Wu et al.

2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

1 Analogue modelling of deepwater fold and thrust belts: Dynamic interaction

2 with syntectonic sedimentation

4 Jonathan E. Wu1 (jonnyw@gl.rhul.ac.uk), Ken R. McClay1, Frank Despinois1, Matt

5 Woollard1, Rachel Evans2, Lela Isa2, Saifal Janai2

6
1
7 Fault Dynamics Research Group, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham,

8 Surrey, UK
2
9 M.Sc. Tectonics, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK

10

11 Abstract

12 Keywords: analogue modelling, fold and thrust belts, sedimentation, Niger Delta, Nankai

13 Fold and thrust belts developed in deepwater environments have generally been

14 subjected to greater net sedimentation and different sedimentation patterns compared

15 to subaerial or shallow marine environments. In this study, the effects of syn-

16 kinematic sedimentation on fold and thrust belt evolution have been evaluated by

17 varying the rates and patterns of syn-contractional sedimentation in 2D analogue

18 models of simple thrust wedges. All models produced critically-tapered Coulomb

19 wedges with topographic slopes of 7-10o. Increased rates of syn-kinematic

20 sedimentation caused greater thrust spacings, increased the total wedge height and

21 wedge length, and generally decreased the number of major thrust structures.

22 Progradational sedimentation caused conspicuous out-of-sequence movement in

23 thrusts at the rear of the model thrust wedge and frontal thrusts became buried and

24 inactive. Aggradational sedimentation caused the rapid and sequential burial of

25 thrusts, rendering them inactive and forcing the deformation to the front of the wedge.

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

26 The geometries of the front of the Nankai accretionary complex, offshore Japan, and

27 the offshore Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea, compare well with models in this study and

28 demonstrate that the addition of sedimentation during shortening of fold and thrust

29 belts may dramatically affect the style of deformation as well as the timings and

30 amounts of fault displacements in such systems.

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

31 Introduction

32

33 The observation that many thin-skinned (e.g. no involvement of crystalline basement)

34 fold and thrust belts have a tapered wedge geometry (Chapple, 1978) led to the

35 development of the critically-tapered Coulomb wedge model (Davis et al., 1983;

36 Dahlen, 1990). In this model, a horizontal compressive force applied to a Coulomb

37 material causes it to deform internally until the combined slopes of the basal

38 detachment and the upper surface reach a ‘critical taper’ angle. With additional

39 shortening, the critical taper is maintained through the synchronous accretion of new

40 material in the foreland to the front of the wedge and internal deformation within the

41 wedge. This model has been used to successfully explain the geometries of many

42 natural fold and thrust belts including Taiwan, the Nankai Trough, and the offshore

43 Niger Delta (Davis et al., 1983; Bilotti and Shaw, 2005).

44

45 Surface processes involving erosion and sedimentation have been shown to exert

46 significant control on the evolution of fold and thrust belts by steepening (e.g.

47 supercritical) or lowering (e.g. subcritical) the topographic slope of a wedge relative

48 to the critical taper (e.g. Beaumont et al., 1992). Analogue models of fold and thrust

49 belts (e.g. Beaumont et al., 1992; Storti and McClay, 1995; Nieuwland et al., 2000;

50 Bonnet et al., 2007) have demonstrated that surface processes caused dramatic effects

51 including out-of-sequence thrusting, reductions in the number of thrust structures,

52 increases in thrust ramp angles, and changing the interplay between basal accretion

53 and frontal imbrication.

54 -------------------------------------- Fig 1 ---------------------------------------

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

55 In deepwater fold and thrust belts such as the Nankai accretionary complex, offshore

56 Japan (Fig. 1a) and the offshore Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea (Fig. 1b), an

57 understanding of the effects of surface processes is particularly important towards

58 predicting their evolution and the thrust fault geometries and activites. Deepwater

59 erosion rates, which are at least an order of magnitude lower compared to subaerial

60 environments (Mitchell et al., 2003), cause relatively higher rates of net sediment

61 deposition in the deepwater. Depositional patterns in deepwater systems can vary

62 between ‘progradational’ sedimentation, where turbidity current and debris flow

63 processes bypass the upper slope and deposit material in the lower slope and basin

64 floor, and ‘aggradational’ sedimentation, where hemipelagic processes deposit

65 material evenly across the deepwater margin (e.g. Stow and Mayall, 2000; Weimer

66 and Slatt, 2007).

67

68 In this study, the effect of syn-kinematic sedimentation on fold and thrust belt

69 evolution were evaluated by varying the rates and patterns of syn-contractional

70 sedimentation in 2D analogue models of simple contractional wedges. Results of the

71 models were compared to cross-sections through natural deepwater fold and thrust

72 belts.

