NAME: MATANGAKUFA GODKNOWS

COURSE CODE: ARG 3205

REG# : H210363V
LEVEL: 3.2
1. Describe the x-ray tube and explain its mode of function [50 marks]

The general-purpose x-ray tube is an electronic vacuum tube that consists of an anode, a cathode,
and an induction motor all encased in a glass or metal enclosure (envelope). X-ray tube is an
evacuated electron tube that produces X rays by accelerating electrons to a high velocity with a
high-voltage field and causing them to collide with a target, the anode plate, William D.
Coolidge, (1913). The basic components of the X-ray tube include a cathode, anode, rotor,
envelope, tube port, cable sockets, and tube housing.

CATHODE

Cathode is the source of electrons for x-ray production. It is the negative electrode in an X-ray
tube. The cathode contains a filament, typically made of tungsten, which is heated to a high
temperature by passing an electric current through it. The heat causes thermionic emission,
whereby electrons are released from the filament's surface, William Coolidge (1913).
Surrounding the filament is a focusing cup, which is usually made of nickel. It has a negative
charge, which keeps the cloud of electrons emitted from the filament from spreading apart. The
focusing cup has a concave shape and serves to direct the emitted electrons towards the anode.
Electrons accelerate toward the positively charged anode by the potential difference. The anode
is where electrons decelerate, and the energy from deceleration is released in the form of heat
and X-ray photons, Edmond Becquerel (1930). The X-ray tube's output is emission-limited, and
the filament current dictates the X-ray tube current. The tube current is proportional to the x-ray
flux at any tube voltage applied. The emitted electrons are focused into a concentrated group
accelerated toward the anode, striking a small area called the focal spot. The filament length and
electron distribution determine the focal spot's size. The cathode also includes a filament circuit
that supplies the necessary electrical current to heat the filament. This circuit typically consists of
a step-down transformer, a high-voltage power supply, and a variable resistor to regulate the
filament current, George W. Morgan (1952). Most x-ray tubes are referred to as dual-focus
tubes because they have two filaments: a large filament and a small filament. Only one filament
is energized at any one time during x-ray production. If the radiographer selects a large focal spot
when setting the control panel, the large filament is energized. If a small focal spot is chosen, the
small filament is energized.
 Fig1: shows an x-ray tube with double filaments, William Coolidge (1913)

ANODE

The anode of an x-ray tube is a positively charged electrode composed of molybdenum, copper,
tungsten, and graphite. These materials are used for their thermal and electrical conductive
properties, Walter H. Barkla (1950). The anode consists of a target and, in rotating anode tubes, a
stator and rotor. The target is a metal that abruptly decelerates and stops electrons in the tube
current, allowing the production of x-rays. The target can be either rotating or stationary. Tubes
with rotating targets are more common than tubes with stationary ones. Rotating anodes are
manufactured to rotate at a set speed ranging from 3000 to 10,000 revolutions per minute, Manne
Siegbahn (1957). The target of rotating anode tubes is made of a tungsten and rhenium alloy.
This layer, or track, is embedded in a base of molybdenum and graphite. Tungsten generally
makes up 90% of the composition of the rotating target, with rhenium making up the other 10%,
Kenneth J. McKay (1940). The face of the anode is angled to help the x-ray photons exit the
tube. Rotating targets generally have a target angle ranging from 5 to 20 degrees. Tungsten is
used in both rotating and stationary targets because it has a high atomic number of 74 for
efficient x-ray production and a high melting point of 3400° C (6152° F). Most of the energy
produced by an x-ray tube is heat, so melting of the target can sometimes become a problem,
especially with high exposures, Irving Langmuir (1913). In order to turn the anode during x-ray
production, a rotating anode tube requires a stator and rotor. The stator is an electric motor that
turns the rotor at very high speed. The rotor (made of copper) is rigidly connected to the target
through the anode stem (made of molybdenum), causing the target to rotate rapidly during x-ray
production. High-strength ball bearings in the rotor allow it to rotate smoothly at high speeds.

Rotating anodes can withstand high heat loads. The ability to withstand high heat loads relates to
the actual focal spot, which is the physical area of the target that is bombarded by electrons
during x-ray production. With stationary targets, the focal spot is a fixed area on the surface of
the target. With rotating targets, this area is represented by a focal track. The size of the focal
spot is not altered with a rotating anode, but the actual physical area of the target bombarded by
electrons is constantly changing, causing a greater area a focal track to be exposed to electrons.
Because of the larger area of the target being bombarded during an exposure, the rotating anode
is able to withstand higher heat loads produced by greater exposure factors, Manne Siegbahn
(1917). Rotating anode x-ray tubes are used in all applications in radiography, whereas stationary
anode tubes are limited to studies of small anatomic structures such as the teeth, Irving Langmuir
(1953).
Fig 1.2 shows A focal spot of a stationary anode and B focal spot for a rotating anode.

