Renewable Energy, Vol. 14, Nos. 1-4, pp.

1-9, 1998
© 1998ElsevierScienceLtd. All rights reserved
( ~ Pergamon Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0960-1481 (98) 00039-1 0960-1481/98 $19.00+0.00

APPLICATION POSSIBILITIES OF SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANTS IN

ARAB COUNTRIES
OMAR H. AL-SAKAF

Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sana'a University,

Sana'a, P.O.Box 2652 Republic of Yemen, Fax 967-1-250514

ABSTRACT

Many international studies and experience have shown that solar thermal power plants are the most economic
form of the solar electricity generation. Since such plants are based on the concentration of the solar radiation
to achieve high temperatures necessary for the thermo-dynamic power plant process, their application area is
restricted to earth regions with high direct solar radiation. Arab countries are among such regions. The state
of the art of solar thermal power plants is briefly presented and their application possibilities in Arab countries
are discussed. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

KEYWORDS

Electricity generation; solar thermal; parabolic trough power plants; tower power plants; dish/stifling systems

INTRODUCTION

Recently much attention has been paid by many countries of the world to the usage and utilization of
renewable enegy resources for electricity generation due to the facts that conventional energy sources being
currently used for electricity generation will be exhausted in the near future, that they are impact by political
and economical circumstances and due to their contribution to the environment pollution (The SO2, NOx,
CO2 and particulate matter (PM) emissions from fossil fuels are shown in Table 1). The use of renewable
energy is generally free of such emissions.

Table 1. Emissions from fossil fuels, air pollution emission (Million

tons/m.t.o.e, of fuel), Note: mt.o.e. = million tons of oil equivalent
(OECD/IEA, 1991)

Fuel SO2 NO x CO 2 PM
Coal (3%S) 0.081 0.018 3.57 0.106
Coal (1%S) 0.027 0.018 3.57 0.096
Fuel Oil (residual) 0.060 0.017 3.13 0.004
Fuel Oil (destillate) 0.006 0.009 3.19 0.002
Natural Gas 0.012 2.07 -
2 O.H. AL-SAKAF

Arab countries with their geographic location belong to the so called 'sun belt countries' with the highest
average annual sun shine hours (3000-4000 hours/year) and average annual irradiation rates (2000-2200
kWh/m2.year). Converting solar energy into electricity can be performed directly or indirectly. Solar cells
(Photovoltaic Cells) convert the diffuse radiation to electrical energy directly, while indirect conversion
includes converting the direct radiation to thermal energy by means of solar collectors or concentrators,
carried by working fluid to a conventional process of electricity generation (Solar Thermal Power Plants).
Since such plants are based on the concentration of the solar radiation to achieve high temperatures necessary
for the thermo-dynamic power plant process, their application areas are restricted to earth regions with high
direct solar radiation. Arab countries are among such regions and represent therefore potential areas for the
application of solar energy for electricity generation.

S O L A R T H E R M A L P O W E R PLANTS - S T A T E OF T H E ART

Unlike photovoltaic power plants, very large amounts of electricity (in the megawatt range) can be generated
by means of solar thermal power plants, therefore they can be used for large-scale electricity generation.Three
concepts are now well known and established:
- Parabolic Trough Power Plants
- Solar Tower Power Plants
- Dish/Stirling Systems

Parabolic Trough Power Plants

Parabolic trough power plants (also called solar farm power plants) use parabolic reflectors in a trough
configuration and are the most mature solar thermal technology. Troughs concentrate the sun up to 100 times
onto a fluid-filled receiver tube positioned along the line of focus in the trough. Produced heat (up to 400 °C)
is then coupled by heat exchanger in the steam cycle of the power plant (ASES, 1994).

Nine commercial Solar Electric Generating Systems (SEGS), designed, constructed and operated by Luz
International, are operating in the Mojave desert of southern California. These plants are based on large
parabolic trough concentrators (ca, 100 m long), providing steam to Rankine power plants. They generate
peaking power which is sold to the Southern California Edison utility. The first of these plants is a 14 MWe
plant (1985), the next six are 30 MWe plants, and the two latest are 80 MWe (1991), a total electrical output
of 354 MW (almost 90% of the world-wide produced solar electricity -state 1996).

