APPENDIX 1

Some Material Properties of pvc

Products and Compounds

851
 Property and Brief definition Common units Some standards relevant Typical values or value ranges
usual symbol to determination for PVca
in plastics
Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Density Mass of unit volume. For kgm- 3 ; ISO/R 1183-1970;e M; S: 1·30- M: H0-1·35g
p practical purposes numer- gcm- 3 ; BS 2782: Part 6: Methods 1·45gcm- 3 cm- 3
ically equal to relative Ibin- 3 ; 620A-D: 1980; M(G): approx.
density (also sometimes lb ft- 3 BS 4618: Section 5.1: 1970; 1·5gcm- 3
called specific gravity), ASTM D 792-66 (1979) (Dis- F: approx. 1·4
which is the ratio of the placement method); gcm- 3
density of a material to ASTM D 1505-85 (Density PVC
that of water at the same gradient tube); homopolymer:
temperature DIN 53 479-1976 1·4gcm- 3
Tensile Maximum stress which the Nm- 2 (=Pa); ISO/R 527-1966; M: 31-60MPa M (and other
strength material will withstand Ibfin- 2 (psi); ISO/R 1184-1983 (For films); (BS2782 or compounds):
aTb before failure (yield or kgfcm- 2 ISO 6239-1987 (For small ASTMD638t 10-25MPa
break) For fibres: g per specimens) ; M(G): approx. (BS 2782)
N.B. Comments on denier, or g per BS 2782: Part 3: 1l0MPa S: 15-21MPa
common types of tex Methods 320 A to F: (ASTM D 638) (ASTMD882)
failure in strength 1986 S: 38-45MPa
tests are given Methods 326 A to C: F: 2·7-3·0 g per
in BS4618: 1983 (for films); denier (=330-
Section 1.3: 1975 ASTM D 638-84; 370MPa
ASTM D 882-83 (For thin sheet approx.)
and films);
ASTM D 1708-84 (Microtensile
specimens) ;
DIN 53 455-1981
Elongation at The increase in the length of Normally % of As for tensile strength M: 2-40% M: 150-400%
break (or a test specimen caused by the original (measured in the same M(G): 1-2% S: 120-250%
yield) the tensile stress at the length; oc- tests) S: 5-35%
eT d moment of rupture (or casionally units F: 10-20%
yield) of length
Flexural Maximum stress in the outer As for tensile ISO 178-1976;e M: 62-100 MPa Very low values
strength fibre of a specimen at the strength BS 2782: Part 3: Method (ASTM 0 790) for normally
a/ moment of break in bend- 335A:1983; M(G): approx. plasticised PVC
ing (in specified ASTM 0 790-84; 138MPa materials
conditions) DIN 53 452-1977 (ASTMD 790)
N.B. Flexural strength
at yield is the
analogous stress at
yield (calculated
from a formula ap-
propriate to the
test method)
Tear resist- Force or load (stated di- N; kgf; lbf; ISO 6383-1983: Parts 1 and 2 S: 20-100Nmm- 1
ance (tear rectly or per unit speci- or BS 1763: 1975 (Thin sheeting:
strength) of men thickness) required g; oz; lb; Elmendorf test);
sheeting and to initiate tearing or/and or BS 2739: 1975 (Thick sheeting);
film propagate a tear in spec- Nmm- 1 ; BS 2782: Part 3: Method 360B:
ified test conditions kgfmm- 1 1980 (Trouser-tear test);

aM = mouldings; M(G) = mouldings with 25% glass fibre; S = sheeting and/or film; F = fibre.
b,d Symbol not in wide general use.

e Specification numbers in brackets after numerical property values indicate the source of standard test(s) by which the values were obtained,
not that the values are numerical requirements laid down in the particular specification(s).
e Under revision.
(continued)
 Property and Brief definition Common units Some standards relevant Typical values or value ranges
usual symbol to determination for pvca
in plastics
Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Tear ASTM D 1004-66 (1981);

resistance ASTM D 1922-67 (1978)
(contd) (Elmendorf test);
ASTM D 1938-67 (1978);
ASTM D 2582-67 (1978) (snag
resistance) ;
DIN 53 363-1979
Impact Energy required to break a Nm (=J); Flexural impact tests M:0·5- With small
resistance standard test piece by kgfcm: Izod: 25lbf ft in- l amounts of plas-
(Impact impact in a standard test. lbf ft; ISO 180-1982; (ASTM D 256) ticiser impact
strength) N.B. A useful outline of per unit length BS 2782: Part 3: M(G): approx. strength can be
impact behaviour of of notch (for Method 350: 1984; 1lbfftin- 1 very low «
plastics is given in BS notched ASTM D 256-84, (ASTMD 256) 0·5lbfft in-I),
4618: Section specimens) or Methods A and C the embrittle-
1.2: 1972 (with special per unit area of Charpy: ment being
reference to design the cross- ISO 179-182: caused by the
data) section of the BS 2782: Part 3: so-called 'anti-
unnotched part, Method 359: 1984; plasticisation'
or (for un- ASTM D 256-84, effect. Very
notched Method B; high at normal
specimens) per DIN 53 453-1975 plasticiser
unit specimen Dynstat: contents
width or cross- DIN 53435-1977
sectional area
Falling weight or dart
ISO 6603: Part 1-1985 (for rigid
plastics);
 BS 2782: Part 3: Method
352D: 1979 (for thin film);
ASTM D 3029-84 (for sheeting
or parts);
ASTM D 4272-85 (instrumented
dart);
DIN 53 443-1975
Tensile impact
ISO/DIS 8256-1987:
ASTM D 1822-84;
DIN 53 448-1977

Miscellaneous
ASTM D 3998-81 (test carried
out on plastometer
extrudates);
ASTM D 45088 (test on 'chips',
i.e. small, fiat specimens')
Hardness Ability of material to resist Completely arbi- Durometer (shore) hardness M (and other M (and other
indentation under rigidly trary, related to ISO 868-1985; compounds): compounds):
specified conditions (in- arbitary hard- BS 2782: Part 3: Method Durometer BS softness no.
cluding particular, spec- ness scales used 365B:1981; (Shore D 15-90
ified combinations of in- in particular test BS 2719: 1975 (pocket-type sca1e)65-85 Durometer (Shore
dentor and stress) methods (e.g. instrument); Rockwell (R A scale) 50-95
N .B. Determination of hard- Shore, ASTM D 2240-85; scale) 110-120 Rockwell (R
ness by scratch resis- Rockwell, Bar- DIN 53 505-1985 Ball indentation scale) 5-80
tance is not relevant to col specified (DIN 53456):
PVC scale units) BS softness numbe,s 75-155
BS 2782: Part 3: Method
365A:1983

f Readily machined from products or exposure-test specimens (e.g. weathering). Test very sensitive to presence of microcracks.
g Applicable mainly to pPVC. (colllinued)
 Property and Brief definition Common units Some standards relevant Typical values or value ranges
usual symbol to determination for PVC"
in plastics
Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Ball-indentation hardness
ISO 2039: Part 1-1987;
BS 2782: Part 3 : Method
365D:1983:
DIN 53 456-1973

Rockwell hardness
ISO 2039:Part 2-1981;
BS 2782: Part 3: Method
365C: 1986;
ASTM D 785-65 (1981)

Barcol Hardness h
BS 2782: Part 10: Method
1001:1983
(identical with European stand-
ard EN 59)
ASTM D 2583-87
Elastic moduli:
(a) in tensioni Ratio of tensile stress to As for tensile ISO/R 527-1966; M (and other Very low at nor-
E tensile strain in revers- strength BS 2782: Part 3: Methods 320A compounds): mal plasticiser
ible conditions to F: 1986; 2·5-3·5GPa contents
N.B. Secant modulus: The ASTM D 638-84; (ISO, BS,
ratio of stress to cor- ASTM D 882-83 (For thin sheet ASTM or DIN
responding strain at and films); methods)
any given point on the DIN 53 457-1968
stress-strain curve
 (b) in shear 'Modulus of rigidity': ratio
G of shear stress to shear
strain in reversible
conditions
N.B. In practice usually de-
termined by torsional
methods
(c) in flexure Ratio of stress to cor-
EB responding strain in bend-
ing, in reversible
conditions
~ Relevant to glass-reinforceo plastics.
i Also known as Young's modulus, elastic modulus, or modulus of elastiCity.
As for tensile (or ISO 458-1985 M (and other Very low at nor-
shear) strength Part 1 (General compounds) : mal plasticiser
method--flexible 1·0-1·8GPa contents
materials) ;
Part 2 (Stiffness in
torsion of pPVC);
ISO 537-1980 (Torsion pen-
dulum method);
ASTM D 1043-84 (Torsion
test);
ASTM D 4065-82 (Inter alia
replacing ASTM D 2236
withdrawn in 1985);
DIN 53 447-1981 (Torsion
pulley method)
As for tensile (or ISO 178-1975;e M: 2·0-3·5 GPa Very low at nor-
flexural) ISO/TR 4137-1978 (Alternating (ASTMD 790) mal plasticiser
strength flexure method); M(G): approx. contents
ISO 6721-1983 (Complex mod- 8·5GPa
ulus by bending vibration); (ASTMD 790)
BS 2782: Part 3: Method 332A: S: 2·0-3·0 GPa
1983 (Stiffness of film): (BS 2782:
Method 335A: 1983; Method 335A)
ASTM D 747-84 (Cantilever
beam method);
ASTM D 790-84;
DIN 53 457-1968
(continued)
 Property and Brief definition Common units Some standards relevant Typical values or value ranges
usual symbol to determination for PVca
in plastics
Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

(d) in COffi- 'Bulk modulus': ratio of As for tensile (or ISO 604-1973;e M: 2·2-3·5 GPa Low at normal
pression K change in external pres- compressive) ASTM D 695-85; (ASTMD 695) plasticiser
sure to fractional change strength DIN 53 457-1968 contents
in volume, in reversible
conditions
Vicat The temperature at which a °C or of ISO 306-1974;' M (and other M (and other
softening flat-ended needle of spec- BS 2782; Part 1: Methods 120A compounds) : compounds):
point ified dimensions pene- to E: 1983; 65-1000C (ISO General-purpose
trates a specimen to a ASTM D 1525-82: 306: 5 kg load) plasticised
prescribed depth under a DIN 53 460-1976 compound typi-
prescribed load (usually cally about
1 kg or 5 kg), in standard 4OOC, but the
test conditions range is wide
(ASTMD 1525
does not recom-
mend the test
for pPVC for
that reason)
Thermal con- The quantity of heat which See relevant con- BS 874: 1973 (1980); M (and other M (and other
ductivity passes in unit time version table in BS 4618:Section 3.3: 1973; compounds): compounds):
k;'A through unit area of a Appendix 2 ASTM C 177-85; 0·14-0·28 0·14-0·17
slab of uniform material DIN 52 612-1979 Wm-1K- 1 Wm-1K- 1
of infinite extent and unit (ASTMC 177) (ASTMC 177)
thickness, when unit differ-
ence of temperature is
established between its
parallel faces
 Coefficient of Change in length per unit K-\ °C- 1 ; °F- 1 BS 4618: Section 3.1: 1970; M (and other M (and other
linear thermal original (reference) length ASTM D 696-79; compounds) : compounds):
expansion (l' per degree temperature ASTM E 228-85 (Dilatometer); (5 -15) (10- 25)
change; i.e. ASTM E 831-81 (By thermo- x 1O- 5 K- 1 x 10- 5 K- 1
mechanical analysis); (ASTMD 696) (ASTMD 696)
(l' = llL/(Lo . llT) VDE 0304: Parts 1 and 4 M(G): 2·7 x 10- 5
N.B. For cubical (ASTMD 696)
thermal expan-
sion:ASTMD
864-52 (1978)
Deflection The temperature at which, °C; of ISO 75-1987; M (and other Very low at nor-
temperature in specified conditions, a BS 2782: Methods 121A and compounds) : mal plasticiser
underload test specimen (bar of B:1983; 6O-800 d (ISO, contents (pPVC
prescribed dimensions) ASTM D 648-82; BS, ASTMor not normally
undergoes a specified de- DIN 53 461-1969 DIN) tested for this
flection under a flexural M(G): 70-90od property)
load causing a maximum (ISO, BS,
fibre stress in the speci- ASTMor
men of either 1·82 MPa DIN)
(264lbf in -2) or
0·455 MPa (66lbfin- 2)
Deformation Percentage deformation of a % BS 2782: Part 1: Method M (and other
under heat of sheet specimen of pre- 122A:1983 compounds):
flexible PVC scribed dimensions by a 15-65%
compoundsk specified load at 70°C, (BS2782)
under stated test
conditions