73

74 Methods

75

76 A series of four experiments were run in a glass-sided deformation box that was 30

77 cm wide, 100 cm long and 20 cm deep. The base of the apparatus was horizontal and

78 covered with a low-friction textile that formed the basal detachment surface . To

79 ----------------------------------- Fig 2 ---------------------------------------

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

80 create a simple critically-tapered Coulomb wedge, a rigid, moving horizontal

81 backwall shortened the sandpack at an average rate of 30 cm/hr. In each experiment,

82 the pre-kinematic sandpack consisted of a 2.25 cm-thick horizontal layered sequence

83 of coloured sand over a 0.25 cm-thick basal detachment layer of glass beads. During

84 the experiments, syn-kinematic sedimentation was added every 1 cm of shortening

85 after the initial 10 cm of contraction. The syn-kinematic sedimentation rate was

86 varied by adding increased sand thicknesses from 0.5-1 mm for the ‘low’

87 sedimentation rate to 1-2mm for the ‘high’ sedimentation rate after each 1 cm

88 shortening increment. The pattern of syn-kinematic sedimentation was also varied

89 from ‘progradational’ deposition where sediment was only added on to the frontal

90 slope of the wedge, to ‘aggradational’ deposition, where sediment was added evenly

91 over the entire wedge. The progressive evolution of the models was monitored using

92 high resolution digital photography through the glass sidewalls of the apparatus. At

93 the end of the experiment, the thrust wedge models were preserved and serially

94 sectioned.

95

96 Analysis & Results

97

98 The contraction of all four models produced critically-tapered Coulomb wedges with

99 topographic slopes of 7° to 10° above the horizontal basal detachments (Fig. 2). The

100 Coulomb wedges were typically formed by 4 to 6 forward-vergent, imbricate thrust

101 systems with minor back-thrusts associated with each major forward-vergent thrust.

102 Fault-propagation folds were formed at the tips of each major thrust fault (Fig. 2). In

103 each experiment the maximum wedge height at the rear of the model tended to

104 stabilize between 7 and 9 cms (Fig. 3a) whereas the wedge lengths tended to increase

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

105 ----------------------------------- Fig 3 ---------------------------------------

106 in a semi-linear fashion producing a ‘saw-tooth’ pattern in the graph of wedge length

107 against shortening (Fig. 3b).

108

109 Model 1 – No Syn-Kinematic Sedimentation

110 In this model a typical imbricate fan of six forward-vergent thrusts formed in a

111 forward nucleating sequence (T1 to T6) forming a critically tapered wedge with a

112 topographic slope of 10° at the front of the wedge (Fig. 2a). Several, small-

113 displacement backthrusts were formed at the leading edges of each major thrust T1 to

114 T6 with the formation of an asymmetric anticline at the thrust tip near the upper

115 surface of the model. Synchronous thrust activity was observed during the shortening

116 of this model with active deformation focused towards the front of the model during

117 its evolution.

118

119 Model 2 - Low Syn-Kinematic Progradational Sedimentation

120 In this model progradational syn-kinematic sedimentation was added to the frontal

121 part of the critically tapered Coulomb wedge at a rate of 0.5 mm per 1 cm of

122 shortening for every increment after an initial contraction of 10 cm. Five foreward-

123 vergent major thrusts (T1 to T5) were formed in a general foreward-nucleating

124 sequence resulting in a final critical wedge taper of 9° at the front of the wedge (Fig.

125 2b). In this model there was one less major thrust than in Model 1 and the major

126 thrusts propagated through the syn-kinematic layers. Thrusts T1 and T3 also

127 exhibited some out-of-sequence movement producing oversteepened slope

128 particularly above the trace of fault T3. As in model 1 backthrusts were associated

129 with each major thrust and formed tip line folds (Fig. 2b).

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

130

131 Model 3 - High Syn-Kinematic Progradational Sedimentation

132 In this model the progradational syn-kinematic sedimentation was added to the frontal

133 part of the critically tapered Coulomb wedge at a rate of 1-2 mm per 1 cm of

134 shortening for every increment after an initial contraction of 10 cm. After 41.2 cm of

135 shortening four major foreward-vergent thrusts (T1 to T4) were formed in a foreward-

136 nucleating sequence and formed a critically-tapered Coulomb wedge with a surface

137 slope of 10° at the front of the wedge (Fig. 2c). Numerous high-displacement

138 backthrusts formed associated with thrusts T1 and T2 whereas only two small-

139 displacement back-thrusts were associated with the two frontal thrusts T3 and T4

140 (Fig. 2c). Thrust T2 displaced conspicuous ‘out-of-sequence’ movement and thrust

141 splays at the fault tip late in the shortening of this model. The two frontal thrusts T3

142 and T4 effectively became buried by the high volume of syn-tectonic sedimentation

143 late in the shortening of this model.