The plants can supply peaking power, using all solar energy, all natural gas, or a combination of the two,
regardless of time or weather, within the constraint of the annual limit on gas use. Operating strategy is
designed to maximize solar energy use and depends on gas to provide power during cloudy periods.The
turbine-generator efficiency is best at full load, and use of gas supplement to allow full-load operation
maximizes plant output facilities (Duffle and Beckman, 1994). The plants are allowed to include up to 25%
fossil cofiring as a back-up, thus avoiding expensive energy storage facilities (Eisenbeiss, 1996). Their
advantage is that they provide the maximum power when peak load prevails (at noon: air-conditioning,
cooking). Basic data on seven operational plants are shown in Table 2.

Tracking of the collectors is controlled by sun sensors, a synthetic heat transfer fluid (HTF) is heated in the
collectors, the normal temperature of the fluid returned to the collector field is 304 °C and that leaving the
field is 390 °C. Recent experience indicates that availability of the collector fields is about 99%. The
condenser cooling water is cooled in forced draft cooling towers (Duffle and Beckman, 1994). The plants
 Application possibilities of solar thermal power plants 3

are supplied by ground water. The projected cost of delivered peak hour power from SEGS 8 and 9 is $0.07
to $0.08 per kWh (Duffle and Beckman, 1994).

Table 2. Characteristics ofSEGSI to 7 (Jensen et al., 1989)

Plant First Turbine Solar Field Area Turbine Efficiency Annual Output(MWh)
Year Size(MWe) Temp (m2) Solar Gas
(c)
1 1985 13.8 307 82,960 31.5 a) - 30,100
2 1986 30 316 165,376 29.4 37.3 80,500
3 1987 30 349 230,300 30.6 37.4 92,780
4 1987 30 349 230,300 30.6 37.4 92,780
5 1988 30 349 233,120 30.6 37.4 91,820
6 1989 30 390 188,000 37.5 39.5 90,850
7 1989 30 390 194,280 37.5 39.5 92,646
a) Includes natural gas superheating.

In order to make parabolic trough power plants more competitive the existing potential for increasing
efficiency and reducing cost is recently subject of major research, direct steam generation (DSG)in the
absorber pipe is an ideal solution, because it reduces investment by dispensing with a number of plant
components (heat exchangers, high energy demanding oil pumps), increases efficiency by reducing parasitic
consumption, and raises the outlet temperature of the solar field. A European group with CIEMAT, Spain,
DLR (Germany) as main contributors and many industrial partners has started a big research and development
project on the direct solar steam production in the parabolic troughs, called DISS (Eisenbeiss, 1996), similar
research activities are also going on in the USA. The different basic concepts of DSG are explained in detail
in (Meinel, 1979; Mueller et al., 1994). Further research tasks are the development of advanced
collector/absorber systems and the optimum integration of a solar steam generator into the heat flow cycle of
the power plant (Integrated Solar/Combined Cycle System ISCCS) (Eisenbeiss, 1996; Mueller et al., 1994;
Kearney, 1995). Fig. 1 shows a very simplified schematic diagram of a parabolic trough solar power plant a)
with HTF and b) with DSG.

Fig. 1. very simplified schematic diagram of a parabolic trough solar

power plant a) with HTF and b) with DSG (Mueller et al., 1994)

Environmental aspects of SEGS solar power plants are thoroughly discussed in (Rib, 1995). The unique
aspects are primarily related to the use of a hydrocarbon heat transfer fluid. Each of SEGS 3-7 contains
approximately 380,000 liters of HTF. The maximum design operating temperature of the HTF is 390 °C, with
4 O.H. AL-SAKAF

the corresponding vapor pressure of 9.2 bar. The maximum system pressure reaches about 41 bar to pump the
fluid through the solar fields. With these fluid conditions, flowing through miles of pipes and thousands of
fittings, there are bound to be some losses due to fugitive emissions and system breaches. These losses
translate to hydrocarbon emissions, which are considered both volatile organic carbon (VOC) and reactive
organic gases (ROG) (Rib, 1995). This is one further justification for the intensive work on DSG, that will
result in avoiding possible HTF risks that may cause soil contamination, ..etc.

Following carried out operation and maintenance (O&M) cost reduction programs, new methods, design
improvements and component upgrades can be implemented from the beginning in new plants. The current
program, while based on the continuing experience at the SEGS parabolic trough plants, has many results.
The O&M costs reduction estimation for a new plant would be about 30% (Rib, 1995).