j At 254Ibfin- 2 •
k The temperature of heat distortion (extension or shrinkage), under tensile load, of 0·0025-1·5 mm thick, relatively stiff plastics sheeting
(room-temperature elastic modulus >69 MPa) may be determined by the method of ASTM D 1637-83.
(continued)
 Property and Brief definition Common units Some standards relevant Typical values or value ranges
usual symbol to determination for PVca
in plastics
Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Specific heat Amount of heat required to Jg- 1 K-\ BS 4618: Section 3.2: 1973; M (and other M (and other
c raise the temperature of a leal g-1 .C- 1; ASTM C 351-82 compounds): compounds):
unit mass of material by lBtu Ib- 1 "F- 1 0.8-0.9 J g-1 K- 1 1.0-2.0 J g-1 K- 1
one degree (within a spec-
ified temperature range)
Permittivity'" Ratio of the capacitance None ISO 1325-1973 (Electrical pro- M (and other M (and other
(dielectric (Cx ) of a given configura- (a ratio) perties of thin sheet and compounds): compounds) :
constant) tion of electrodes with the film); 3·3-3·6 at 4·5-8·5 at
k'; e' particular material as the BS 2782: Part 2: Methods 240 A 50 Hz; 2·9-3·1 50 Hz; 3·5-4·5
dielectric, to the capacit- and B: 1982: at 1 MHz at 1 MHz
ance (Cv ) of the same BS 4618: Section 2.1: 1970; (ASTMor (ASTMor
electrode configuration ASTM D 150-81; DIN) DIN)
with vacuum (or air) as DIN 53 483-1969, 1970:
dielectric; i.e. k' = Cx/Cv IEC Publ. 250-1969
Loss tangent" The ratio of true power None ISO 1325-1973 M (and other M (and other
(dissipation dissipated to the apparent (a ratio) BS 2782: Part 2: Methods 240 A compounds): compounds):
factor)O power absorbed during and B:1982 0·007-0·017 at 0·08-0·15 at
tan c5 the passage of an alternat- BS 4618: Section 2.2: 1970 60 Hz; 0·006- 60Hz; 0·04-
ing current through a ASTM D 150-81 0·019 at 1 MHz 0·14 at 1 MHz
dielectric DIN 53 483-1969, 70 (ASTMD 150) (ASTMD 150)
Resistivity Volume resistivity: The el- Om BS 4618: Section 2.3: 1975; M (and other M (and other
p;s ectrical resistance between 0 cm BS 2782: Part 2: Methods 230A compounds): compounds):
opposite faces of a unit- and B:1982; About 1016 1012_lOIS 0 em
side cube of the material ASTM D 257-78 (1983); o em or higher at 60% RH;
 N.B. May also be defined in DIN 53 482-1967; at 60% RH; room tempera-
terms of potential gra- IEC Publ. 93-1980 room tempera- ture (ASTM;
dient and current den- ture (ASTM; DIN)
sity (see, e.g., ASTM DIN)
D 257 or BS 4618:
Section 2.3)
Surface resistivity: The resis- g BS 4618: Section 2.4: 1975; M (and other M (and other
tance between surface- BS 2782: Method 231A: 1982; compounds): compounds):
mounted electrodes of ASTM D 257-78 (1983); 1013 _10 14 g at 1011 _10 12 gat
unit width, at unit spacing DIN 53 482-1967; 60% RH; 60% RH;room
N.B. May also be defined in IEC Publ. 93-1980 room tempera- temperature
terms of potential gra- ture (DIN) (DIN)
dient and current per
unit width of surface
(see, e.g. ASTM D
257 or BS 4618 Sec-
tion 2.4)
Insulation For a set-up of two elec- g BS 2782: Part 2: Method Example (core of
resistance trodes in contact with, or 232:1983; 600-1000 V
(dependent embedded in, a IE Publ. 167-1964 cable):
upon both specimen-the ratio of the N.B. Dielectric resistance of 50MQ km- 1
volume and direct voltage applied to cables (cores or
surface the electrodes to the total coverings) also
resistivity current flowing between sometimes determined
of specimen) them directly (in MQ km- 1 )
Electric The maximum potential gra- kVmm- 1 BS 2782: Part 2: Methods 220
strength dient that the material can and 221 : 1983
withstand without rupture

I Numerically identical.
m Strictly, relative permittivity (see, e.g., BS 4618 or ASTM D 150).
n Term favoured in the UK.
o Term favoured in the USA and Europe.
(continued)
 Property and Brief definition Common units Some standards relevant Typical values or value ranges
usual symbol to determination for pvca
in plastics
Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Dielectric Field strength (ratio of ap- Vm- l ; Vcm- l ; BS 2782: 1970: Methods 201; M (and other M (and other
strength plied voltage to thickness) V mm- l ; V mil- l ASTM D 149-81; compounds): compounds):
required to produce (1 mil = 0·001 in) DIN 53 481-1974 400-500 250-400
breakdown of the material V mil-l V Mil-l
under specified test (ASTM- (ASTM-
conditions specimen specimen
125 mil thick) 125 mil thick)
Water The amount of water ab- g; mg;mass % ISO 62-1980P ,q (Cold water M (and other M (and other
absorption sorbed by a standard (volume % for absorption; boiling water compounds): compounds):
specimen in prescribed cellular plastics) absorption) ; 8-50mg 30-150mg
test conditions BS 2782: Part 4: Methods 430 A (48h);(BS (48 h); (BS
to D: 1983 (B and D allow for 2782: Method 2782: Method
water-soluble matter) 5OlC) 0·07- 5OlC) 0·15-
ASTM D 570-81;Q 0·4O%r (ASTM 1·0%r(ASTM
ASTM D 2842-69 (1975) (for D57~24h D57~24h
cellular plastics); specimen specimen 0·125
DIN 53 495-1984 (Superseding 0·125 in thick) in thick)
DIN 53 471 AND 53 473)
Abrasion Resistance to surface da- No conventional ASTM D 1044-78 (Taber Abrasion resistance of PVC materials
resistance mage or wear caused by units. Measured abraser); and products varies widely depend-
rubbing by prescribed in terms of mass ASTM D 1242-56 (1981); ing, inter alia, on formulation and
abrasives in strictly spec- loss by speci- ASTM D 673-70 (1982) (Mar test conditions. As an example, loss
ified conditions men, or visual resistance) ; by calendered sheeting in a version
N. B. Abrasion resistance effects, e.g. DIN 53 754754-1977 of the Taber test may be 10-8Q mg
(adhesion) of print on marring of sur" per 1000 cycles under a 1 ~g load
thin PVC sheeting face, loss of (with a CS-10 wheel)
prescribed in BS transparency
1763:1975 (measured
according to BS
2782: 1970: Method
,lOR)
Coefficients The two coefficients of fric- None (a ratio) ISO 8295-1986 (fAs and fAD of The values of friction coefficients
of friction tion, static" (fAs) and film and sheet); of PVC depend cardinally on the
fA dynamic' (fAD) are defined BS 2782: Part 8: Method formulation, and generally decrease
by the expressions: 824:1984; with increasing rigidity
BS 4618: Section 5.6: 1975; M (and other M (and other
fAs=FslL fAD = FOIL compounds); compounds);
ASTM D 1894-78 (fAs and ltD of
where Fs = the minimum film and sheet); Also S: normally Also S:
force required to initiate ASTM D 3028-83 (ltD of solid <0·2 about
sliding; FO = minimum plastics and sheet); 0·2-2·0
force required to maintain IEC Pub!. 648-1979
it (at a particular speed);
and L = the force (usually
gravitational) acting nor-
mally to the surfaces to
maintain their contact
Refractive Ratio of the velocity of light None (a ratio) ISO 489-1983; PVC resin: ap- The refractive in-
index in vacuo to the velocity in BS 4618: Section 5.3: 1972; prox.1·55 dex is often
fA;n the particular material ASTM D 542-50 (1977); M: 1·52-1·55 lowered by
DIN 53 491-1955 plasticisation,
but the effect
(like compound
clarity) depends
on the plasti-
ciser (and the
formulation
generally).

P Identical with ISO 62.

q Methods close technically to those of ISO 62.
, Highest absorption is exhibited by some filled compounds.
• Also known as the starting coefficient of friction.
, Also known as the kinetic or sliding coefficient of friction.
 APPENDIX 2

Quantities and Units: The SI System:

Unit Conversion Tables

The measurement and expression of the properties of the great variety

of PVC materials and products in existence today, as well as the
description of their performance in their numerous applications,
involve the use of various units from a number of scientific disciplines
and technical fields. The conversion tables and other information
provided in this appendix are offered for their general relevance in this
context to the material presented in the book.
Sources of further information include the following standards and
publications.

ISO 31, Parts 0-13

This mUlti-part specification (British equivalent BS 5775) deals with
quantities, units and symbols in the following aspects and fields:
general principles (Part 0); space and time (Part 1); periodic and
related phenomena (Part 2); mechanics (Part 3); heat (Part 4);
electricity and magnetism (Part 5); light, and related electromag-
netic radiations (Part 6); acoustics (Part 7); physical chemistry and
molecular physics (Part 8); atomic and nuclear physics (Part 9);
nuclear reactions and ionising radiations (Part 10); physical sciences
and technology (Part 11); dimensionless parameters (Part 12);
solid-state physics (Part 13).
ISO 1000. SI units and recommendations for the use of their multiples
and of certain other units (British equivalent BS 5555).
BS 350. Conversion factors and tables
(Part 1: 1983, and Supplement No.1: 1982 to Part 2). *

* Part 2 itself now withdrawn.

864
 A2 Material Properties of pvc Products and Compounds 865

The International System of Units. HMSO, London, 1973.

Quantities, Units and Symbols. The Royal Society, London, 1975.
Quantities and Units of Measurement: A Dictionary and Handbook,
Drazil, J. V. Mansell, New York, 1983.
A Dictionary of Scientific Units, Including Dimensionless Numbers and
Scales, Jerrard, H. G. & McNeill, D. B. Chapman & Hall, London,
1986
Standardisation of units, with emphasis on the use of those of the SI
system, has-for some time now-been strongly promoted in the
science and technology of plastics. The SI units are, therefore, given
prominence in this section.
Named Units of the SI System

Quantity (usual symbol(s) Unit Common Equivalent in

in brackets) equivalent base (and
Name Symbol in SI supplementary)
units SI units

Base units Length (L, I) metre m

Mass (M, m) kilogram kg
Time (T, I) second
Electric current (/) ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature
(8, T) kelvin K
Luminous intensity (J, J) candela cd
Amount of substance (N, n) mole mol
Supplementary Plane angle (ll', (3, y, e, <p, etc.) radian rad
units Solid angle (Q, w) steradian sr
Derived units Absorbed dose (ionising
wilh special radiation) gray Gy J kg-I m2s '-2
names Electric capacitance (C) farad F Cyl S4 A 2 m- 2 kg- 1
Electric conductance (G) siemens S Ay-I s-' A 2 m- 2 kg- 1
Electric potential,
tension (V, U) volt Y WA I m 2 kgs--' A-I
Electric resistance (R) ohm Q YA- I m 2 kgs--'A- 2
Energy (E), Work (W, w),
Quantity of heat (Q, q) joule J Nm m2 kg S-2
Force (F) newton N m kg S-2
Frequency (v, f) hertz Hz S-I

Illuminance (E) lux Ix cd sr m- 2

Inductance (L, M) henry H m 2 kg S·2 A- 2
Luminous flux (<I» lumen 1m cd sr
Magnetic flux (<I» weber Wb m2 kgs- 2 A- I
Magnetic flux density (B) tesla T kgs- 2 A-I
Power (P), Energy flux (E q,) watt W m 2 kg s--'
Pressure (p), Stress (G, r) pascal Pa kgm- I S-2
Quantity of electricity,
Electric charge (Q, q) coulomb c As
866 PVC Plastics-Properties, Processing, and Applications

The SI system is based on seven so-called base units. It also contains

two supplementary units, and a number of derived units with special
names. Multiples and sub-multiples of all SI units are, of course, also
within the system.
Decimal multiples and sub-multiples of units in the SI and other
systems are denoted by adding directly (i.e. without a space or
hyphen) the appropriate prefix to the name of the unit, or the
appropriate symbol to the unit symbol. The use of multiples and
sub-multiples which are not powers of 1000 (indicated by parentheses
in the list below) is discouraged in the SI system.