144

145 Model 4 - High Syn-Kinematic Aggradational Sedimentation

146 In this model the aggradational syn-kinematic sedimentation was added to whole of

147 the critically tapered Coulomb wedge at a rate of 1-2 mm per 1 cm of shortening for

148 every increment after an initial contraction of 10 cm. This increased the wedge height

149 at the back of the model effectively pushing the deformation front further into the

150 foreland. After 41.2 cm of shortening this resulted in six, more widely-spaced,

151 foreward-vergent thrusts (T1 to T6) that formed a critically-tapered Coulomb wedge

152 with a surface slope of 7° at the front of the wedge (Fig. 2d). However each of the

153 individual forward-vergent thrusts had significantly less displacement as compared to

154 the equivalent thrusts in Models 1 and 3 (cf. Figs. 2a, c & d). Fewer small-

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

155 displacement backthrusts were formed associated with the main thrusts (Fig. 2d). In

156 this model the thrusts were rapidly and sequentially buried by the high rate of syn-

157 tectonic sedimentation such that they were ‘shut down’ forcing the deformation to the

158 front of the wedge. In this model the growth stratal patterns formed by the syn-

159 kinematic units clearly demonstrate the forward breaking sequence of thrust

160 nucleation and relative timing of thrust activities (Fig. 2d).

161

162

163 Discussion

164

165 The results of this series of simple thrust wedge experiments clearly demonstrate the

166 dynamic interaction between syn-contraction sedimentation and the geometries and

167 activities of thrust fault systems in critically-tapered Coulomb wedges. All of the

168 model wedges were formed by imbricate fans of foreward-vergent thrusts (Fig. 2).

169 The number of thrust faults progressively decreased with increased progradational

170 syn-kinematic sedimentation as described in the experiments of Storti and McClay

171 (1995). However with strong aggradational syn-contractional sedimentation there

172 was less displacement on each individual major thrust in the wedge system and thrust

173 activity was rapidly halted as the wedge was buried with syn-kinematic sediments.

174

175 The critical taper model is useful for explaining these interactions as thrust wedges

176 without syn-contractional sedimentation (e.g. Fig. 2a) can only attain the critical taper

177 angle through thrust imbrication whereas thrust wedges with sedimentation (e.g. Fig.

178 2b-d) can attain the critical wedge taper through a combination of thrust imbrication

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

179 and passive sedimentary infill, thereby requiring less imbrication to achieve the same

180 taper angle.

181

182 Thrust wedge heights and wedge lengths were also strongly affected by different

183 patterns of syn-kinematic sedimentation (Fig. 3). High rates of syn-kinematic

184 sedimentation effectively increased the wedge size and forced deformation to step

185 outwards to the front of the wedge as well as switching off thrusts as they became

186 buried. Thrust activities for none or low rates of syn-kinematic sedimentation

187 displayed a strong ‘sawtooth’ pattern in the graphs of wedge length versus contraction

188 (Fig. 3b). During periods where deformation was focused primarily on a group of

189 thrusts the wedge length decreased (negative slopes in the graphs in Fig. 3b) whereas

190 the nucleation of a new thrust rapidly increased the wedge length as deformation

191 stepped forward into the foreland. In contrast for experiments where the rates of syn-

192 kinematic sedimentation were high this cyclic ‘sawtooth’ behaviour was suppressed -

193 particularly for the aggradational Model 4 (Fig. 3b).

194

195 In order to compare the geometries and internal structures of naturally occurring

196 thrust wedges in deepwater settings two examples were selected (Fig. 1). In the

197 Nankai accretionary prism example the cross-section across the very frontal section of

198 the prism, where the rates of syn-kinematic sedimentation appear to be low (Fig. 1a;

199 Hills et al., 2001), the section shows a well-ordered array of foreward-vergent thrust

200 faults with minor backthrusts – similar in structural styles to Models 1 and 3 (Figs. 2a

201 & b).

