

Now if v d VT  1 , then use the Taylor’s expansion and truncate the

series to obtain
vd
 v 1  v 
2
  vd 
iD  t   IDQe  IDQ 1 
VT
 d
  d

  ...  IDQ  1   (Linearization)
 VT 2  T
V   VT 

This is the small-signal approximation. It is valid for v d  5 mV if n  1

I I
For the superimposed, iD  t   IDQ  id  IDQ  DQ v d  id  DQ v d
VT VT Chap 1, No. 45
Electronics I The Small-Signal Model
IDQ IDQ
Define gd  : diode small-signal conductance, then from id  vd
VT VT
id  gd v d
VT
Define dr  :diode small-signal resistance
IDQ 1
or incremental resistance
Slope =
1 rd
Notice that rd ~ (proportional to the
IDQ dc current of Q point)
(Q-point)
Thus id  v d rd or v d  id rd
IDQ
(II) Directly from the equation
id  t 
i D  t   IS e v D VT

1 i 1 vD
 D  IS e VT

rd v D VT v D VDQ
v D VDQ
v D  t   VDQ  v d  t  VDQ vd  t 
1 IDQ
 
V VT
IS e DQ
VT VT  rd 
VT iD  t   IDQ  id  t 
IDQ
Chap 1, No. 46
Electronics I AC equivalent circuit
The small-signal analysis can be performed separately from the dc bias
analysis, a great convenience that results from the linearization of the
diode.
dc bias analysis
vi  0
IDQ  ISe
VDQ VT

v d  0, id  0

v D  t   VDQ  v d  t  ac analysis
VPS  0
iD  t   IDQ  id  t 
v d  id rd
IDQ V
gd  , rd  T
VT IDQ
v i to induce v d and id

Chap 1, No. 47
 Electronics I The Small-Signal Model (Summary)

 To analyze the circuit, we first perform a dc analysis and then ac

analysis.
– Use the piecewise linear model for the forward biased diode.
– Diode has been replaced by incremental resistance rd for the ac
calculation. VPS  0
vi  0

(Q-point)
id  t  VPS  V
IDQ 
R
VT
rd 
vd  t  vd v d  id rd IDQ
vi
id 
R  rd
Chap 1, No. 48
Electronics I Special Diode Types
Consider four other types of diodes:
I) Solar Cell: a pn junction device with no voltage directly
applied across the junction
The pn junction converts solar energy into
electrical energy
E-field
Light hits the space-charge (depletion) region, p n
photocurrent
electrons and holes are generated.
The electric field separates and sweeps RL
vvvv
out the electrons and holes, thus
I ph + V -
creating a photocurrent I ph
Solar cells are usually fabricated from silicon,
but may be made from GaAs or other III-V compound semiconductors.
Photovoltaic (PV): a voltage produced from the action of photons
Solar cells have long been used to power electronics in:
satellites, space vehicle, calculators, and other electronic products
Solar car: use solar cell array to collect electrical energy, which is used
either to power an electric motor or to charge a battery pack
Chap 1, No. 49
Electronics I Basic principle of solar Cells
Photovoltaic energy conversion requires:
– photon absorption across an energy gap
– charge separation
– charge transport

Greg P. Smestad, “Optoelectronics of Solar Cells”,

Spir Press, 2002 Chap 1, No. 50
Electronics I
Solar Cells
Photovoltaic Cells, Modules and Systems
 Solar cell is the basic building blocks of solar PV
 Cells are connected together in series and encapsulated into modules
 Modules can be used singly, or connected in parallel and series into
an array with a larger current & voltage output
 PV arrays integrated in systems with components for charge
regulation and storage
Modules in series into strings and then in parallel into a array

cell

http://www.newenergy.org/sesci/publications/pamphlets/photovoltaic.html
Chap 1, No. 51
 Electronics I 2) Schottky Barrier Diode (SBD)
Moderately doped Circuit symbol
iD Schottky Barrier
n-type iD Diode is named
semiconductor =
after German
Anode + VD - Cathode + VD - physicist Walter
metal H. Schottky
(Al)
The current-voltage characteristics Ohmic Contact: a metal applied to
of a Schottky barrier diode a heavily doped semiconductor.
pn junction diode
i D iD  SB  An ohmic contact conducts
current equally in both directions,
Conducting SBD iD  pn  with very little voltage drop across
is around 1 the junction.
mA in the
range 0.15 V Applications:
to 0.46 V - to connect one semiconductor
VD device to another on an IC.
VD  SB  VD  pn  - to connect an IC to its external
iD  SB   iD  pn  terminals.
for the same vD , (vD  0) Chap 1, No. 52
Electronics I 2) Schottky Barrier Diode (SBD) (cont.)
Two important difference between the pn junction diode and the
Schottky diode:
1. The current mechanism is different
pn junction diode: controlled by the diffusion of minority carriers
Schottky diode : the current results from the flow of majority
carriers over the potential barrier
No minority carriers storage in the Schottky diode, so
the switching time from the forward bias to the reverse bias
is very short.

The storage time, t s  0

2. iD  SB   iD  pn  for the same vD , (vD  0)
Remark:
1. In Schottky diode, the lower turn-on voltage and the shorter
switching time makes it useful in IC applications.