Multiple X 1018 X 1015 X1012 X 109 X 106 xlW xlOZ xlO

Prefix exa peta tera giga mega kilo (hecto) (deca)
Symbol E P T G M k h da

Sub-
multiple xlO- 1 X 10- 2 xlo- 3 X 10-6 X 10-9 X 10- 12 X 10- 15 xlo- 18
Prefix (deci) (centi) milli micro nano pico femto atto
Symbol d c m I' n P f a

Unit Conversions: Time

SI unit Other common units

s year dD hD minD
(solar day)b (hour) (minute)

1 3·169 x 10-8 1-157 X 10- 5 2·778 X 10- 4 1·667 X 10- 2

3·155 6926 x 107 1 365·24 8·766 x 103 5·259 X 105
8·640 X 104 2·738 X 10- 3 1 24 1440
3600 1-141 X 10- 4 4·167 X 10- 2 1 60
60 1·901 X 10-6 6·944 X 10- 4 1·667 X 10- 2 1
D Units recognised for use with the International System.
b 1 sidereal day = 86164·090 6 seconds; 1 year = 366·25 sidereal days.

Unit Conversions: Electric Current

Only the SI unit (ampere) or its multiples or sub-multiples in use.
Unit Conversions: Luminous Intensity
Only the SI unit (candela) or its multiples or sub-multiples in common
use.
 A2 Material Properties of pvc Products and Compounds 867

Unit Conversions: Amount of Substance

Only the SI unit (mole) now in common use (mainly in calculations in

chemistry and physics).
The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 0·012 kg of 12c.
The entities (which must be specified in each particular case) may be
atoms, ions, molecules, electrons, or groups of such units.
Unit Conversions: Area

Sf units Other common units

1 1 X 104 1 X 106 1·196 10·764 1·550 x 103

1 X 10- 4 1 100 1.196x 10- 4 1·076 x 10- 3 0·1550
1 x 10- 6 0·01 1 1·196 x 10- 6 1·076 x 10- 5 1.550x 10- 3
0·8361 8.361 x 103 8·36127 X 105 1 9 1·296 X 103
0·09290 929 9·2903 x 104 0·1111 1 144
6·452 x 10- 4 6·4516 645·16 7·716 x 10- 4 6·944 x 10- 3 1

Unit Conversions: Density

SI units Other common units

kgm- 3 gcm- 3 kg litre- 1 lb in- 3 lbfr 3 lb UK gar 1

1 1 x 10- 3 1 X 10- 3 3·6127 x 10- 5 0·062428 0·010022

1x103 1 1 0·036127 62-4280 10·0224
1x103 1 1 0·036127 62·4280 10·0224
2·767 99x 104 27-6799 27-6799 1 1·728 x 103 277-419
16·0185 0·0160185 0·0160185 5·787 Ox 10-4 1 0·160544
99·776 0·099776 0·099776 3·604 6 x 10- 3 6·22884

Unit Conversions: Mass Flux

Sf unit Other common units

1 3600 6 737·34
2·777 6x 10- 4 1 1·6666 x 10- 3 0·20481
0·16666 600·00 1 122·89
1·3561 x 10- 3 4·88243 8·137 Ox 10- 3 1
 ~

"tl
Unit Conversions: Length
~
::s!
E;
:::.
Sf units Other common units Q

m cm mm p,mQ A yd ft in ~~
(angstrom) (yard) ~
(foot) (inch)
:::
!ll .
1 100 1000 1 X 106 1 X 1010 1·093610 3·28084 39·3701 •1ll
0·01 1 10 1 X 104 1 X 108 0·010936 0·032808 0·393701 "tl
1 X 10- 3 ~
0·1 1 1 X 103 1 X 107 1·093 6 X 10- 3 3·2808 X 10- 3 0.039370 '"
1 X 10- 6 1 X 10- 4 1 X 10- 3 1ll
1 1 X 104 '"
1 X 10- 10 1 X 10-8 1 X 10- 7 1 X 10- 4 ~.
1
0·9144 91·44 914·4 1 3 36 I':>
;s
0·304 8 30·48 304·8 0·333333 1 12 $:l.

0·0254 2·54 25·4 2·54 X 104 0·027778 0·083333 1 ~

~
i;'
QThe name 'micron' for this unit (micrometre) is discouraged. I':>
g.
~
 ~
N

Unit Conversions: Volume ~

~

i
Sf units Other common units ~
~
m 3 cm 3 mm 3 UK gal US gal I ft 3 in 3

(UK gallon) (US gallon) (litret

1Oi
.Q.,
1 lxl06 Ix 109 220·0 264·2 Ix 103 35·32 6·1024x104
lxl0- 6 1 lxl~ 2.2x 10- 4 2·642 x 10- 4 1 X 10- 3 3.532x 10- 5 0·061024 ~
Ix 10- 9 lxlO- 3 2.2x 10- 7 2·642 x 10- 7 Ix 10- 6 3·532 X 10-8 6·102 4 x 10- 5 ~
1 ~
4·546 x 10- 3 4·546 x 103 4·546 x 106 1 1·201 4·546 0·1605 277·4
3·785 x 10- 3 3·785xl~ 3·785xl06 0·8327 1 3·785 0·1337 231·0 ~
Ix 10- 3 lxl~ lxl06 0·2200 0·2642 1 0·03532 61·024 §
0·02832 2·832x104 2·832 x 107 6·229 7·4805 28·32 1 1·728xl03 I':>..

1·6387 x 10-5 16·39 1·6387xl04 3·605 x 10- 3 4·329 x 10- 3 0·01639 5·787 x 10- 4 1 ~
~<::>
a Unit recognised for use with the International System.
~

$
 ~

Unit Conversions: Mass

~

~
SI units Other common units ::2
El
~.
kg g ta UK ton b US tonC cwt lb oz
(gram) (tonne) (hundred- (pound) (ounce) ~
weight) ~
~
lxlO-3
::!.
1 lxlW 9·8421 x 10- 4 1·1023x1O-3 0·019684 2·20462 35·2740 ~
1 X 10-3 1 lxl06 2·20462 x 10-3 0·035274 ~
lxlW lxlW 1 0·984207 H02310 19·6841 2·20462xlW 3·52739xlif ~
1-01605xlW 1·01605 1 H2 20 2·24x 103 3·584 x 104 ~
"
907-185 0·907185 0·892857 1 17·8571 2xlW 3·2xlif '"
~.
50·8023 5·08023xlif 0·05080 0·05 0·056 1 112 1.792x 103
0·453592 453·592 4· 535 9 x 10- 4 4·464 3 x 10- 4 5·00x 10- 4 8.9286x 10-3 1 16 ~
0·028350 28·3495 0·0625 1 ).
:g
a Also known as 'metric ton' or 'metric tonne'. Unit recognised for use with the International System. 1 t = 1 Mg (which is an SI £=
unit). 5'.
b The 'long' ton. i:!
C The 'short' ton.
 A2 Quantities and Units: The Sf System: Unit Conversion Tables 871

Unit Conversions: Force

SI unit Other common units

N kgf dyn UK tonf lbf pdl

(kilogram- (dyne) (UK ton- (pound- (poundal)
forcet force) force)

1 0·1020 1xHf 1·004 x 10- 4 0·2248 7·233

9·807 1 9·842 x 10- 4 2·2046 70·93
Ix 10- 5 1.02x 10- 6 1 2·248 x 10- 6 7·233 X 10- 5
9·964xHr 1·016x103 1 2·240 x 103 7·207 X 104
4·448 0·4536 4·464 x 10- 4 1 32·174
0·1383 0·0141 1·390xlO-5 0·0311 1

4 Called 'kilopond' (kp) in Germany.

Unit Conversions: Power

SI unit Other common units

W metric kgfms- 1 cal S-1 hpb Btuh- 1

horsepower 4
(horse-
power)
1 1·360 X 10- 3 0·10197 0·2388 1·341 x 10- 3 3·4128
735·5 1 75·00 175·7 0·98632 2·510 x 1~
9·807 0·01333 1 2·343 0·01315 33·47
4·187 5·692 x 10- 3 0·4268 1 5·613 x 10- 3 14·29
745·7 1·013 9 76·04 178·1 1 2·545 x 1~
0·29307 3·984 x 10-4 0·02988 0·06999 3·929 x 10-4 1

4 No symbol for this unit in English-speaking countries (in France ch or CV;

in Germany PS). Unit now regarded as obsolescent.

b Unit traditionally used in the UK and USA. Now regarded as obsolescent.

Unit Conversions: Frequency-Units in Common Use

Quantity SI unit Other units

Periodic frequency hertz (Hz) cycle per second (c s- l t

Rotational frequency reciprocal second revolutions per
(i.e. number of rotations (S-I) second; minute, etc.
in unit time) (i.e. r S-I, r min-I;
etc.)b
Angular frequency reciprocal second (S-I)

4 Equivalent to Hz but discouraged (both equivalent to S-I).

b The notation 'rev' for 'revolution' (as in rev/min) is now discouraged.
 ~

Unit Conversions: Pressure, Stress

~

~
SI unit Other common units ~
~
kgfcm- 2 <fbfin-2 in H2fr C dyncm- 2 ~"
Pa a atm bar mmHg
(standard (inches of (millimetres
atmosphere )b water) of mercury) a~
9·869 X 10-6 Ix 10- 5 1·020 x 10-5 1·450xlO- 4 4·015 x 10- 3 7·501 X 10- 3 10
~:::to
1
1·013x1W 1 1·013 1·033b 14·70 406·8 760 1·013 x 106 ~
~
1x1W 0·9869 1 1·020 14·50 401·5 750·1 Ix 106 a
9·807x1~ 0·96708 0·9807 1 14·22 393·7 735·6 9·807x1W '~"'
6·895 x 103 0·06805 0·06895 0·07031 1 27·68 51·71 6·895x1~
~"
249·1 2·458 x 10- 3 2·491 x 10- 3 2·540 x 10- 3 0·03613 1 1·868 2·491 X 103
133·3 1·316x10- 3 1·333xlO-3 1·36Ox10- 3 0·01934 0·5352 1 1·333x1~
0·100 9·869 x 10- 7 Ix 10- 6 1·020 x 10- 6 1·450xlO-5 4·015xlO- 4 7·501 X 10- 4 1 i
~
a 1 Pa= 1Nm-2 ; 1 MPa= 1 MNm- 2 = 1 Nmm2 • '"a.
b atm = 1·033228 technical atmosphere (at); 1 at = 1 kgfcm- 2 • ,,"
C Often denoted by 'psi'.
'~""
d Often referred to as 'inches water gauge' (in w.g.) .
• 1 mm Hg = 1 torr (to within one part in seven million); 1 torr = 1/760 atm.
Unit Conversions: Energy, Work, Heat
)..
N

SI unit Other common units 10

§
J kWh kgfm cal therm Btu ftlbf s:~
(kilowatt (calorie)" (British
hour) thermal unit)" t
1 2·778 x 10-7 0·1020 0·2388 9·478 x 10- 9 9·478 X 10- 4 0·7376 ~
0·03412
a'
3·600 x Ht 1 3·671 x Hf 8·5985 x Hf 3·4121 x 103 2·6552 x 106
9·8066 2·724 X 10- 6 1 2·3420 9·294 x 10- 8 9·294 X 10- 3 7·2330 ~
4·1868 1·163 x 10- 6 0·4270 1 3·968 x 10-8 3·968 X 10- 3 3·0880 ~
1·055 06 x lOS 29·307 1·0759 x 107 2·5200 x 107 1 1 x Hf 7·7817 x 107 ~
1·05506 x 1~ 2·931 X 10- 4 107·59 252·00 1 x 10- 5 1 778·17
1·3558 3·766 x 10- 7 0·1383 0·3238 1·285 x 10-8 1·285 X 10- 3 1 ~
~
" In this table these units have their International Table values, now in general use (1 cal == 4·186 8 J; 1 Btu == 1055·06 J). ~:
These values are always implied when the unit is written without a specifying subscript (i.e. simply 'cal' or 'Btu') but the ~
notation 'cal1T' and 'BtulT' is still sometimes employed. Other values occasionally used are: ~
~
~
The 4"C calorie, cal4 == 4·2045 J. g'
The 15"C calorie, cal15 == 4·1855 J.
~
The mean (0"-100"C) calorie, cal (mean) == 4·1897 J. I:J"'
The thermochemical calorie, cal (thermochem) == 4·1840 J. if
The mean (32°-212°F) Btu, Btu (mean) == 1055·79 J.

::sw
874 PVC Plastics-Properties, Processing, and Applications

Unit Conversions: Temperature

As a unit of temperature (temperature interval) 1 Ka = 1°C = l·goR =

1·8°F

is KQ °cb OR of

equivalent (kelvin) (degrees (degrees (degrees

A to Celsius) Rankine) Fahrenheit)
temperature
reading of
yKQ y y-273015 1·8y 1·8y - 459·67
xOC x+273015 x 1·8(x + 273·15) 1-8x +32
uOR u/l·8 (u/l·8) - 273015 u u -459·67
z"F (z + 459·67)/1·8 (z - 32)/1·8 z +459·67 z

Q The SI unit of temperature.

b Unit recognised for use with the International System.