Solar Tower Power Plants

Solar tower power plants (also called central receiver systems) use heliostats (highly reflective mirrors) that
track the sun and reflect it to a central receiver atop a tower. The sun heats a fluid (water-steam, molten salt,
air) in the receiver typically to temperatures up to 650 °C, which can be used for thermal electricity
generation. This concept has been proven at the 10 MW Solar One plant installed near Barstow, California
(1982-1986), which used a pressurized water/steam receiver (ASES, 1994).

There are two leading projects in the field of Solar Towers; one is Solar Two near Barstow, California and
the other is the European Phoebus (Eisenbeiss, 1996):

Soalr Two began routine operation in June 1996, in a utility-led project to promote the commercialization of
solar power towers. It has been the result of the conversion of the Solar One from a basic water/steam system
to a more advanced system using molten salt for improved efficiency and operating performance. Molten salt
at 290 °C is pumped from a cold storage tank, through the receiver where it is heated to 560 °C, and then on
to a hot tank for storage. When the grid load dispatcher decides electricity is needed from the plant, hot salt is
pumped to a steam generating system that produces superheated steam for a turbine/generator. The salt is
then returned to the cold tank where it is stored and eventually reheated in the receiver to complete the cycle.
It is the world's largest solar central receiver electricity generating station, producing 10 MW electricity with
enough thermal storage to operate the turbine for three hours atter sunset at full capacity. It is anticipated that
this conversion will demonstrate the advantages of the new technology during the three-year demonstration
period from 1996 to 1998 (SunWorld, 1996). The power plant scheme of Solar Two is depicted in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The Solar Two Systems with storage tanks (Eisenbeiss, 1996)
 Application possibilities of solar thermal power plants 5

Following Solar Two, and depending on its success, the utilities expect to be able to scale up to 100 MW
plants directly (ASES, 1994), 15 % annual solar-to-electric efficiency, 2000 $/kWpeak and $ 0.06-
$0.07/kWhe LEC are promised by Solar Two promoters (Eisenbeiss, 1996).

Phoebus differs in 3 dimensions: Phoebus uses a volumetric air receiver at higher temperatures of 700 °C (the
use of air as the heat carrier medium means much simpler construction and maintenance for the plant and
demands less highly-specialized personnel (Schmitz-Goeb, 1997)), Phoebus is a hybrid concept meaning that
gas or oil burners in the hot air duct will heat the steam generator when the sun is not available, and the
Phoebus concept is proven technology in all critical parts and systems such as the volumetric air receiver or
new light-weight, stressed membrane heliostats; most of the important tests have been carried out on the
Plataforma Solar de Almeria in Spain (Eisenbeiss, 1996). Following the successful operation of prototype
plants Steinmueller Ltd. is now in a position to offer the Phoebus solar tower power plant with an electrical
output of 30 MW on a turnkey basis (Schmitz-Goeb, 1997). In principle several process circuit options for
Phoebus are possible and have been evaluated in the past (see Fig. 3). They comprise (Schmitz-Goeb, 1997):
- The basic concept of directly using the solar air cycle for steam generation in a Rankine cycle. A lack of
solar power or additional power demand can be compensated by a duct burner. Solar shares up to 62% are
possible.
- The application of thermal storage in conjunction with a steam generator and steam turbine for solar-only
operation.
- Direct integration of the solar air cycle with the gas turbine outlet of a combined cycle system (solar shares
from 4% to 30%, depending on the operating mode).
integration of the solar cycle via a gas/gas heat exchanger in the hot gas turbine inlet era
- I n d i r e c t

combined-cycle system. For economic and thermodynamic reasons this concept is not advisable.

With a solar share of 30% the LECs for a Rankine-cycle and a combined-cycle plant are practically identical
with LECs of less than US$ 0.09/kWh (Lippke et al., 1997).

Rankine Cycles

lherrnsl I
Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems

.... .o.

