International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643

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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijgfs

Effects of fermentation time on chemical, microbiological, antioxidant, and

organoleptic properties of Indonesian traditional shrimp paste, terasi
Reggie Surya a, *, David Nugroho b, Nurkhalida Kamal c, Felicia Tedjakusuma a
a
Food Technology Department, Faculty of Engineering, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, 11480, Indonesia
b
Department of Integrated Science, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
c
Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Terasi is a traditional fermented shrimp paste from Indonesia. It is commonly used in the preparation of sambal
Terasi terasi, a traditional chili sauce. This study aimed to: (1) investigate the microbiological and chemical changes
Shrimp paste occurring during the fermentation of terasi for 90 days and (2) analyze the antioxidant activity and sensory
Fermentation
acceptance of sambal terasi prepared from shrimp paste fermented for different durations. The microbial load
Traditional food
Indonesia
increased during fermentation and was highly dominated by halophilic bacteria. The number of lactic acid
bacteria decreased at the final stage of fermentation. While the pH fluctuated, the moisture content and water
activity did not change during fermentation. According to its water activity (0.634–0.663), terasi is considered as
an intermediate moisture food. Protein degradation and lipid oxidation took place during fermentation, as shown
by the increase in TCA-soluble peptides and TBARS. Such processes contributed to the flavor development in
terasi. In addition, the formation of potential toxic compounds also occurred during the fermentation of terasi,
including histamine from protein degradation and acrylamide from the Maillard reaction. Terasi had a negligible
antioxidant activity. However, sambal terasi had a strong antioxidant activity due to the presence of chili peppers
and other spices rich in antioxidants. The sensory testing revealed consumer preference for sambal terasi prepared
with shrimp paste fermented for a longer period (60–90 days). However, due to food safety reasons, it is
preferred to opt for a shorter fermentation time of terasi (7–21 days).

1. Introduction
Indonesia is rich in fermented foods that have been an integral part of
the local food culture in many regions. Consuming traditional fermented
foods is indeed a common practice for most Indonesians ( Sudargo et al.,
2022). Terasi is a traditional fermented shrimp paste made from finely
crushed planktonic shrimp known as udang rebon (Acetes indicus) mixed
with salt (Prihanto and Muyasyaroh, 2021). Historically, it is believed to
originate from the city of Cirebon in West Java, Indonesia (Winarno,
2021). Related products are found throughout Asia, such as belacan in
Malaysia, bagoong-alamang in the Philippines, kapi in Thailand and
Cambodia, mam ruoc in Vitenam, ngapi yay in Myanmar, sidol in
Bangladesh, haam ha in Hong Kong and saewoo jeot in Korea (Arthasa­
lina, 2017). The traditional production of terasi consists in salting the
shrimp, grinding to form a homogenous mixture, sun drying and
fermentation for several weeks or months (Harmayani et al., 2016).
During fermentation, a plethora of microbial and enzymatic conversions
occur to form a very particular and complex flavor of terasi. The most
dominant bacterial genus present in terasi are Tetragenococcus, Aloi­
coccus, Atopostipes, Alkalibacillus and Alkalibacterium (Helmi et al.,
2022). Their proteolytic and lipolytic activities affect the aroma and
flavor of terasi by inducing the formation of volatile low molecular
weight compounds, including peptides, amino acids, organic acids, al­
dehydes, amines, fatty acids, etc (Ambarita et al., 2019). Other chemical
reactions such as oxidation, Maillard and Stecker reactions also
contribute to the complex flavor development in terasi (Ambarita et al.,
2019).
Terasi is commonly used as a flavor enhancer in Indonesian cuisine. It
is most extensively used as an additional ingredient to sambal, a tradi­
tional Indonesian chili sauce made from chili pepper (Surya and Ted­
jakusuma, 2022). Sambal terasi, ubiquitous in Indonesia, is a common
condiment widely used to accompany a myriad of daily dishes on
Indonesian tables, from rice in a complete meal, snacks, vegetables and
even fruit dishes. Sambal terasi is made by crushing chili peppers with