Unit Conversions: Thermal Resistivity

This is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity, and the unit conversions

can be found by us(ng the reciprocals of the appropriate units and
values in the thermal conductivity table, e.g. for the thermal conduc-
tivity of 1 W m- 1 K- 1 the corresponding thermal resistivity is
1 K m W- 1 == l/6·933°F ft2 h in- 1 Btu- 1
== 0·144 23°F fe h in- 1 Btu- 1

Unit Conversions: Thermal Conductance (Heat Transfer Coefficient)

Sf unit Other common units

Wm- 2 K- 1 Qkcal h- I m- 2 K- 1 °cals- 1 cm- 2 K- 1 °Btu h- I ft- 2 of-I

1 0·85984 2·388 46 x 10- 5 0·17611

1-16301 1 2·7777 x 10- 5 0·20481
4-1868 x 10" 3-600 1 x 10" 1 7·3729 x 103
5-67827 4·88240 1·3562 x 10-4 1

° Where they form part of the units in this table, the calorie and Btu have their
International Table values (see the Energy Unit Conversion Table).
 )..
N

Ie
§
Unit Conversions: Thermal Conductivity ::t.
~.

~
SI unit Other common units ~
~o
Wm- 1 K- 1 Wcm- 1 K- 1 acal S-l cm- 1 K- 1 kcal h- 1 m- 1 K- 1 aBtu h- 1 ft- 1 0p-l 1
Btu in h- fr 20 p - l
~
1 1 X 10- 2 2.388 X 10-3 0·8598 0·5778 6·933 '"~
100 1 0·2388 85·98 57·78 693·3 ~
418·7 4·187 1 360·0 241·9 2·903 x 103 '"~
1·163 0·01163 2·778 x 10-3 1 0·6720 8·064 ~
1·731 0·017 31 4·134 x 10-3 1·488 1 12·00
1·442 x 10-3 3·445 X 10- 4 0·1240
~
::;'0
0·1442 0·083·33 1
~
;:s
a Where they form part of the units in this table, the calorie and Btu have their International Table values (see the
Energy Unit Conversion Table). ~
goO!
~
~

ir

~
876 PVC Plastics-Properties, Processing, and Applications

Unit Conversions: Thermal Resistance

This is the reciprocal of thermal conductance, and the unit conversions

can be found by using the reciprocals of the appropriate units and
values in the thermal conductance table; e.g. for the thermal conduc-
tance of 1 W m- 2 K- 1 the corresponding thermal resistance is
1 Km2 W- 1 == 1/0·17611°Pft2h Btu- 1
= 5·678 27°P ft2 h Btu- 1

Unit Conversions: Viscosity

DYTUlmic viscosity Kinematic viscosity

Sf unit Other common units Sf unit Other common units

Nsm- 2 p" cP St b cSt

(poise) (centipoise) (stokes) (centistokes)

1 10 1 X 103 1 1 X 106
0·1 1 100 1 X 10-4 100
1 X 10-3 0·01 1 1 X 10- 6 1
agcm-ls-l.
b cm2s-1.
 APPENDIX 3

Abbreviations (Letter Symbols) Used in the Book

for Some Polymers, Their Derivative Plastics,
and Certain Monomers

877
 00
0Cl
Abbreviation Substance Common abbreviation Abbreviations currently recommended by
used in this and/or name the relevant English-language standards
book
ISO 1043/1-1987 BS 3502: ASTM D 1600-860
Part 1: 1978
""~
ABS Acrylonitrile/butadiene- ABS ABS ABS ABS
/styrene terpolymer a~
Chlorinated polyethylene CPE PE-C ~.
CPE CPE
CPVC Chlorinated polyvinyl CPVC; chlorinated PVC CPVC ~
chloride PVC c:!
"5
E/VAC Ethylene/vinyl acetate EVA E/VAC EVAC EVA "-
copolymer ....~.
HOPE High-density polyethylene HOPE PE-HD HOPE
LOPE Low-density polyethylene LOPE PE-LO LOPE
::p
~
LLOPE Linear low-density LLOPE PE-LLO
~
polyethylene ~.
MBS Methacrylate/butadi- MBS MBS
c:.
;:
ene/styrene ter-
~
polymer
PAMS Poly( a-methylstyrene) PAMS ~
"5
PAN Polyacrylonitrile PAN PAN PAN ~
c:.
PC Polycarbonate PC PC PC PC
~.
PE Polyethylene PE PE PE PE
PET Polyethylene PET PET PETP PET
terephthalate
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA; acrylic PMMA PMMA PMMA
PP Polypropylene PP PP PP PP
PPO Modified polyphenylene PPO PPE PPE
oxide
PS Polystyrene PS PS PS PS
PTFE Polytetraftuoroethylene PTFE PTFE PTFE PTFE
PUR Polyurethane PU;PUR PUR PUR PUR
PVAL Polyvinyl alcohol PYA PVAL PVAL PVAL
PVC Polyvinyl chloride (poly- PVC; vinyl PVC PVC PVC
mer or plastic)
Plasticised PVC; flex- PVC-P ~
pPVC Plasticised PVC w
ible PVC (or vinyl)
~
uPVC Unplasticised PVC Unplasticised PVC (or PVC-U 0-
0-
vinyl); rigid PVC (or ~
c::
vinyl) S·
PVDC Polyvinylidene chloride PVDC PVDC PVDC PVDC ~.
PVF Polyvinyl fluoride PVF PVF PVF PVF
SAN Styrene/acrylonitrile SAN; AS (in USA and SAN SAN SAN ~
.,.
copolymer Japan in commercial .,~
contexts)
~
VAC Vinyl acetate Vinyl acetate mono- VAC;VA VAC ::l
0-
mer; VA c
VC Vinyl chloride Vinyl chloride mono- VC VC ~
mer; VCM
.,.~
VDC Vinylidene chloride Vinylidene chloride VDC ~

monomer S·
VL Vinyl laurate .,.So
ttl
NOTE: Those abbreviations which are explained each time they appear in the text are not included in this Appendix. 8;>:00