Target Interactions

The electrons that move from the cathode to the anode travel extremely fast, approximately half
the speed of light, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1895) . The moving electrons, which have kinetic
energy, strike the target and interact with the tungsten atoms in the anode to produce x-rays. Two
types of interactions produce x-ray photons: bremsstrahlung interactions and characteristic
interactions.

Bremsstrahlung Interactions

Bremsstrahlung is a German word meaning “braking” or “slowing down radiation.”

Bremsstrahlung interactions occur when a projectile electron completely avoids the orbital
electrons of the tungsten atom and travels very close to its nucleus. The very strong electrostatic
force of the nucleus causes the electron suddenly to “slow down.” As the electron loses energy, it
suddenly changes its direction, and the energy loss then reappears as an x-ray photon. In the
diagnostic energy range, most x-ray interactions are bremsstrahlung. The diagnostic energy range
is 30 to 150 kVp. At less than 70 kVp (with a tungsten target), 100% of the x-ray beam consists
of bremsstrahlung interactions. At greater than 70 kVp, approximately 85% of the beam consists
of bremsstrahlung interactions.

Characteristic Interactions

Characteristic interactions are produced when a projectile electron interacts with an electron
from the inner shell (K-shell) of the tungsten atom. The electron must have enough energy to
eject the K-shell electron from its orbit. K-shell electrons in tungsten have the strongest binding
energy at 69.5 keV. For a projectile electron to remove this orbital electron, it must possess
energy equal to or greater than 69.5 keV. When the K-shell electron is ejected from its orbit, an
outer-shell electron drops into the open position and creates an energy difference. The energy
difference is emitted as an x-ray photon (Figure 2-8). Electrons from the L-, M-, O-, and P-shells
of the tungsten atom are also ejected from their orbits. However, the photons created from these
interactions have very low energy and, depending on filtration, may not even reach the patient.
K-shell characteristic x-rays have an average energy of approximately 69 keV; therefore, they
contribute significantly to the useful x-ray beam. At less than 70 kVp (with a tungsten target), no
characteristic x-rays are present in the beam. At greater than 70 kVp, approximately 15% of the
beam consists of characteristic x-rays. X-rays produced through these interactions are termed
characteristic x-rays because their energies are characteristic of the tungsten target element.

X-RAY TUBE HOUSING

The components necessary for x-ray production are housed in a glass or metal envelope. Metal
envelopes are more commonly used because of their improved electrical properties, George W.
Morgan (1950). A disadvantage of a glass envelope x-ray tube is that tungsten evaporated from
the filament during exposure can deposit on the inside of the glass, especially in the middle
portion of the envelope. This evaporation could affect the flow of electrons and cause the tube to
fail, John G. Trump (1930s). Replacing all of this section of glass with metal prevents these
problems and extends the tube life. An additional advantage of a metal envelope is the reduction
of off-focus radiation. Off-focus radiation occurs when projectile electrons are reflected and x-
rays are produced from outside the focal spot. The metal tube envelope can collect these
electrons and conduct them away from the anode.

The envelope allows air to be evacuated completely from the x-ray tube, which allows the
efficient flow of electrons from cathode to anode, George W. Morgan (1950). The envelope
serves two additional functions: It provides some insulation from electrical shock that may occur
because the cathode and anode contain electrical charges, and it dissipates heat in the tube by
conducting it to the insulating oil that surrounds the envelope. The purpose of insulating oil is to
provide more insulation from electrical shock and to help dissipate heat away from the tube. All
of these components are surrounded by metal tube housing except for a port, or window, which
allows the primary beam to exit the tube. It is the metal tube housing that the radiographer sees
and handles when moving the x-ray tube. The tube housing is lined with lead to provide
additional shielding from leakage radiation. Leakage radiation refers to any x-rays, other than the
primary beam, that escape the tube housing. The tube housing is required to allow no more than
100 mR/hr of leakage radiation to escape when measured at 1 m from the source while the tube
operates at maximum output. Electrical current is supplied to the x-ray tube by means of two
high-voltage cables that enter the top of the tube assembly.
 Fig 1.3: Shows a diagram of an x-ray tube with a rotating anode( X-ray tube configuration,
Radio Key)

2. Describe the working principle of a high tension generator [25 marks]

A high tension (HT) generator, also known as a high voltage generator, is a devices that could
produce electrical of very high potential and frequency through the use of transformer windings
and capacitive circuits, Nikola Tesla (1943). HT generator is a device used to produce high-
voltage electrical power, typically in the range of thousands to millions of volts. These generators
are widely used in various applications, such as X-ray machines, particle accelerators,
electrostatic precipitators, and power transmission systems. Understanding the working principle
of a high tension generator is crucial for its proper design, maintenance, and safe operation.