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: reggie.surya@binus.edu (R. Surya).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100643
Received 28 July 2022; Received in revised form 21 November 2022; Accepted 5 December 2022
Available online 17 December 2022
1878-450X/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
R. Surya et al.
other ingredients (salt, sugar, shallot and garlic), toasting terasi to
liberate its flavor and cooking all the ingredients together until a ho­
mogenous paste is formed (Surya and Tedjakusuma, 2022). It is domi­
nantly spicy and salty, with a hint of sweetness from the sugar and
shrimpy/fishy flavor from the terasi (Ambarita et al., 2020).
Fermentation is the key process to developing the complex flavor of
terasi. Traditional terasi is prepared through fermentation for several
weeks to several months. The duration of fermentation could be a
determinant factor for the characteristics of terasi. Usually, longer
fermentation period would result in terasi with a stronger and richer
flavor. However, if the fermentation takes place too long, terasi would be
over-fermented and develop undesirable characteristics. Currently,
there has been no reported studies on the evaluation of different
fermentation duration on the characteristics of terasi and its derived
product, sambal terasi. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate how
different fermentation times (30, 60 and 90 days) would affect the
chemical and microbiological properties of terasi. Furthermore, the ef­
fects of different fermentation durations on the antioxidant activity and
sensory acceptance of sambal terasi were also analyzed. The flavor pre­
cursors and components that are critical determinants of the flavor and
quality of terasi, such as amino acids, fatty acids and other volatile
compounds, are not discussed in this study.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Preparation of shrimp paste (terasi)
In this study, the terasi was prepared according to the traditional
practice as described by a local terasi producer from Pantai Indah
Kejawanan, Cirebon, West Java, Indonesia. Briefly, raw planktonic
shrimp or udang rebon (A. indicus) acquired from a local fisherman was
boiled in water for 5 min, drained and mixed with solar salt (15%, 15 g
salt for 100 g shrimp) to make terasi. The fermentation was conducted in
two steps. The first fermentation was performed by letting the salted
shrimp in an enclosed jar for 48 h at room temperature (25 ◦ C).
Following grinding with a blender, the fermented shrimp paste was
formed into flattened balls (diameter 8–10 cm) manually. Subsequently,
the formed paste was oven dried (50 ◦ C, 4 h) to reduce its moisture
content prior to the second fermentation consisting in allowing the paste
to ferment further at room temperature for 30–90 days. According to the
interview sessions conducted with some local terasi producers, tradi­
tional terasi was usually sold after being fermented for 25–30 days and
still could be sold for 60–90 days at room temperature. Time course
sampling was done once a month during the second fermentation that
would cover the period between the terasi production and the time it
reaches the consumers. Terasies sampled at days 0, 30, 60 and 90 were
designated as T D0, T D30, T D60 and T D90 respectively.
2.2. Microbial load analysis
The total viable count was determined according to BAM as previ­
ously described (Pongsetkul et al., 2022) using a standard plate count
agar containing 10% NaCl (pH 7.5). Sample dilution was done using
peptone water containing 10% NaCl. The samples were diluted in serial
tenfold steps prior to application onto agar by the spread plate technique
and incubation for 5 days at 35 ◦ C. The halophilic bacteria content was
analyzed using JCM media according to Namwong et al. (2009). The
incubation was done for 7 days at 35 ◦ C. The lactic acid bacteria count
was performed using MRS agar containing 1% CaCO3 and 10% NaCl as
described by Tanasupawat et al. (2011). The samples were then incu­
bated for 5 days at 35 ◦ C.
2.3. Proximate, water activity and pH analysis
The proximate analysis was performed using the standardized
methods established by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists
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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643
(AOAC) and American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS) as previously
described (Pongsetkul et al., 2014) with some modifications. The
moisture content was measured by gravimetry following oven-drying at
135 ◦ C for 2 h. The ash/mineral content was determined by gravimetry
after calcination at 550 ◦ C. The fat content was analyzed by gravimetry
following sample extraction in Soxhlet apparatus with petroleum ether
at 40–60 ◦ C. The protein content was analyzed using the Kjehldahl