~
 INDEX

Acid index, 846 'AGS' acid ester plasticisers (see also

Acrylic
impact modifiers, 324, 325, 328-9
lacquers, 760-1
light-protective coatings, 801
lubricant, 297, 300
matting agents, 360-1
processing aids, 297, 300, 314-16
thickeners for PVC latices, 708
Acryloid modifiers, equivalence to
Paraloid, 300
Acrylonitrile/butadiene/ styrene
(ABS) copolymers
blends with PVC, 327
impact modifiers, as, 324, 326-7
processing aids, as, 314
sheet laminates with PVC, 616
Activators ('kickers'). See under
Blowing agents
Additives (see also under individual
names)
analysis for, 45-48
health aspects of, 13, 26, 250, 835
asbestos, 263, 282
pigments, 349
plasticisers, 13, 250-1
stabilisers, 115, 121, 127, 130-2,
136,137,139,140
Adhesion
promoters for PVC coatings, 368,
668,674, 779
of solution-deposited PVC
copolymers, 686, 688, 694
Adhesive bonding of PVc. See under
Bonding of PVC
Ageing
heat 796, 816-18
of pPVC after processing, 185-6
of PVC pastes, 638, 654, 655, 656
Bigg's parameter, and, 191,654
881
under Aliphatic diester
plasticisers), 197,211,213
Alcohols for plasticiser production,
200,201,204
Aliphatic diester plasticisers, 31, 32,
188,190,192,194,197,198-9,
211,213,252
adipates, possible health hazard,
13,251
performance in PVC, 194, 197,
205,213,233,235,236,237,
240,241
plastisol rheology, effects on, 655
Alumina trihydrate
effect on general PVC properties,
352
flame and smoke retardant, as,
351-2
trade names, 291-2
Analysis of PVC compositions, 44-47
Anti-blocking (see also Blocking)
agents, 25 (passim); 360 (passim);
718-19
techniques, 719
Anti-foaming agents, 710
Antimony oxides, 351-3
Antimony stabilisers, 126
comparison with organotin
stabilisers, 126
synergism with calcium stearate,
126
Antioxidants, 141-143
Antiplasticisation, 4, 182, 183
Antique finish ('Antiqueing'), 761
Antistatic agents,
nature and use, 354-9
thermal stability of PVC, effect on,
38,355
Ap/Poratio(ofplasticisers), 191, 192
882
Apparent melting temperature. see
Clear-point temperature
(definition)
Asbestos
filler, as, 259 (passim), 260, 263-4,
281-2
hazards of, 263
heat stability of PVC, effect on, 41,
117,264
properties, 263
PVC flooring, in, 41, 263, 542, 548
PVC sheet, reinforced with, 263
Autoignition, 838
AZDN,341
Azobisformamide (ABFA) alias
Azodicarbonamide (ADA),
336-41
Bakelite PVC solution resins, see
Ucar
Banbury internal mixers, 451-31, 458
Barium
stabilisers containing, 30, 39, 40,
42,44,125,127-9,132,134,
151,154,156,170,477,536,
547,656,661
sulphate, 265, 271
Barrier properties of
blow-moulded containers, 569, 576,
584,585,586,761,827
PVC compositions, see
Permeability
PVC/PVF sheet laminates, 483
stretched films, 61, 96, 829
Barytes, 265, 715
Battery separators
production, 632-3
PVC polymer for, 91-93, 633
Baymod
L (formerly Levapren), 331,477
PU (formerly Ultramoll PU), 217,
332
Beta (p) gauge, 541, 673
Biaxial stretching
impact resistance and permeability,
effects on, 61, 96, 569
stretch-blow moulding, in, 569
Index
Biaxial stretching--contd.
uPVC products, property
improvements by, 569
Bigg's parameter, 189-91
'Bingham body' behaviour, 640-1
Biodegradation, see Microbiological
attack.
Biostats, 25 (passim); 719, 820
Blanc fixe, 265
Blends of PVC with
ABS,327
chlorinated polyethylene, 331-2
nitrile rubber, 329-31
other polymers, 316, 324-33
polyurethane, 332
SAN polymers, 314-16
Blocking, 718
Blow moulding
basic elements, 560, 562
"bottom blow", 570
dip (displacement) process, 567-8
equipment and process
arrangements, 561, 569-71
extrusion process, 563-5, 574-6
parison control in, 565-6
injection process, 561, 567, 574
product
cooling, 571-3
removal systems, 574
PVC compositions for
end-use aspect, 579-80
formulation aspect, 42, 580-3
processing aspect, 576-8
single stage processes, 570
stretch-blow methods, 561, 563-5,
568-9
"top blow", 570
two-stage processes, 570-1
Blow mOUldings
applications, 583-4
properties, 584-5
property tests, 585-6
Blowing agents, 335-43
activators ('kickers') for, 128, 134,
336,340,656
decomposition
products of, 340, 341
rates of, 337
 Index
Blowing agents----contd.
decomposition-<:ontd.
temperatures, 336-7, 338-9, 341
incorporation levels, 342-3
operational temperature ranges of,
336-9
retarders for, 340, 758
volumes of gas generated by, 337
Blue wool standards, 350, 813
Blueing (colour reversal), 326
Bonding of PVC
adhesive, 745,746-7
definition, 741
solvents and solvent cements, by,
cement compositions, 697, 741,
744
mechanism, 743
procedures, 742-3
specifications relevant to, 697, 744
Brabender Plasti-Corder
compounding tests, use in, 457-62
dynamic stability tests, use in,
166-8
lubricant performance assessment,
use in, 307-9
melt fusion test in, 461, 462
system, 193, 458-63
Brabender Plastograph, 193, 458
Brittle-ductile transition, 318, 322-3,
378,814
Brittle fracture, 318, 322-3, 378
Brittle point, 318, 814
Brittle temperature, 318
Brittleness temperature, 318, 815
Brookfield viscometer, 645-6, 704-5
BS softness, 230-1
fillers, effect on, 263
measurement of, 230
number scale, 230-1
plasticisers effect on, 202-3, 207,
210,212-13,215-16,221,
232-3,234,245,246
rubber hardness, and, 230-1
Shore hardness and, 230-1
temperature, effect on, 234
values of, for pPVC, 855
Bulk (mass)
polymerisation, 63, 65
883
Bulk (mass}-<:ontd.
polymer particle characteristics,
67-8, 70-2, 80
polymers, 28, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,
109,488,580
Burning (see also Flammability)
plastics, of (general), 837-8, 839
PVC, of, 838, 840-2
effect of plasticisers, 209, 351
products of, 840-2
role of chlorine content in, 351
terminology, 836-7
tests, 842-6
Buss
Kneader, 430-1, 433-7, 456, 531-2
mixing turbine, 421, 663, 665-6
Cable and wire insulation and
coverings (see also under
Compounding) ,
application (by extrusion), 519-21
compounds,
formulation, 41, 42, 244, 275,
277,280,488
PVC/nitrile rubber, 330, 490
cross-linked, 765, 766
standards and tests for, 489-90,
795-7,844
types and applications, 486-7
Cadmium compounds
interaction with UV absorbers, 146
pigments, as, 349
stabilisers, as, 30, 39, 40, 125,
127-30,133-4,477
stabilising action of, 134
sulphide staining with, 151, 155,
156
toxic hazard of, 10, 131,349
Cadon 300 modifiers
effects in PVC, 328-9
name change to Elix 300, 324
Calandrette system, 544-5
Calcium carbonate fillers
applications, 33, 275-8, 280-1, 548
cost considerations, 273-5
dispersion characteristics, 273, 275,
280
884 Index
Calcium carbonate fillers-contd.
fine particle, functional effects of,
277,279,286,324,478
latices, in, 715
loading, effects of, 261, 262, 275,
279-81
plastisols, in, 275, 276, 279, 657
precipitated, 261, 262, 267-8, 271,
277,280,286
properties, 266-73
surface treated, 276-8, 288-90, 657
types, 266-8
"Calcium resinate", 290
Calcium stearate stabilisers/
lubricants, 38, 41, 42, 43,
125-7,298,301
Calcium sulphate, 265
Calcium/zinc stabilisers (see also Zinc
containing stabilisers), 26, 39,
41, 130-1, 132, 134-5, 154,
156,581,656
Calender, 524-9, 533, 535, 537,538
compounding and feed for, 430-2,
442,445,531-2,534
lines, 530-9, 542-5
main components of, 524
roll (bowl)
arrangements, 525-7
bending, 528-9
crossing, 529
crowning, 528
deflection, 528
number in stack, 525
numbering, 527
operational features, 525-9
Calendered sheeting
applications, 483-4, 489, 491, 554,
558,559
defects and faults in, 549-52
flooring, for, 41, 493, 524,542-4
formulations, 536, 546-8
lamination of, 545-6, 553-4, 609
low-temperature strain in, 530, 540
morphology of, 530, 549-50
press finished, 552-3,
properties and tests, 485, 492,
536-7,554-8
surface treatments applied to, 533
Calendered sheeting--contd.
thickness
gravimetric, 541
stretch-down effect, 538
typical range, 525
Calendering,
advantages over extrusion, 525
formulation aspects, 536, 546-8
general features, 529-30
material temperature in, 537
materials processed by, 524
roll
speed (friction) ratios in, 528,535
temperature settings in, 535-6
scrap reprocessing, in, 453, 534
sheet path in, 535
sheet production aspects in,
cooling, 540
edge trimming, 541-2
embossing, 539-40
lamination, see under
Calendered sheeting
stretch-down, 538
wind-up, 542
'Capping' (coextrusion), see under
Weathering resistance
Carbon black
colourant, as, 286, 345, 348, 351
conductive filler, as, 286, 356-7
light stabiliser, as, 38, 146
pPVC compounds, in, 261, 286-7
Castor-Severs viscometer, 645-6
Cell stabilisers (for foam production),
343-4
Cellular PVC (see also Foams)
applications, 632, 633, 772-4
evaluation and testing, 774-7
production methods
'chemical' blowing, 335-43
dispersed-gas blowing, 771
mechanical frothing, 343, 771
"lost-filler" method, 633-4
sintering of powder, 632-3
Chalking, 798
Chemical blowing agents, see
Blowing agents, and under
Cellular PVC
Chemical embossing, 758-9
 Index
Chemical properties of PVC, 53, 54,
59,78-9,87,379-85,684-9
tests for, 384-5, 390-1
Chlorinated olefins, 219-20
Chlorinated paraffins
degradation of, 103
flame retardancy, see under Flame
retardants.
plasticiser extenders, as, 31
(passim), 196 (passim),
219-21
Chlorinated polyethylene, 324, 331-2
chemical structure of, 331
degradation susceptibility of, 103
(passim)
impact modifier, as, 324, 331-2,
477,548
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC), 9
(passim); 90, 95-9
applications, 99, 468
chemical structure of, 95-6, 97
commercial versions, 97, 99, 366
fibres from, 9, 95
pipes and fittings, 468
processing of, 507-8, 604-5
production of, 9 (passim), 90, 95
properties of, 96-8, 569
solvent cements for, 744
thermoformability of, 615
Chromium pigments, 14 (passim);
346 (passim), 349,478
Citrate plasticisers, 222
Cladding, 475, 480, 484, 616, 730
Clash and Berg, see Cold-flex
temperature.
Clay
Bentonite
PVC latices, in, 709
PVC pastes, in, 658
filler, as, 259-63, 271, 291-2, 352,
715
oil absorption of, 260
Clear-point temperature of
plasticisers
definition, 189
paste fusion temperature, and, 652
test techniques, 189
values, 190
885
Cling film ('Cling-wrap'), 13,251,
489,491
Coated fabrics
applications and products, 12, 43-4
production, 524, 545-6, 553-4, 655
(passim), 668, 670-4, 752
(passim), 756-9
properties and tests, 243, 652, 676-
8,679-80,718,721,723,815,
816,826-7,844,845
Coating, see under Lacquers, Latices,
Pastes, Solutions, and Surface
Coatings
PVC-based 720-1,723
latex, 779-81
powder, 368
solution, 683 (passim), 685-7,
694-6
PVC, on
barrier properties, for, 576, 584,
761-2
decorative, 760-1
protective, 760-2, 801
Coextruded pipes and profiles, 470,
475,476,507,772,774
Coextrusion, 470, 475, 476, 507, 518,
774,801
Cold-bend temperature, 816
Cold-crack temperature (of film,
sheet, or coating), 815
Cold-dip coating, 668-9
Cold-flex temperature (Clash and
Berg)
definition, 239, 815
determination of, 237, 815
effect of plasticisers on, 202-3, 207,
210,212-13,215,216,229,
237-8,240
Colour reversal, see Blueing
Colourants, 34, 345-51, 478, 691,
717,802
choice considerations, 347-9
commercial, 345-7, 348-9
general types, 345-6
metallic, 345-6
nacreous, 346
physical forms, 346
Compounding, 393-463, 531-2, 534,
886
Compounding--contd.
543,544,661-6,692-4,
706-19
continuous
Buss Turbine, by, 421, 665-6
'Kontinuum' mixer, by, 422
paste dissolvers, by, 664
powder blends, of, 420-2
'downstream' equipment associated
with,393-395
ingredients (PVC formulation
components)
conveyance of, 396-404, 415
metering and weighing of,
406-12
storage of, 494-7
in-line
calendering, for, 430-2, 442,
445,531-2,534,543-4
extrusion, for, 421
latex compositions, of, 706-19
melt, 422-48, 451-5
equipment for, 424-47, 451-5
pellet production and handling,
in, 448-51
mixing and fusion tests, 458-63
operations, general nature and
objectives of, 22, 393-5
pastes, of, 661-6
continuous, 665-6
equipment for, 662-6
laboratory-scale, 662, 664
standards for, 662, 664
powder blends, of, 313-14, 412-22
cold, 413, 416-17
continuous, 420-2
hot, 413, 415-20
mixers used, 413-22
high-speed (intensive), 413-20
hot/cold combination, 414-20
recycled material, of, 453-5
schematic outline, 393-5
solution compositions, of, 692-4
'upstream' equipment associated
with,395-412
Compounds (see also under PVC)
580,592
commercial, 366, 368, 371, 372,
580,592
Index
Compounds--contd.
conductive, 356-9, 366
definitions, 22-3
melt-compounded, feedstocks as,
371-2,412-13,423,508-9,
577,591
physical forms, 371-2
standard designations of, 387-9
Compression moulding, 607-14
gramophone records, of, 607-9
pastes, of, 613-14
sheet samples, of, 610-13
thick sheets, of, 609
Congo Red test, 164, 390, 797
Conveyor belts,
antistatic property requirements
for, 359, 677
construction, 671, 676
specifications and tests,
flammability, 678, 845
others, 677-8
Cooling of PVC mouldings, 571-3
Copolymers of vinyl chloride,
commercial, 8, 75-7
early appearance, 8, 9
emulsions (latices) of, 701, 703-6,
714, 720-2, 723
graft, 74, 77, 78, 477, 801
morphologyof,74
production, 75-8
properties of (general), 28-9, 73,
74,78,79
solution type, 684-8, 695, 696
VC/acrylic ester, 77, 477
VC/ acrylonitrile (fibres), 73
VC/ethylene, 76, 79
VC/E/V AC, 77, 78, 477, 801
VC/fumaric ester, 77
VC/itaconic ester, 77
VC/maleic ester, 77
VC/maleinimide (N-substituted),
74
VC/propylene, 76, 79, 483, 781
VC/trifluorochloroethylene
(TFCE),77
VC/vinyl acetate, 8, 9, 41, 73, 75,
78-9,83-86,94,477,483,548,
607,615,685-6,695,696
VC/vinyl alkyl ether, 77
 Index
Copolymers of vinyl chloride-contd.
VC/vinylidene chloride, 73, 74, 76,
483,548,660,704,719,720-1
Co-precipitates, 38, 133
nature, 133
Sr/Zn laurate, 133
Cordelan, 76
Corpoplast process, 570
Co-stabilisers
epoxy (see under Epoxy stabilisers)
organic, 135-8, 140
phosphites, 30, 37, 39, 40, 43,
128-9,135,138-40,581,801
polyols, 130, 140
Coupling agents (for reinforcing
fillers), 282, 283, 288-91
CPVC (see Chlorinated PVC)
cpvc (critical pigment volume
concentration),715-16
Creep, 370, 374-5
coated fabrics, resistance to, 676
data for uPVC, 373-5, 375
definitions, 370, 375
modulus, 373, 375
rate, 370
PVC pipe, resistance to, 377, 474
rupture, 370, 375, 474
strain, 375
temperature, effect of, 617, 818
tests on
PVC pipes, 474
thermoforming sheet, 617-18
'Critical solution temperature' (in
plate-out), 158
Cross-linked PVC
cable or wire insulation, as, 765,
766
cross-linking additives for, 764-5
gel fraction in, 763
properties of, 765-6
Cross-staining, see under Sulphide
staining
Crystallinity
plasticised PVC, in, 179-80, 183,
186,650
PVC polymers, in, see under
Polyvinyl chloride
VC/VDC copolymers, in, 74
Cutting of PVC sheet, 745, 749-50
887
'Dead load' hardness tester, 230
Defoaming agents, see under Anti-
foaming agents
Degradation of PVC, see under
Photochemical degradation
and Thermal degradation
Desirability function, 35-6
Dilatancy, 641-2
Dip coating, 668-9, 779-80
Dip moulding, 667, 781
Draw ratio, 618
Dry blends (see also Powder
compounds, and powder
blends under Compounding)
feeds, as, 412, 423, 577
blow moulding, in, 412, 577
dip-coating, in, 779
extrusion, in, 412, 508-9
injection moulding, in, 591
nature, 22-3, 413, 415
passim, 394-5
production of, 313-4, 413-22
Dry colourants, 346
Dry point (in gelation of pastes), 650
Durometer (Shore) hardness,
scales, 230-1
tests, 230
Efficiency factor, see under
Plasticisers
Electrical
insulation see Cable and wire
insulation
properties of PVC, 27, 32,115,
239,241,262-3,352,354,359,
487,489,490,738-9,792-3,
794-7, 864-6
Electrically conducting PVC
compositions, 354, 356-9
Elix 300, see Cadon 300
Embossing, 539-40, 756-9
calendering, in, 539-40
cellular sheet materials, of, 757
'chemical', 758-9
PVC paste coatings, of, 673
screen printing, by, 757
Emboss-retention tests, 558
EMMA and EMMAQUA apparatus,
803
888
Emulsion
polymerisation, 66, 70-1, 75-7
polymers
applications, 28, 43-4
particle characteristics of, 69-71,
73, 80, 704-5
purity of, 28, 109
PVC latices, in, 700
PVC pastes, in, 28, 637, 644-5,
653-4, 660, 661
Environmental stress cracking and
crazing, 788-92
cracking agents for PVC, 791
definitions, 788-9
mechanism, 790-1
PVC bottles, of, 788, 791-2
PVC pipes, of, 468, 791
resistance to, tests for, 790, 792
Epoxy plasticisers, 137-8, 218-9
Epoxy stabilisers, 30, 37,125,127,
129, 130, 131, 137-8
formulations, in, 39-44, 133, 136,
137-8,579,581,691,801
interaction with unsaturated
additives, 138
mode of action, 138
Estertin stabilisers, 120-1
Extenders
fillers, as, 258, 273, 275
for plasticisers, 219-21, 223
chlorinated olefins, 219-20
chlorinated paraffins, 219-21
hydrocarbons, 223
Extruders
Bitruder, 432, 443-4
blow moulding, in, 574-5
cascade, 431, 437-9, 517
compounding, 431-2, 433-41,
443-7
heating and cooling arrangements
in, 447
LID ratio of, 497, 499-500, 574
output, 498
factors affecting, 500-1
PVC compositions, 437, 441,
444,447,498
planetary, 432, 444-7
screw design in, 433, 435-6, 499
Index
Extruders--contd.
single screw, 430, 431, 435-6,
437-41,499-500,503,505
twin screw, 439-41, 443, 498
mode of oper..ation:
differences from single screw,
503-4
screw arrangements, 428,
439-41,444,498,499-500,504
venting of, 437, 444, 500
ZSK (in Kombiplast set-up), 428,
431,439-41
Extrusion
ancilliary equipment in, 421-2,
498-9,505-6,514-17,520
blow moulding, 560, 561, 562-6
compounding, see under
Compounding and Extruders
(compounding).
compounds for, 368, 371-2
CPVC, of, 507-8
dies
blown film, for, 518-19
cross-head, 501, 519-21
pipe, for, 501-2, 514-15
sheet, for, 517-18
variable-thickness (adjustable),
501-2,518,566
feedstocks for, 367, 369, 371-2,
412-13,423,508-9,577
formulation aspects, 38, 39,41,42,
123,472-3,476-8,487-8,489,
491
fusion and gelation in
completeness, 473-4, 510-12
mechanism, 510-11
gear pumps, use in, 505-6
head and die assemblies, in, 501-2
historical development of, 497
lines
cable and wire coating, 519-22
pipe, 502, 513-15
sheet, 516-19
pipes, of, 497-9, 502, 513-15
products, common faults in,
511-13
profile, of, 475, 479, 481, 498,
516
 Index 889