The fundamental principle underlying the operation of a high tension generator is the generation
of a high potential difference (voltage) between two electrodes or terminals. This can be
achieved through a series of steps:

Electromagnetic induction: The generator uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to

generate high-voltage electricity. It has a rotor that spins inside a stator, creating a varying
magnetic field, Robert Van de Graaff (1935).

Transformer action: The varying magnetic field induces a high-voltage current in the secondary
winding of a transformer within the generator. The transformer has a step-up ratio, meaning the
number of turns in the secondary winding is much higher than the number of turns in the primary
winding, resulting in a high-voltage output.

Rectification: The high-voltage AC output from the transformer is then rectified, typically using
a cascade of diodes, to produce high-voltage DC output.

Voltage multiplier: In some high-tension generators, a voltage multiplier circuit is used to further
increase the output voltage. This circuit consists of a series of capacitors and diodes that multiply
the voltage in a stepwise manner.

Insulation and safety: High-tension generators require robust insulation to prevent electrical
breakdown and ensure safe operation. The components are often housed in a sealed and
pressurized container filled with an insulating gas, such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), John
Bardeen (1952).

A typical high tension generator consists of the following essential components:

1. Power Supply: The high tension generator requires a power source, which can be a low-
voltage alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) supply, depending on the specific design.
2. Voltage Multiplier Circuit: This circuit is responsible for converting the input low voltage into
a much higher output voltage. Common voltage multiplier circuits include the Cockcroft-Walton
multiplier, the Greinacher multiplier, and the Villard multiplier, John Cockcroft (1950).

3. Transformer: In some high tension generator designs, a transformer is used to step up the input
voltage to a higher level, which is then further amplified by the voltage multiplier circuit.

4. Capacitors: Capacitors play a crucial role in the voltage multiplier circuit, storing and
releasing the high-voltage charge to generate the desired output.

5.Resistors: Resistors are used in the high tension generator circuit to limit the current flow and
provide voltage regulation, ensuring the safety and stability of the high-voltage output.

6.Insulationn: Proper insulation is essential to prevent electrical breakdown and arcing between
the high-voltage components and the surrounding environment. Common insulation materials
include air, oil, and solid dielectrics.

7.Control and Monitoring Systems: High tension generators often incorporate control and
monitoring systems to regulate the output voltage, monitor the system's performance, and ensure
safe operation.

High tension generators are essential devices for generating high-voltage electrical power,
enabling a wide range of applications in various industries, John Swinburne (1956). By
understanding the working principles, key components, and safety considerations of high tension
generators, engineers and technicians can design, operate, and maintain these systems effectively,
contributing to the advancement of technologies that rely on high-voltage power sources.
3. Discuss Ward Radiography Management outlining Key Skills, Radiation

Protection, and Infection Control.

Ward radiography refers to the process of performing imaging examinations at the patient's
bedside or in a healthcare facility's ward, rather than in a dedicated radiology department, David
Sutton ,(1998) . This approach is often necessary for patients who are unable to be transported to
the radiology department due to their medical condition or other logistical constraints. Effective
ward radiography management requires a comprehensive understanding of the key skills
required, as well as the implementation of robust radiation protection and infection control
measures, Elinor Feingold, (2021)

Key Skills for Ward Radiography

1. Technical Proficiency Radiographers performing ward radiography must possess a high level
of technical expertise in operating portable x-ray equipment, ensuring optimal image quality, and
adjusting exposure parameters to accommodate the unique challenges of the ward environment.

2. Patient Positioning and Immobilization: Radiographers must be skilled in positioning patients

and utilizing appropriate immobilization techniques to obtain high-quality images, often in
confined spaces and with limited patient cooperation.

3. Communication and Patient Care: Effective communication with patients, family members,
and healthcare staff is crucial in the ward setting. Radiographers must be able to explain the
examination process, address concerns, and provide a high level of patient-centered care.