2. Typical applications include discharge-protection for solar cells

connected to lead-acid batteries and in switched-mode power
supplies
Chap 1, No. 53
Electronics I 3) Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
An LED converts a current (an
electrical signal) to light (an optical
signal).
If a semiconductor, such as GaAs,
recombine the minority carriers;
i.e., holes and electrons with NO
momentum change, a photon or
light wave can be emitted.

Source: Floyd Electronics Fundamentals, 6e

Chap 1, No. 54
Electronics I
4) Photodiode (光二極體):
-- Photodectors are devices that convert optical signals into electrical
signals

-- A photodiode is a pn junction operated with a reverse-bias voltage

-- Incident photons or light waves create excess electrons and holes

in the space-charge (depletion) region

-- The electric field separates and sweeps the carriers out of

the space-charge region, thus creating a “photocurrent.”
Application: an optical transmission system
Transmitter optoisolator
Input
(electrical) Drive Optical
signal circuit LED signal
Optical fiber
Output (electrical) signal
Photodiode Amplifier

Receiver Chap 1, No. 55

Electronics I The optical counting system showing the system concept,
block diagram, and circuit boards.

Source: Floyd Electronics Fundamentals, 6e

Figures are removed due to IP

Chap 1, No. 56
Electronics I Reverse Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes
The almost-constant voltage drop of i-v curve in the reverse breakdown
region of a diode can be used to be a voltage regulator.
Voltage regulators are circuits that provide constant dc output voltages
regardless of the changes of load and power-supply voltage.
Zener Diode (積納二極體) VZ VZo
IZ
Circuit symbol
DV  rz DIZ - VZ +

rz : Incremental resistance at Q point

and a few Ω to a few tens of Ω
The data sheet of a zener diode may
specify the following information:
I ZK : Knee current
I ZT : Test current
VZ : Voltage under test current
rz : Incremental resistance

Chap 1, No. 57
Electronics I Zener Diode

VZ VZo
y i
Slope = r v

Dy Dv
Dx
x
DI Slope =
1
Dy
Slope = r = rz
Dx

1 DI
Slope =  ,
rz Dv
 Dv  rz DI
Chap 1, No. 58
Electronics I Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes
The data sheet also give the max. power that device can safely
dissipate.
Example: 0.5-W, 6.8-V Zener diode can safely at currents up to a
max. 70 mA (I = P / V = 0.5 / 6.8 = 0.073).

The model of Zener diode : IZ

+
VZ  VZ 0  rz IZ
VZ
For IZ  IZK , VZ  VZ 0 -

Temperature Effect
Zener diode whose VZ are lower than about 5 V exhibits a
negative temperature coefficient (temco; TC, mV C ), while
Zener diode with higher voltages exhibit a positive TC.
Remarks:
Zener diodes have lost their popularity as a voltage regulator since
the specified ICs have replaced Zener diodes with effectiveness and
flexibility.

Chap 1, No. 59
Electronics I Summary
Five diode models are listed below:
Questions: Which one is the best model?
Answer: finding an appropriate compromise between accuracy
and speed of analysis

1) Exponential model:

i IS e v D nVT
Advantage and
Disadvantage:
iD
v D  2.3nVT log
IS Accurate but
ID 2 more effort is
VD 2  VD1  2.3nVT log
ID1 needed in
ID 2 I computation
If  10, then log D 2  1
ID1 ID1

2.3nVT  60 mV for n = 1 , VT  25 mV
2.3nVT  120 mV for n = 2
Chap 1, No. 60
Electronics I Summary
2) Piecewise Linear model (battery plus resistance):
Advantage and
1 / rf iD  0, v D  VD 0 (Diode Disadvantage:
 iD  0 OFF)
Not as useful as
iD   v D  VD 0  / rf , the constant-
voltage-drop
rf v D  VD 0 (Diode ON) model. Use only
infrequently.

3) Constant-voltage-drop model (“0.7 V model”): Advantage and

Disadvantage:
v D  0.7 V  iD  0,
Easy to use and
(Diode OFF) very popular for
quick hand analysis
For iD  0, that is essential in
v D  0 .7 V circuit design. Not
(Diode ON) quite accuracy.
Chap 1, No. 61
Electronics I Summary
Advantage and Disadvantage:
4) Ideal-diode model: i D  0, v D  0 V Good for determining
(OFF) which diodes are ON and
which diodes are OFF.
Good for obtaining very
approximate values for
For iD  0, diode currents, especially
vD  0 V when the circuit voltages
are much greater than VD .
(ON)
5) Small-signal equivalent model: Advantage and Disadvantage:
For small signals Useful for finding the
superimposed on
signal component of
VD and ID
the diode voltage.
Serves as the basis for
id  v d rd small-signal modeling
of transistors.
nVT
rd 
ID
Chap 1, No. 62
Electronics I
Homework of Chapter 1

1, 4, 6, 10, 16, 19, 23, 28, 31, 40, 42, 44, 47 (b) (d), 50,
53, 57, 59

No homework due (小考題目)

Chap 1, No. 63