Extrusion-contd. Fillers-contd.
sheet, of (see also under Sheet), surface treated, 36, 276-8, 279,
516-19,525 (comp. with 280,288-91
calendering) trade names, 260, 263, 265, 267,
window-frame profiles, of, 475, 275,276-8,282,283,285,
479,516 289-92
wood flour, 287
Fatigue Film
definition, 375-6 applications of, 483-4, 489, 491
dynamic, 376 cling, see Cling film
life, 376 definition, 481-3
pipes, of, 377-8, 474 extruded, 483 (passim); 518-19
resistance of PVC, 376-8, 788 latex, from, 700-2, 703, 704-5,
temperature, effect in, 376 706,715-17
Feedstocks for PVC processing, see shrink-wrap, 483-4
under Compounds, Powder solution-cast, 483 (passim); 695-7
compounds, Dry blends, and standards for, 485, 492
Extrusion stretch-wrap, 247, 491-2
Fibres 'Fish Eyes'
copolymer, 73, 75-6, 777 count, specification for, 29, 86, 89,
fillers, as, see under Fillers 391
PVC, 75-6, 777 definition, 81
Fillers (see also under individual passim, 550, 581
names and types) Flame retardants
clay, 259-63 alumina trihydrate, 351-2
conductive, 355, 356-8 antimony oxides, 351-3
cost considerations, 33, 273-5 chlorinated paraffins, as, 219, 351,
definition, 258 840
fibrous, 259,260,281-5 fillers, as, 840
flame retardant, see under Flame modes of action, 351-2
retardants phosphate plasticisers, as, 208-10,
functional, 281-3, 286-8, 478 239,351,353,840
general, 25, 33-4 Flammability (see also Burning)
glass, 282-6 definition, 837
latices, in, 715-17 PVC, of, 351, 838
loading, effects of, 261-3, 275, terminology, 836-7
279-80,285,356,358 Flash ignition, 838
microfibre, 282 Flatting, see Matting
mineral, 259-81 Flooring (see also under Asbestos and
oil (plasticiser) absorption Calendered sheet)
(demand), see Oil absorption antistatic, 359
pastes, in, 656-8 asbestos filled, stabilisers for, 41,
reinforcing, 263-4, 281-5 119,131
silicaceous, 259-64 calendered, 525, 542-4
smoke suppressant, see under chemical resistance of, 385
Smoke coated, 275, 276, 493 (passim);
starch,288 670, 759
suppliers, 291-2 cross-linked, 766
890
Flooring-contd.
embossed, 757, 759
fillers in, 41, 263, 264, 275, 276, 542
formulation, 41, 119, 131,275
stain resistance of, 547, 676
unsupported, 493 (passim); 543-4
Flory-Huggins parameter (X), 189, 191
Flow moulding, 600
Fluoropolymer surface protection for
PVC sheet products
by lamination with PVF film, 483,
(Tedlar); 554, 762, 778
(Tedlar)
by solution coating (Lumiflon), 762
Foam (see also Cellular PVC and
Sections 9.1.1 and 9.1.2 of
Chapter 9).
composite, cross-linked, 772
density, 772
production, see under Cellular PVC
products, 772-4
standards relevant to, 775-6
'Fogging' (automotive), 206, 243
Foil
applications, 483
definition, 482-3
stamping, see Hot-foil stamping
Footwear, 42, 765, 766, 772, 783
Ford cup, 646
Formulation
components (see also under
individual names).
kinds, 24-5, 27-35
mutual effects, 36-7, 272-3,
302-4
nature and functions (general),
27-35
side effects (general), 37-8
costing, 46
examples
blow mouldings, 42-3, 316
flooring, 41
foam compositions, 43-4
injection mouldings, 42
latex-based, 723-4
pastes, 43-4, 661
pipes and tubing, 38-9, 473
profiles. 39
Index
Formulation-contd.
examples-contd.
sheet and film, 39-40, 247, 536
solutions, 695, 696, 760
wire and cable coverings, 41-2
general considerations, 25-35,
301-4
process-related considerations,
472-3,546-8,580-3,591-2,
653-61,683-92,706-19
weathering resistance, for, (see
under Weathering).
window-frame compositions, of,
477-8
Fracture,
impact-caused, 318
modes of, 318-19
uPVC, of, 323
Fusion, see Gelation/fusion
Fusion point (fusion temperature)
pastes, of, 650, 651
PVC compositions, of, 460, 462
PVC polymer/plasticiser
interaction, in (see also Clear-
point temperature), 193,460
Gamma-ray sterilisation
commercial PVC sheeting stable
to, 732
heat stabilisers for PVC
compositions stable to, 124,
131
'Gassing', 116
Gear pumps, 505-6
'Gel block', 647
Gel fraction (in cross-linked PVC),
763
Gel theory of plasticisation, 179
Gelation/fusion
melt processing, in, 193,307,460,
462,473-4,481,509-12
pastes, of, 510, 511, 647-51
stages in, 648-51
solvent tests for degree of,
paste products, in, 652
pipes and profiles, in, 473-4,
511,512
 Index
Gels,
blow-moulding compositions, in,
581
definition, 81
relevant tests, 29, 89, 391, 581
stress-concentrators, as, 318
Glass transition temperature (Tg)
PVC polymer and compounds, of,
59,297,330
plasticisation, effect on, 177, 330,
702,791
role in.
film formation from latex, 702
mode of fracture, 325
Glazing compositions, 330
Global radiation, 807
Gloves (PVC)
coated(fabric-lined)
dip coating (of fabric liners), 668
solvent tests on, 652
unsupported, 667
Gramophone records, 607-9
compounds for, 368, 448, 608
formulations, 133, 608
polymers for, 75, 79, 94, 607
production, 608
stabilisers for, 608-9
Gravimetric thickness (of sheeting
and film), 541
Gray (SI unit of absorbed ionising
radiation)
definitions, 870
relationship to the rad, 763
Grey scale, 350, 813
'Grow moulding' , 472
Hardness (see also BS softness)
data for PVC, 855-6
Durometer (Shore), 230-1
International Rubber Scale, 230-1
plasticisers, effect on, 233
tests, 230-1
Health hazards
additives, of, 13-14,26-7,115-16,
121,126,131,548-9,263,349
combustion products of PVC, of,
14,840-2
891
Health hazards-contd.
PVC resins and compositions, of,
835
regulatory bodies concerned with,
12, 250-1, 835
VC monomer, of, 10, 12, 13, 583,
834
Heat (see also under Stability)
ageing of pPVC, 817-18
degradation (see Thermal
degradation of PVC)
history, 161-2
life, 161-2
non-degradative effects of, 88-9,
195,241-2,379,387-8,390,
481,540,796-7,817-18
Heat shrinkable
film ('shrink-wrap'), 483, 492
labels and sleeves, 484
tubing, 493-5, 766, 795
Heat stabilisers (see also under
individual and type names)
activators for blowing agents, as,
see under Blowing agents
blow mouldings, in, 581
calendering, in, 132-3, 536, 547
chelator, 30, 125, 139
commercial, 119, 122, 124, 126,
127,129, 130, 132-4, 136, 139,
152-3
cadmium replacement systems,
132-3
suppliers and trade names, 152-3
complexes, 125
cross-staining by, 122, 128, 155
detection and analysis of, 46-8
evaluation and testing, 162-72, 390
general, 29-30, 154
latices, in, 711-12
lubricants, and or as, 37, 116-17,
125,126,129,140-1,301-3,
310
lubricants, balance with, 140-1,
302-3,310-11
mixed-metal, 30, 127-35
mode of action, 117, 124, 134-5,
137,138,139,140
non-metallic, 135-40
892
Heat stabilisers-contd.
non-toxic, 26,121,126-7,130-1,
135-6,137, 138, 140
one-pack systems, in, 149-50
organic, 135-40
pastes, in, 132, 154, 656
physical forms, 115, 127, 149-50,
310
polymeric, 121
selection criteria, 29-30, 114
single-metal compounds, 115-27
types, 30, 114
window-frame formulations, in,
134,478
Hose, see Tubing
'Hot bench', see Gel block
Hot-dip coating and moulding
pastes, with, 667-8
powders, with, 779-81
Hot foil stamping, 755-6
'Hundred percent modulus', see
under Modulus
Hydrocarbons, plastiser extenders,
as,223
Impact modifiers (see also under
individual type names)
effects in pPVC, 323
fillers as, 278, 286, 324, 478
mode of action, 324-6
polymeric, 324-33
window-frame compositions, in,
328,331-2,477
Impact resistance (impact strength),
316-23,322-3,854-5
biaxial stretching, effect of, 61, 96,
569,582
blow mouldings, of, 569, 579,
581-2
definition, 316-17
factors affecting, 317-20, 322-3,
473
mode of failure, and, 317-20
notches, effect of, 319-20, 322-3
PVC polymer, effect of (in
compositions), 321, 478, 580-1
Index
Impact resistance--contd.
temperature, effect of, 318, 322,
797,814,815
tests, 319-21, 585
units, 320
uPVC, of, 319, 322-3, 371, 373,
579,854
Injection moulding, 588-606
colourant stability in, 350
compounds
commercial, 366, 368-9, 371-2,
592-3
CPVC, 97-9, 366, 373
'easy flow', 592-3
formulation, 42,591-2
melt flow tests for, 592-4
time-temperature behaviour of,
589-90,600
CPVC, of, 604-5
equipment, 594-7
faults, 601, 602
feedstocks, 367-9, 371-2, 394,
422-3,591
process, 595, 597-600
temperature
effects, 588, 589-90,595, 597-8
settings, 597-9, 602
thermal input in, 589, 602
trouble shooting in, 600-1, 602
Injection mouldings
examples of, 472, 486, 772, 774,
781, 783, 785
faults in, 601-2
formulations for, 42, 94
morphology of, 61, 486, 601, 603-4
orientation in, 61, 486, 603-4
property data, 371-2, 852-63
quenching stresses in, 601, 603
shrinkage of, 591
Intensive mixers, see under Mixers
Internal mixers, 451-3, 458, 531, 532,
543
International Rubber Hardness
(IRH), 230-1
'Interval blowing' cooling system, 573
Ion implantation, see Nitrogen ion
implantation
 Index
K value
concept, 53-4
effect on properties and processing,
79,94,547-8,577,581,608,
653,661
Fikentscher, 54, 56, 58
ICI,56
molecular weight, and, 53-4, 56-8
specific viscosity, and, 53, 56
viscosity number, and, 53, 56
'Kickers', see under Blowing agents
(activators for)
Kombiplast equipment, 431, 437,
439-41
'Kontinuum' mixer, 422
Labile chlorine, 60, 107
Lacquer coating
compositions, 686, 760-1
methods, 673, 758, 761
objectives of, 760
various PVC products of, 759, 761
Laminates,
PVF film, with, 554, 762, 778
sheet, various, 616, 730, 778
Langley, 810
Latices, 698-726
definition, 698
film formation by, 699-702, 706
vinyl (PVC)
anti-foaming agents for, 710
applications, 719-24
compounding ingredients and
techniques for, 706-19
sedimentation in, 709
stability of, 707-8
types, 702-6, 720-2
Lead stabilisers, 115-19
applications, 27, 30, 38, 41, 42-3,
477, 488, 656
chemical nature, 115, 116-17
hazards, 115
limitations, 38, 115, 690
mode of action, 119, 302, 303
physical forms, 115
Leak detectors, 585
893
Leathercloth
applications, 673, 773
'fogging', role in, 206, 243
production, 673, 757, 759, 772
Lesieur test bottle, 586
Levapren, see Baymod
Light stability, see under Stability
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI), see
Oxygen Index
Lithium stabilisers (passim), 125
Lithopone,717
Loop test, 192
Low-temperature plasticisers see
Aliphatic diester plasticisers
Low-temperature properties of PVC,
31,32,197,202-3,205,207,
210,212-13,216,221,229,
237-9,240,245,246,318-19,
322,331,797,813-16
'Lubricant value', 309-10
Lubricants, 24, 33, 294-312
acrylic modifiers, as, 297, 300