4. Workflow Management: Efficient workflow management is essential in the ward

environment, where radiographers must navigate complex hospital settings, coordinate with
other healthcare professionals, and prioritize examinations based on clinical urgency.
5. Extraprofessional Collaboration: Successful ward radiography requires close collaboration
with other members of the healthcare team, including nurses, physicians, and other allied health
professionals, to ensure a coordinated and patient-centered approach

6. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: Radiographers must be adept at critical thinking and
problem-solving, as they may encounter unexpected challenges and need to make quick
decisions to ensure the safety and well-being of the patient.

Radiation Protection in Ward Radiography

1. Radiation Safety Protocols: Radiographers must strictly adhere to established radiation

safety protocols, including the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), proper
shielding techniques, and the implementation of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably
Achievable) principles. This means that even if exposures are acceptable, if there is a
reasonable way to reduce the exposure even further, those controls should be utilized.
While there are many components to an effective radiation safety program, there are
consistently three basic principals to minimize radiation exposure:
• Time– minimize time duration working with x-ray sources
• Distance– increase distance between the source of radiation and yourself
• Shielding– Shielding of a suitable density to attenuate x-ray

2. Dose Optimization: Radiographers must be skilled in optimizing radiation doses by carefully

selecting exposure parameters, minimizing the number of exposures, and ensuring that the
radiation dose is the minimum necessary to achieve the desired diagnostic quality.

3. Patient and Staff Shielding. Appropriate shielding methods must be employed to protect
patients, healthcare staff, and other individuals in the ward environment from unnecessary
radiation exposure.

4. Quality Assurance and Monitoring: Robust quality assurance programs, including regular
equipment checks, image quality assessments, and radiation dose monitoring, are essential to
ensure the safe and effective delivery of ward radiography services.
5. Regulatory Compliance: Radiographers must be knowledgeable about relevant radiation
protection regulations and guidelines, and ensure that all ward radiography practices comply
with these requirements.

Infection Control in Ward Radiography

1. Disinfection and Cleaning Protocols: Radiographers must follow strict disinfection and
cleaning protocols for all portable x-ray equipment and accessories to prevent the spread of
healthcare-associated infections.

2. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Appropriate use of PPE, such as gloves, gowns, and
masks, is crucial to protect both the radiographer and the patient from potential cross-
contamination.

3. Aseptic Techniques: Radiographers must be trained in aseptic techniques, including hand

hygiene, to minimize the risk of introducing or transmitting infectious agents during the
examination process. There are two general approaches to surface asepsis: (1) Clean and
disinfect contaminated surfaces, and (2) Prevent surfaces from becoming contaminated by the
use of surface covers. A combination of both may also be used.
According to Miller and Palenik in 1994, the following chemicals are suitable for surface and
equipment asepsis:
 Chlorine – e.g., sodium hypochlorite.
 Phenolic compounds
 Water-based – Water with ortho-phenylphenol or tertiary amylphenol or O-benzyl–p-
chlorophenol
 Alcohol-based – Ethyl or isopropyl alcohol with ortho-phenylphenol or tertiary
amylphenol.

4. Waste Management: Proper handling and disposal of waste generated during ward
radiography, including contaminated materials and sharps, must be ensured to maintain a safe
and hygienic environment.

5. Education and Training: Ongoing education and training for radiographers and other
healthcare staff on infection control measures specific to ward radiography are essential to
maintain best practices and reduce the risk of healthcare-associated infections.
Effective ward radiography management requires a comprehensive understanding of the key
skills, radiation protection, and infection control measures necessary to ensure the safe and
efficient delivery of imaging services in the ward environment. By prioritizing technical
proficiency, patient-centered care, radiation safety, and infection control, radiographers can
contribute to the overall quality and safety of healthcare delivery in the ward setting.

REFERENCES

1) Sprawls, P. (2021). The Physical Principles of Medical Imaging (4th ed.). Medical
Physics Publishing.
2) . Bushberg, J. T., Seibert, J. A., Leidholdt, E. M., & Boone, J. M. (2021). The Essential
Physics of Medical Imaging (4th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
3) Jerrold T. Bushberg, J. Anthony Seibert, Edwin M. Leidholdt, Jr., John M. Boone (2012).
The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
4) Culbertson, C. N., & Cagnon, C. H. (2018). X-Ray Tubes. In Radiologic Science for
Technologists (11th ed.). Elsevier.
5) Naci Balcı. (2019). Fundamentals of Radiology. Springer.
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www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/electromagnetism-and-Maxwell/x-rays/a/x-ray-
tube-construction-and-working-principle.
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science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everyday-innovations/x-ray-tube.htm.
8) The X-ray Tube." University of Virginia School of Medicine,
www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/rad/equipment/xraytube.html.
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