Fig 3. Process variations for the Phoebus solar power tower (Schmitz- Goeb, 1997)
6 O.H. AL-SAKAF

Dish/Stifling Systems

Dish stirling systems use parabolic reflectors in the shape of a dish to focus the sun's solar rays onto a
receiver mounted above the dish at its focal point. The solar enegy ultimately heats a fluid (for example
Helium) powering a small engine/generator mounted at the focal point of the dish (the dish/engine concept).
Operating at about 800 °C, a single dish module can generate upto 50 kilowatts of electric power. Like
parabolic trough systems, many dishes can be grouped together to produce more power. Dishes achieve the
highest performance of all concentrator types in terms of 1) annual collected energy and 2) peak solar
concentration (ASES, 1994).

Most of the recent development effort on dish technology has focused on dish/stirling systems. The stirling
engine, mainly because of its high efficiency (up to 25%), has received the most attention (ASES, 1994).
Figure 4 shows the basic construction of a dish/stirling system.

Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) developed a 25 kWe dish/stirling system. Solar-to-
electric conversion efficiencies of over 24% at over 21 kWe have been demonstrated, far exceeding any other
type of large solar power system. The concentrator features low-cost, variable focus stretched-membrane
mirror facets with thin glass mirrors. The concentrator is about 15 meters in diameter, with an area of
approximately 118 m2. The Stirling Power Conversion System (PCS) that converts the solar heat into
electricity is produced by Stirling Thermal Motors, Inc. (STM), The solar power conversion system uses the
highly efficient STM 4-120 Stirling engine, nominally rated at 30 kWe at 1800 RPM, which hasbeen
developed for solar, automotive, and biogas applications. The hybrid receiver of the PCS allows the use of
alternate gaseous and liquid fuels such as diesel, biogas, propane, natural gas, and alcohol to supplement or
supplant solar heat input. SAIC and STM are ready to commercialize the solar dish/stirling system, the result
of over ten years of development by SAIC, STM and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The high solar-
to-electric conversion efficiency results in net energy costs that are competitive with global electricity prices,
depending on annual production rates LECs from US$ 0.15/kWh and US$ 5400/kWe (by 100 units/year) to
US$ 0.05/kWh and US$1400/kWe (by 25000 units/year) at 25% natural gas usage and 50% system capacity
factor are anticipated (SAIC, 1997). The SAIC Team of the U.S. Dish/Stirling Joint Venture Program plans
to install five systems at utility sites and SAIC's Golden, Colorado, test site in 1997. These units will be used
to validate system reliability. STM and SAIC are marketing 50 more units to open the way to international
sales (SAIC, 1997).
/ ~ GcJlctalov Sol,u l~,adiaiio n

Couccntrutor (

Tracking "1'

I "i
r

Fig. 4. Basic construction ofa dish/stirling system (Buck el al., 1997)

 Application possibilities of solar thermal power plants

The European dish development has been driven for a long time (Eisenbeiss, 1996). The 10 kW Dish/Stirling
system (three prototypes) being in continuous operation at the Plataforma Solar de Almeria in Southern
Spain, have now produced over 28000 operating hours under realistic conditions, and fully demonstrated the
technical capability of this type of solar power generation technology. Building on this experience the next
step is to attain the predicted cost reduction while simutaneously demonstrating the operational safety and
reliability of the overall system.

In 1997 three further units were mounted on the Plataforma Solar de Almeria as "advance small production
run" models and took up operation. Both from the design point of view and from their mode of operation
these units show all the charachteristics of a mass production product.

Parallel to this, the system is being hybridized and qualified a number of appropriate demonstration projects.
Thus in parallel to solar heating fossil energy can be supplied using a gas burner. This measure makes it
possible to achieve the availability and assured power supply of conventional systems and further lowers
power generation costs. In consequence the expensive two-lane set-up of a fossil fuel and a regenerative
power supply unit is no longer necessary (SteinmueUer, 1997).

PROSPECTS OF APPLICATION OF SOLAR THERMAL

POWER PLANTS IN ARAB COUNTRIES

From the preceeding review of the state of the art of Solar Thermal Power Plants the following can be
extracted:
• Solar thermal power plants have proven their technical feasibility through a number of demonstration
projects.
• They are ready for commercialization, an option for clean power in megawatt-range (Parabolic Trough and
Tower plants) and in kW-range (Dish/Stirling Systems).
• Further cost-reduction potentials are achievable (for example ca. 40% by Parabolic Trough).
• As long as the technology is not produced in large quantities, they can not compete in the market with
conventional energy techniques, that are already further optimized throughout decades.