blow mOUldings, for, 582
calendering, role in, 546-7
chemical structure, 297-300
commercial, 310, 312
compatibility with PVC, 295-6
compounds used as, 298-9
concentrates, 310
functions and effects, 24, 33, 296,
298-300,309,311
general, 33
magnesium silicate, as, 300
mutual effects with
fillers and pigments, 304
plasticisers, 303
polymeric modifiers, 304
stabilisers, 36-7,114,122,126,
134,140-1,150,302-3
one-pack systems, in, 114, 122,
134, 149-50,310
stabilisers, balance with, see
Stabiliser/lubricant balance
stabilising effects of, 37, 301-2
tests (performance), 305-9
Lubrication, 24, 33, 294-6, 298-9,
311
894
Lubrication-contd.
effects of
magnesium silicate, 300
plasticisers, 37, 296, 303
polymeric modifiers, 295-6, 300,
304
stabilisers, 37,118, 123, 126,
129,131-3,303
evaluation of effects, 305-9
external, 33, 294-6
internal, 33, 294-6
Machining of rigid PVC, 748-9
Magnesium compounds
flame/smoke retardants, as, 353
lubricant application of, 300
Marine exposure tests, 805
Mass polymerisation and polymers,
see under Bulk
Matting (flating) agents, 25 (passim),
360-1,718,760
Maximum swelling temperature, 185
Maximum torque temperature (melt
fusion point), 193,460
MBS impact modifiers, 43, 316, 324,
325,326,327-8,582
Melt-flow tests, 305-7, 391, 592-4
Microbiological attack
definition, 819
manifestations and mechanism, 819
protective additives, 719, 820
resistance to
plasticisers, of, 819
PVC, of, 819, 820-1
testing of resistance to, 820-1
Microporous PVC sheet, 632-3
Migration of
additives into foodstuffs, 13, 247,
251,489,835
colourants, 345, 350
plasticisers, 13, 32, 195-7, 224,
228,247-8,251,253,489
VC monomer, 12,834
Mills
ball, 664, 693, 712
2-roll, 155, 168,456,457,531,532,
534,543,544,608,610,612
3-roll,664
Index
Mixers (see also relevant entries under
Compounding)
continuous, 419-21, 663, 664-6
dissolver, 664
general types, 413-18, 450
horseshoe (anchor) stirrer type,
664
hot/cold,413-19
intensive (high speed), 413-20
internal, 451-3, 458
laboratory, 456-8
paddle, 414, 664
planetary, 460-1, 662, 664
pneumatic, 414, 450
ribbon blender, 413, 414, 664
Modacrylic fibres, 73
Modifiers (see Polymeric modifiers)
Modulus
as basis for distinction between
rigid and semi-rigid plastics, 5
definitions, and typical values for
PVC, 856-8
'100%' (ofpPVC)
definition, 368, 787
values, 246, 280
Moisture content, 84
Molecular weight (mass)
determination by GPC, 54
distribution, 54
fatigue resistance, and, 376
polymeric plasticisers, of, 178,
214-15
PVC, of, 53-4, 56-7
K value, and, 53-4, 56-7, 58
f-l value, and, 187
polymerisation temperature,
and,54,58,70
processing and properties, effect
on, (see also under K value),
28,79,376,592,684-7,699
Molybdenum trioxide, 352
Mould shrinkage of PVC and other
polymers, 572, 591
f-l value, 187
Multi-layer extrusion, 507
NBS Smoke chamber, 846
Newtonian viscosity, 639-40
 Index
'Nibs', 81, 318 (passim); 550, 581
Nitrile rubber, 217, 224 (passim);
329-31
Nitrogen ion implantation, 505
Novodur A, see Baymod
'Nylon ate' ('nylon acid') plasticisers,
see AGS acid ester plasticisers
Octoates, 42, 125, 128
Odour control agents, 25, 359-60
Oil absorption, 34, 36, 272-3, 289,
657
'Oil canning', 481, 802, 818
'One Pack' additive systems, 34, 114,
115,122, 134, 141, 149-50,
310,346 (passim)
Opacifying effect of fillers and
pigments, 269-72
Organosols, 637, 660, 669, 675
Organotin stabilisers, 30, 39, 43, 113,
117-124,133,154,156,170,
472-3,477,536,547,581,656,
690
antimony stabilisers, comparison
with,126
characteristics and applications,
121-4
chemical nature and types, 119,
120-21
mode of action, 124
polymeric, 121
'reverse ester', 123
Oxo process, 204
Oxygen index
definition, 844
plasticisers, effects of, 208, 838
plastics, values for, 373, 840
test methods, 844
Paraloid, see Aeryloid modifiers
Particle characteristics of PVC
polymers, see under PVC
Paste polymers, 28, 653-4, 660, 661,
844-5
895
Pastes (see also Organosols,
Plastigels, Plastisols, and
Rigisols)
casting of, 678
coating of sheet materials with,
670-6
components and formulation of,
643-5, 653-61
compression moulding of, 613-14
definition, 637
dip coating with, 668-9
dip moulding of, 667
extrusion of, 681 (passim)
foam production from, 344, 771,
773-4
gelation/fusion of, see under
Gelation/fusion
preparation, 661-6
rheological properties of, 638-44,
648-51,657,658-9
rotational casting of, 666
slush moulding of, 667
spray coating with, 669-70
standard specification for
preparation, 89, 662, 664
viscosity determination, 89,
645-6,664
terminology, 637-8
viscosity of, see under Viscosity
Permeability, 821-33
blow mouldings, of, 568-9, 585,
586,827
definitions, 821-3
determination of, 822, 824-7
mechanism of, 828
porous materials, of, 828-9
PVC, data for, 829-32
units, 823-7
stretch-orientation, effects on, 96,
569,829,833
Phosphate plasticisers, 31, 32, 188,
190,191,194,197,206-9
flammability, effect on, 37,197,
208-9,351
PVC compounds, performance in,
32,181,183,188,194,197,
206-9,210,229,232-3,235-7,
240,241,242,245,252
896 Index
Phosphite stabilisers, see under
Costabilisers
Photochemical degradation, 109-11
additives protective against, see
UV stabilisers; Antioxidants;
Carbon black; Titanium
dioxide
impurities, effects of, 110, 142, 802
mechanism, 111, 141-3, 147-9,249
relevant tests, 172-4, 802-13
weathering, in, 110, 111, 249, 798,799
phr (abbreviation), 44
Phthalate plasticisers, 31, 32, 39-44,
201-6
flammability, effect on, 208, 239
pastes, in, 655
possible health hazard, 13,251,
489,491, 781.
PVC compositions, performance
in, 181, 182, 183, 185, 194,
197,202-6,229,232-8,240-1, Plasticiser demand (see Oil
242,245,248
Pigments (see also Colourants)
latices, in, 717
outdoor formulations, for, 27
(passim), 122,146-7,691
solutions, in, 691-2, 696
weathering, effects in, 146-7,
348-9,478, 802
Pipes
applications, 467-8
compositions for, 38, 368, 371, 373
formulation aspects, 38, 472-3
production of, 502, 513-16
properties and tests, 321, 473-4
special forms of, 470-2
specifications relevant to, 321,
468-9,473,474,744
types, 467-8
Piston plastometer (ASTM), see
under Rheometers
Planetary extruder (compounder),
444-7,532,544
Plasticisation
external, 9, 178
internal, 9, 74,178,702
PVC latices, of, 703, 704, 713-15,
720-2
Plasticisation--contd.
theories of, 179-80
Plasticised PVC (pPVC),
ageing of (after processing), 185-6
chemical resistance of, 380-1, 384
compression moulding of, 612-13
filler loading, effects in, 261, 262,
263, 279, 280
properties of (see also under
individual plasticiser and
property names), 224-50
stain resistance of, 206, 248-9
weathering of, 110-11,249-50,
801-802
Plasticiser absorption.
fillers, by, see under Oil absorption
PVC polymer particles, by, 80, 86,
88,185,254
Plasticiser content of PVC,
determination of, 44-7, 254
absorption)
Plasticisers (see also under individual
or type names)
abbreviations (letter symbols) for,
198-201
bulk properties of, 181,252-3
chemical nature of, 178, 180-2,
198-223
citrate, 222
commercial, 225-7
compatibility
external materials, with, 223-4
PVC, with, 186-93, 248
cross-linkable, 659, 764, 773
definition, 177
effectivity (efficiency), 188, 193-5,
228-9
efficiency factor, 194,228-9
extraction
PVC materials, from (for
analysis, etc), 44-7
resistance to, 244-7
exudation, tests for, 192, 195
flexible seals, in contact with,
223-4
food contact considerations, 13, 26,
246-7,250-1,489,835
 Index
Plasticisers-contd.
fusing (gelation) rapid, see strongly
solvating (below)
general, 30-2, 197
glycol ester, 222
handling and storage, 251, 403-4
hazards, 13, 204, 250-1, 489, 825
interaction parameters, 186-93
'low temperature' , see Aliphatic
diester plasticisers
migration of, 32, 195-6, 247-8
miscellaneous, 218-23
monoester, 220, 222
monomeric, definition, 178
names and abbreviations, 198-201
pastes, in, 637, 647,654-6, 660-1
permanence of, 195-6
polymeric, 211, 214-7
compositions, in, 215-16, 247,
855
definition, 178,211,214
primary, definition, 177
producers of, 225-7
PVC latices, in, 704, 712-15,
720-2
secondary, definition, 177
selection of, 30-2, 197, 224, 227-9
solubility parameters of, 187-8
strongly solvating, 31, 32, 44,197,
204,206,208,222,654,655
synonyms, 198-201
threshold limit values for, 251
trade names, 225-7
types (genera!), 30-2, 196-7
usage features (general), 32, 197
viscosity-temperature relationship
of,404-5,648,649
volatilisation of, 195,241-3,251,
817
Plasti-Corder, see under Brabender
Plastigels, 637-8, 658
Plastisols (see also Pastes)
basic form of, 644-5
synonymity with pastes, 637
Plastograph, see under Brabender
Plate-out, 157-60
additives, effects on, 129, 130, 132,
158
897
Plate-out-contd.
blowing agents, with, 341
calendering, in, 157, 550
deposits, nature of, 158-9
extrusion, in, 157, 516
test for, 159-60
Polymeric modifiers (see also Impact
modifiers and Processing aids)
heat-distortion resistance, for, 328,
583
lubricants, as, 300, 304
matting agents, as, 328, 360-1
Polymerisation processes, 63-6, 70-2
Polyols, see under Co-stabilisers
Polyurethane
lacquers, 760, 761
modifiers, 217, 246, 324, 332
Polyvinyl chloride (homopolymer)
chemical structure of, 53, 59-60
crystallinity in, 59-61
fine structure (morphology) of,
59-61
molecular orientation in, 61
syndiotactic, 59-61
Porous materials
permeability of, 828
production methods for, 288, 632-4
Porvic process, 633
Powder
coating and moulding, 368, 779-81
compounds,
feedstocks, as, 371, 412-13, 423,
508,509,577
production, see under
Compounding
sintering of, 632-3
types of, 412, 415
pPVC, as abbreviation for plasticised
PVC (q.v.), 5
Prills, 150, 310
Printing, see Surface decoration of
PVC
Processing aids, 314-6
blow moulding compositions, in,
42-3,582-3
calendering compositions, in, 536,
547
extrusion compositions, in, 39
898
Processing aids-contd.
lubricant action of, 297, 300, 304
Profiles
applications, 475-6, 494-5
cellular, 475-6,516
compositions for, 39, 368, 371-2
formulation aspects, 39, 134,332,
476-9
production of, 475, 493 (passim);
502,516
specifications and tests, 320-1,
479-80,495
window frame, 134,328,332,368,
475,476-80,516
Pseudoplasticity, 641-2
Purging
extruders, of, 506
injection machines, of, 599, 600