202

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

203 Figure 1b shows a regional cross-section from part of the deepwater fold belt offshore

204 Niger delta. Here the rates of syn-kinematic sedimentation appear to be very high

205 such that the fold belt is completely buried. In this cross-section the imbricate thrusts

206 that form the Coulomb wedge are widely-spaced, have small displacements, and are

207 completed buried – i.e. ‘shut off’ by the syn-kinematic sedimentation in a manner

208 very similar to that found in Models 3 and 4 (Figs 2c & d). Backthrusts, which

209 developed in the model thrust wedges but are not seen in this section, are prevalent in

210 cross-sections from other areas of the Niger Delta (e.g. Bilotti and Shaw, 2005).

211

212 The natural examples compare well to the geometries of the experimental wedges

213 described in this paper and demonstrate that the addition of syn-kinematic

214 sedimentation during shortening of fold and thrust belts may dramatically affect the

215 style of deformation as well as the timings and amounts of fault displacements in such

216 systems. Further detailed comparative experiments are warranted to investigate these

217 effects in more detail as well as to build in syn-kinematic erosion as well.

218

219 Conclusions

220

221 The simple thrust wedge experiments clearly demonstrated a dynamic interaction

222 between syn-contraction sedimentation and the geometries and activities of thrust

223 fault systems in critically-tapered Coulomb wedges. All of the models produced

224 critically-tapered Coulomb wedges with topographic slopes of 7-10o that were formed

225 by imbricate fans of foreward-vergent thrusts with associated, low displacement

226 backthrusts. High rates of sedimentation generally caused a progressive decrease in

227 the number of major thrust faults, a greater spacing between thrusts, and increased the

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

228 wedge height and width of the thrust models. Progradational sedimentation caused

229 conspicuous ‘out-of-sequence’ movement in thrusts at the rear of the model thrust

230 wedge whereas frontal thrusts became buried and inactive. Aggradational

231 sedimentation effectively increased the wedge height at the rear of the wedge, forcing

232 deformation to the wedge front and caused the rapid and sequential burial of thrusts,

233 rendering them inactive. The geometries of the front of the Nankai accretionary

234 complex, offshore Japan, and the offshore Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea, compare well

235 with models in this study and demonstrate that the addition of sedimentation during

236 shortening of fold and thrust belts may dramatically affect the style of deformation as

237 well as the timings and amounts of fault displacements in such systems.

238

239

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239 References

240

241 Ajakaiye, D.E., and Bally, A. W. (2002). Some structural styles on reflection profiles

242 from offshore Niger Delta. In: Course Manual and Atlas of Structural Styles from the

243 Niger Delta, AAPG Continuing Education Course Note No. 41, 107 pp.

244

245 Beaumont, C., Fullsack, P. and Hamilton, J. (1992). Erosional control of

246 compresional orogens. In: Thrust Tectonics (K.R. McClay, ed.)., Chapman & Hall, 1-

247 18.

248

249 Bilotti, F. and Shaw, J.H. (2005). Deep-water Niger Delta fold and thrust belt

250 modeled as a critical-taper wedge: The influence of elevated basal fluid pressure on

251 structural styles. AAPG Bull., 89, 11, 1475-1491.

252

253 Bonnet, C., Malavielle, J. and Mosar, J. (2007). Interactions between tectonics,

254 erosion and sedimentation during the recent evolution of the Alpine orogen: Analogue

255 modelling insights. Tectonics, 26, TC6016.

256

257 Chapple, W. M. (1978). Mechanics of thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belts. Geol. Soc.

258 Am. Bull., 89, 1189-1198.

259

260 Dahlen, F.A. (1990) Critical taper model of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary

261 wedges. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 18, 55-99.

262

263 Davis, D., Suppe, J. and Dahlen, F.A. (1983). Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and

264 accretionary wedges. J. Geophys. Res., 89, 1153-1172.

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

265

266 Goff, D.F. and Wiltschko, D.V. (1992). Stresses beneath a ramping thrust sheet. J.

267 Struct. Geol., 14, 437-449.

268

269 Hills, D.J., Moore, G.F., Bangs, N.L., Gulick, S.S., and Leg 196 Shipboard Scientific

270 Party, 2001. Preliminary results from integration of 2D PSDM and ODP Leg 196

271 LWD velocity data in the Nankai accretionary prism. Eos, Trans., Am. Geophys.

272 Union, 82:F1221.

273

274 Mitchell, N.C., Dade, W.B., and Masson, D.G. (2003). Erosion of the submarine

275 flanks of the Canary Islands. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3.1–3.11.

276

277 Morley, C.K. and Leong, L.C. (2008). Evolution of deep-water synkinematic

278 sedimentation in a piggyback basin, determined from three-dimensional seismic

279 reflection data. Geosphere, 4,6, 939-962.