The application of solar thermal power plants for electricity generation in Arab countries is closely attributed
to the environment awareness of the decision makers and of the public. The last decades witnessed no
environmental concerns in most of the Arab countries by decision makers; in most of the Arab countries the
population were and are still concentrated in large cities, which led and leads to ignoring the promotion and
development of rural areas through migration towards the cities, as a result of the strong state's central
system. Industrial pollution that many Arab cities do suffer, due to the existing large industrial complexes built
in the sixtees and seventees, when the environment dimension was not so prevailing like in our days, with old
technologies, and the population being increasing in these centers, so that such industrial complexes are being
now close to the living quarters, endangering the health of citizens. Large cities and regions of high polluation
rates are now existing. Environment concerns are nowadays international concerns; The Rio Declaration (Rio,
1992), World Solar Programme 1996-2005 (Harare, 1996), Tokio, World Energy Council 16th Congress
(Tokio, 1995) show how environment concerns are shared between all world's nations.

Including solar thermal power plants in their investment plans for central and decentral electricity supply, and
in open electricity market within large interconnected sytems, will bring the Arab countries various
advantages: reduced fuel consumption/imports, reduced environment threatening/damaging emissions,
8 O.H. AL-SAKAF

conservation of fossil fuel resources and employment in manufacturing, erection, installation and operation of
these new plants are some of the essential benefits.

The required investments to develop the electricity generation sector in the Arab countries (1995 - 2005) are
estimated to amount up to US$ 137,000,- mio (Cairo, 1995). Allocated investments are foreseen for the
erection of hydro- (12%) and thermal power plants (63%), the rest for Transmission and Distribution (Cairo,
1995). The integration of Solar Thermal Power Plants in such future plans should be considered in the light of
the new and current advances in their technology.

The decision makers and planers should review their standpoints on the problem of coupled environment
concerns and industrial projects, especially electricity generation projects, they have to initiate and support
renewable energy programs and to make use of the proposed financing options for the renewable energy
programs; (UNEP - the United Nations Environmental Program, the World Bank, GEF - the Global
Environment Facility, founded after Rio), they have to urge in establishing leading solar projects for the
benefit of Arab solar future.

The following application possibilities of Solar Thermal Power Plants can be proposed:

Solar Thermal Power Plants for Large-Scale Central Electricity Supply

This means to consider solar thermal plants that produce in megawatt range in the unit commitment and long-
term planning and operation process of the utilities. Parabolic trough and tower power plants in solar alone
and hybrid mode of operation can be considered depending on the specific conditions and properties of the
system to be integrated in, the power plants mix, and loads. Such central plants integrated in national
networks or Arab interconnected systems will result in substituting parts of conventional power generation
and consequently to reducing the emissions attributed to them. Further options are the marketing of produced
clean power to neighbouring systems, and the establishment of joint-venture solar thermal power plants
projects analog to those of oil and natural gas projects. Areas surrounding the chosen locations of the plants
would benefit from the existence of the plants in their proximity and socio-economic development can occur,
this in-turn would yield many new urban populated areas leading in the end effect to lessening the migration
from rural areas towards the large cities. Within a joint Arab-Arab and/or also Arab-international strategic
programs, feasibility studies can be carried out to identify potential areas for the erection of Solar Thermal
Power Plants, their operation and integration options to the individual existing power systems and their
optimization according to the existing general conditions, followed by the construction and operation phase.

Solar Thermal Power Plants for Decentral Electricity Supply

Dish/Stifling systems in hybrid mode of operation are best suited for decentral supply. Remote rural areas,
that are not reachable by local distribution networks, can be easily and in most cases economically supplied by
decentral units like the Dishes. The use of such a supply source in rural electrification would bring many
benefits to the socio-economic development of rural areas.

By available electrical infrastructure, Dish/Stirling farms can be installed and operated grid-connected, feeding
into the existing low- or medium voltage grid.
 Application possibilities of solar thermal power plants 9

CONCLUSION

Solar thermal power plants represent the most effective form of using solar energy for electricity generation.
As it can be seen from the preceeding review of their state of the art, they have proven their technical
feasibility through a number of demonstration projects and are ready for commercialization.

As Arab countries are best suited for the use of solar thermal power plants, their use would bring the Arab
countries many advantages, especially, through the (gradual) substitution of environment threatening and
damaging emissions of conventional energy sources being currently in use for electricity generation.

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