materials for, 507
PVC
acetal polymers, interaction with at
elevated temperatures, 599
cellular, see Cellular PVC
compounds (see also under
Compounding and
Compounds)
characterisation, 387-9
commercial, 366-70, 371-2, 580,
592-3
standard designation, 387
definitions, 3
fibres and fibre products, 9, 73,
75-6,777
health hazards associated with, see
Health hazards
historical development, 8-9
polymers (resins)
characterisation, 80-2, 87-90
characteristics, 27-9, 53-61,
70-2, 74, 78-81,
commercial, 78, 81, 87, 91-3
general kinds, 27-9, 94
particles, 67-73, 80, 644-5,
653-4,698,701-2,709
production, 61-6
standard designation, 81, 87
usage statistics, 11, 12
waste, disposal of, 14-16
Index
PVC-contd.
window frames, see under Profiles
PVDC
barrier coatings, 576, 584, 761
polymers and copolymers, 73, 74,
76,483,548,660,704,719,
720-1
PVF (surface protection for PVC),
see under Fluoropolymer, and
Weathering resistance
Pyrolysis, 837-8, 839, 840, 842
QUV apparatus, 807, 808, 811
Rad (unit of absorbed ionising
radiation), 124, 763
Radiation darkening of medical
products, 124
RAPRA torque rheometer, 458
Recycling of PVC
compounding, and, 453-5
general problems, 14-16
possible sulphide staining in, 155,
156
Refractive index, 269-72
Regulatory bodies, see under Health
hazards
Relative melting temperature, 185
Retractyl PVC fibre, 777
Rheometers
capillary, 168, 307, 427, 592, 594,
Castor-Severs, 89, 645, 646
melt rheometry, for, review of
(passim), 577
piston plastometer (ASTM),
306-7,592,593
torque, 458
Rheopexy,642,643
Rhovylon PVC filament, 777
Ribstruct pipe, 472
Rigid PVC
chemical resistance of, 380-5
definition, 4-5
properties, 4-5, 370-88
Rigisols, 638, 660-1
Roll test, 192
 Index
Rossi-Peakes flow tester, 306
Rotational casting, 666
Salt spray tests, 805
Selective membranes, 783
Semi-rigid PVC
definition, 4-5
properties, 5, 184
Sheet and sheeting
antistatic, 355, 359, 616, 732
applications of, 483-5, 489, 491,
556-9, 730-2, 753, 778
calendered, see Calendered sheet
commercial, 676, 730-2
definition and characteristics,
481-3,525,729-30
embossing, see Embossing
extruded 516-18
"planishing" (press finishing) of,
552
press-laminated, 609
properties, 483, 537, 554-8, 730-2
tank lining with, 729, 735
tests and standards, 485, 492,
555-8,852,853,857-8
thickness
measurement and control, 541
values and ranges, 482-3, 518,
525
types, 483,491, 518,524,536-7,
555-9, 609, 616
Shore (Durometer) hardness
BS softness, and, 230-1
determination of, 230
effect of fillers on, 279
typical value ranges for PVC,
232-3
Shrink sleeves, 483-4
Siding, 321, 328
Simulated skin, 475, 480-1, 818
Single-pack additive systems, see
'One-pack' additive systems
Slush moulding, 667
Smoke
density, 842, 845-6
evolution
burning plastics, by, 842
899
Smoke--contd.
evolution-contd.
tests for, 845-7
nature, 842
PVC, generated by, 842
suppressants, 352-3
S-N curve, 377
Softness (see also BS softness),
measurement, 230
plasticiser demand by fillers, effect
on,273
plasticisers, effect on, 230-3
Solid-gel transition temperature, see
Clear-point temperature
(definition)
Solubility parameter (b)
concept, 187
plasticisers, of, 187-8
PVC polymer, of, 188
Solution polymerisation, 63-4, 683
Solution polymers, 684-8, 690
Solution temperature, see Clear-point
temperature (definition)
Solutions, PVC of, 683-97
films cast from, 483 (passim); 696-7
ready made, 693
solvent cements, as, 697, 742, 744
Solvation point, 185
Solvent bonding of PVC, see under
Bonding of PVC
Solvent cements, see under Bonding
of PVC, and Chlorinated PVC
'Soot Chamber' (,Smoke Chamber')
test, 359
Spiral mould, melt 'flow length' test,
for, 306, 592, 593
Spontaneous ignition, see
Autoignition
Stabilisation (see also Heat
stabilisers, UV stabilisers, and
Antioxidants)
effects, evaluation of, 160-74, 797
external, 112
general, 102-3
'in kettle', 113
internal, 112-13
mechanisms, 119, 124, 134-5, 137,
138, 139, 140, 144, 146-9
900
Stabiliser/lubricant balance, 114, 122,
140-1,301-3,310,472,546
Stabilisers, see under functional types
(e.g. Heat stabilisers, UV
stabilisers, Antioxidants)
Stability
heat, to,
adverse effects of formulation
components on, 38, 128, 348,
352,355
concept, 160-2
induction time, and, 160-1, 162
polymer nature, effect on, 59,
60,107-9
stability time, and, 160-1, 163,
168
testing, 86,162-72,390-1,796,
797,817-18
light, to, 109-11, 143-9
testing, 172-4,804-5,810-11
Stain resistance of pPVC, 222, 248-9
Standards institutions, 6
Static electricity charges
electrical resistivity, and, 354, 356,
358-9
measurement, 356, 358
Stress
concentrating features, 268, 318,
323
cracking, see Environmental stress
cracking
rupture strength, 375
whitening
filled compositions, in, 34, 38, 272
impact modified compositions,
in, 38, 326, 582
mechanism, 272, 326
Strontium stabilisers, 125, 133
Sulphide staining
as cross-staining, 122, 128, 155
occurrence, 38, 126, 128, 151, 155-
7 PVC, of, 103,841,846
tests for, 155, 157
Surface treatment of fillers, see under
Fillers and Calcium carbonate
fillers
Suspension
polymer particle characteristics,
Index
Suspension-contd.
67-9,70-2,80
polymerisation, 64, 70-2
polymers, 28, 38-43, 488, 580, 644,
654, 660, 661
Syndiotactic PVC polymer, 59, 61
Synergism
co-stabilisation, in, 126, 127, 129,
130,140
lubricant/stabiliser, between, 302,
310
calcium stearate and antimony
mercaptide, between, 126,302
glycerol esters and thiotins,
between, 123, 302
Taber abraser, 862
Talc, 259, 260, 264, 271, 292
Tangit solvent cement, 744
Tank lining with PVC sheet, 729, 735
Tedlar (Du Pont), see under
Fluoropolymer
Tellurium-based heat stabilisers,
(passim); 120
Temperature-gradient bar, 647
Temperature index, 817
Tensile properties
paste products, of, 650, 651
plasticisation, effects on, 532-4,
852-3
temperature, effect on, 318, 817,
818
typical values for PVC, 852-3
Tensol solvent cement, 744
Termites, resistance of PVC to, 821
Tertiary chlorine, 59, 60, 107-8
'fg, see Glass transition temperature
Thermal decomposition products
plastics of, (general), 837, 839
Thermal degradation of PVC
activation energy for, 102, 168
and specific energy for melt
generation, 102
heat-processing conditions, effects
on, 102, 108,424,588-91
 Index
Thermal degradation of PVC-contd.
impurities and residues, effect on, 109
manifestations of, 103-4
measurements of, 162, 164-72
mechanisms of, 104-9
Thermal diffusivity, 571-2
Thermal properties of PVC materials,
283-5,318-19,322,328,330,
332,373,379,390-1,592,594,
796-7,813-18,858-60
Thermoforming, 614-32
Thermovyl fibre, 777
Thickening agents
latices, in, 708-10
pastes, in, 658-9
Thixotropy, 642
Time/temperature effects in melt
processing, see under Thermal
degradation
"Time to black", 161, 168
"Time to colour", 161
Tin stabilisers, see Organotin
stabilisers
Titanium dioxide
clay, in, 259
light stabiliser, as, 27,146-7,478,
691, 802
white pigment, as, 346, 478
Torque rheometers, see under
Rheometers
Toughness, 317
Toxicity, see Health hazards
Transfers (surface decoration), 754
Trialkyl phosphate plasticisers, 197,
200,208,209,210
Triaryl phosphate plasticisers, 197,
200,207-8,210,252
Trimellitate plasticisers, 197, 200,
209,211,212,243,244
Tubing (flexible), 368, 372, 493-5,
781
Ucar PVC solution polymers, 684-7,
690, 695, 696
Ultramoll PU, see Baymod
901
uPVC
as abbreviation for unplasticised
PVC, 5
use as abbreviation for rigid PVC
(q.v.),4
Urea derivatives as heat stabilisers,
136-7
UV stabilisers, 144-9
Vacuum forming, see Thermoforming
Venting
extruders, of, 437, 444, 500
moulds, of, 573, 577
Vinyl chloride,
copolymers, see under Copolymers
homopolymer, see under Polyvinyl
chloride
Vinyl chloride monomer (VC or
VCM)
detection and determination, 86,
834
explosive limits, 63
hazards of, 10, 12-13, 834
polymerisation of, 63-6
production of, 62-3
properties, 63
regulatory measures concerning,
583,834
'stripping' from PVC polymer, 64,
65,66
Viscometers (see also Rheometers)
Brookfield, 645-6, 664
Castor-Severs, 89, 645-6
Ford cup, 646
Viscosity
depressants for pastes, 659
expressions and terms, 53-7
melts, of, 295-6, 306-9, 427,
577-8,589,592-4
number, see under K value
pastes, of, 89, 638-44, 653-4, 655,
656
ageing index, 658
diluent, effects of, 637, 659, 660
extender polymers, effect of, 654
fillers, effect of, 656-8
902
Viscosity---contd.
pastes, of---contd.
measurement of, 89, 645-6
plasticisers, effect of, 654-6
thickening agents, effect of,
658-9
PVC polymers, of (in solution-see
also under K value), 53-7,
82-3,88
solutions, of, 53-7, 88, 685-7, 690
specific (see also under K value),
53-7
stability (pastes), 638, 657-8
standards and definitions, 53-7,
82-3,88
Volatile loss, 89, 195,241-3,388,817
Wacker MP fibre, 777
Water
absorption, 34, 385-6, 390, 862
fillers, effect on, 34, 261
diffusion in PVC, and, 385-7
equilibrium concentration in PVC,
386
Weathering (see also under
Photochemical degradation)
definition, 798
effects, 110-11,249-50,798-801,
814
factors instrumental in, 109-11,
249, 798-801
plasticisers, effects in, 11,249-50,
801
resistance
assessment, 172
formulating for, 27, 116, 122,
134,137,139,143-9,328,331,
332,477-9,691,801-2
improvement of,
coextrusion 'capping', by,
475,507,518,730,801
lamination with PVF film, by,
554, 762, 778
protective coating, by, 760,
762,801
Index
Weathering---contd.
resistance---contd.
processing, effect of, 802
solvent residues and impurities,
effect on, 110, 802
ways of promoting, 801-2
tests, 172, 802-13
Weather-Ometer, 807, 808, 811
Welding of PVC (see also Bonding),
733-41
flooring, 734
recommended temperatures for,
733
specifications relevant to, 733-4,
735
tank linings, 735
window frames, 736
White lead, 116
Whiting, see Calcium carbonate fillers
(types)
Window frames, see under Profiles
Wohler curve, 377
Working surfaces (in PVC melt
processing), 447, 504-5, 576,
596-7
Xenon-arc radiation, 805, 807, 808,
811
Xenotest apparatus, 807, 809
XP-2 smoke chamber, 846
Yellowness index, 813
Zinc-containing stabilisers, 26, 30, 39,
41,42,43,44,125,128-35,
147,151,154,156,170,547,
581,656
Zinc oxide, 147, 352
Zinc sensitivity of PVC resins, 128,
147 (passim); 352 (passim).
ZSK compounding extruder, 428,
431,439-41,499 (passim)