280

281 Nieuwland, D.A., Leutscher, J.H. and Gast, J. (2000). Wedge equilibrium in fold-and-

282 thrust belts: prediction of out-of-sequence thrusting based on sandbox experiments

283 and natural examples. Geol.Mijnb., 79, 81-91.

284

285 Storti, F. and McClay, K.R. (1995). Influence of syntectonic sedimentation on thrust

286 wedges in analogue models. Geology, 23; 11, 999-1002.

287

288 Stow, D.A.V. and Mayall, M. (2000). Deep-water sedimentary systems: New models

289 for the 21st century. Mar. Petrol. Geol., 17, 2, 125-135.

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 Wu et al. 2009 – Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia

290

291 Weimer, P. and Slatt, R.M. (2007). Petroleum geology of deepwater settings. AAPG

292 Studies in Geology, 57, 816pp.

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293 Captions of Figures and Tables

294

295 Figure 1: (a) Re-interpretation of frontal zone of the Nankai accretionary complex,

296 offshore Japan, from a prestack depth-migrated seismic line in Hills et al. (2001); (b)

297 Interpretation of a regional time seismic section from the eastern lobe of the Niger

298 Delta, Gulf of Guinea (after Ajakaiye and Bally, 2002).

299

300 Figure 2: (a-d) Comparison of internal vertical sections taken at the centre of each

301 model at the end of experiment. Major forethrusts (T1, T2, etc.) numbered in the

302 sequence of nucleation.

303

304 Figure 3: Comparison of (a) wedge height against shortening; and, (b) wedge length

305 against shortening. Major forethrusts (T1, T2, etc.) of ‘no sedimentation’ model are

306 numbered in the sequence of nucleation.

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 (Wu et al. 2009 - Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia: Figure 1)

a Front of Nankai accretionary prism, offshore Japan (low syn-kinematic sedimentation case)
A A’
3

Site 808 Site 1174 Seafloor

5
Depth Miocene
(km)
Basement 2 km
Subduction direction
Honshu
Syn-kinematic (Recent) Pre-kinematic (Early Quaternary-Pliocene)

A Nankai
Kyushu
A’deformation
front

b Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea (high syn-kinematic sedimentation case)

A A’
0
Seafloor
4
TWT
(sec)
Cretaceous
Basement 10 km

Syn-kinematic (Quaternary-Pliocene) Pre-kinematic (Miocene-Paleocene) Niger

Delta
Gulf
of A
Guinea
A’

Figure 1: (a) Re-interpretation of frontal zone of the Nankai accretionary complex, offshore Japan, from
a prestack depth-migrated seismic line in Hills et al. (2001); (b) Interpretation of a regional time seismic
section from the eastern lobe of the Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea (after Ajakaiye and Bally, 2002).
 (Wu et al. 2009 - Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia: Figure 2)

a Model 1 - No sedimentation - 50.2 cm shortening

T1 T2 T3 T4
T5
T6
10o taper

5 cm

b Model 2 - Low sedimentation - progradation - 49.2 cm shortening

T1 T2
Syn-kinematic
T3 sedimentation
T4
T5 9o taper Pre-kinematic
sandpack
5 cm

c Model 3 - High sedimentation - progradation - 41.2 cm shortening

T1
T2 Thrust splays
T3
T4
10o taper

5 cm

d Model 4 - High sedimentation - aggradation - 41.2 cm shortening

T1 T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
7o taper

5 cm

Figure 2: (a-d) Comparison of internal vertical sections taken at the centre of each model at the end of experi-
ment. Major forethrusts (T1, T2, etc.) numbered in the sequence of nucleation.
(Wu et al. 2009 - Extended abstract submission to Trabajos de Geologia: Figure 3)

a 10.0
Wedge
9.0 height

8.0
Start of syn-kinematic
Wedge height cm

7.0 sedimentation

6.0

5.0
No sedimentation
4.0 Low ‘progradational’ sedimentation
High ‘progradational’ sedimentation
3.0
High ‘aggradational’ sedimentation
2.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Shortening cm

b 50.0

Wedge length
40.0
Wedge length cm

30.0 Start of syn-kinematic

sedimentation T6
T5
20.0 T4
T3 No sedimentation
T2 Low ‘progradational’ sedimentation
10.0
High ‘progradational’ sedimentation
T1 High ‘aggradational’ sedimentation
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Shortening cm

Figure 3: Comparison of (a) wedge height against shortening; and, (b) wedge
length against shortening. Major forethrusts (T1, T2, etc.) of ‘no sedimentation’
model are numbered in the sequence of nucleation.