method. The carbohydrate content was obtained by difference. The re­
sults were expressed in dry basis.
The water activity was determined using a water activity analyzer
(AwTherm, Rotronic, Bassersdorf, Germany) according to the manu­
facturer’s instructions. The pH was measured using a pH meter (Type
766, Knick International, Berlin, Germany) according to Nirmal and
Benjakul (2009). Prior to measurement, the samples were diluted in
distilled water with the terasi:water ratio of 1:10 (w/v).
2.4. Trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-soluble peptide assay, thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS), histamine and acrylamide assays
The amount of TCA-soluble peptides determines the degree of hy­
drolysis (DH) of protein, defined as the proportion of cleaved peptide
bonds in a protein hydrolysate (Rutherfurd, 2010). The content of
TCA-soluble peptides in the samples was determined according to
Pongsetkul et al. (2015). Briefly, ground sample (3 g) was homogenized
with 27 mL of cold 5% TCA using a homogenizer (11,000 rpm, 1 min).
The homogenate was stored in ice for 30 min and then centrifuged at
5000 g for 20 min at 4 ◦ C (Frontier 5000 Series Multi Pro, Ohaus, NJ,
USA). The soluble peptides in the supernatant were analyzed according
to the Lowry method using UV–Vis spectrophotometry (Spectroquant
Prove 100, EMD Millipore, MA, USA) at 650 nm. The results were
expressed as mmol tyrosine equivalent/g dry sample.
TBARS value is used as a global analysis of lipid peroxidation end-
products (Rael et al., 2004). The TBARS value in the samples was
examined as previously described (Nirmal and Benjakul, 2009) with
some modifications. Briefly, ground sample (1 g) was mixed with 9 mL
of 0.375% TBA solution (containing 15% TCA and 0.25 N HCl).
Following the heating of mixture in boiling water for 10 min and cool­
ing, the mixture was then centrifuged at 4000 g for 20 min (Frontier
5000 Series Multi Pro, Ohaus, NJ, USA). The supernatant was collected
and analyzed using UV–Vis spectrophotometry (Spectroquant Prove
100, EMD Millipore, MA, USA) at 532 nm. TBARS value was calculated
from a standard curve of malondialdehyde (0–5 ppm) and the results
were expressed as mg malondialdehyde (MDA)/kg dry sample.
Histamine is an example of biogenic amines, a group of low molec­
ular weight organic bases whose presence indicates the food freshness
and deterioration associated with undesired microbial activities. In fish
and fishery products, the level of histamine represents the potential
toxicity towards human health (Visciano et al., 2020). The histamine
analysis in this study was performed using a commercial histamine assay
kit (Megazyme, Dublin, Ireland) according to the manufacturer’s in­
structions. Briefly, ground sample (2 g) was homogenized with 15 mL
buffer (100 m EDTA pH 8), boiled and then centrifuged at 10,000 g for 5
min (Frontier 5000 Series Multi Pro, Ohaus, NJ, USA). The supernatant
was reacted with histamine dehydrogenase (HDH) that would in turn
form formazan dye from iodonitetrazolium chloride (INT). The hista­
mine concentration was determined using UV–Vis spectrophotometry
(Spectroquant Prove 100, EMD Millipore, MA, USA) at 492 nm. The
results were expressed as mg histamine/kg dry sample (ppm).
Acrylamide is a toxic compound generated from Maillard reaction
involving amino acid asparagine and reducing sugars (Rifai and Saleh,
2020). In this study, the level of acrylamide in the samples was analyzed
using Acrylamide-ES ELISA kit (Life Technologies, Delhi, India) ac­
cording to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, samples were
extracted and derived prior to incubation with acrylamide-linked anti­
body solution at 4 ◦ C for 60 min. Afterwards, samples were washed using
a washing buffer solution and re-incubated with the substrate (color)
R. Surya et al.
solution for 20–30 min at room temperature. The absorbance was read
at 450 nm using a microplate ELISA photometer (Infinite 200 PRO,
Tecan, Männedord, Switzerland). The results were expressed as μg
arylamide/kg dry sample (ppb).
2.5. Preparation of shrimp paste chili sauce (sambal terasi)
The sambal terasi was prepared according to a recipe book of Indo­
nesian cuisine (Sutomo, 2015). All the ingredients used were obtained
from a traditional market in Puri Kembangan (West Jakarta, Indonesia).
In a pan, 150 g Cayenne peppers (Capsicum annuum), 15 g garlic (Allium
sativum) and 15 g shallots (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) were stir fried
in heated palm oil for 3 min. In a separate heated pan, 10 g terasi was
toasted for 2 min to release its flavor. The toasted terasi was mixed with
all the stir-fried ingredients and 10 g granulated sugar using a blender
until a smooth paste was formed. The paste was then heated until boiling
and let cool down. The sambal terasi was kept in a refrigerator at 4 ◦ C for
a maximum 2 days prior to further analysis.
2.6. Antioxidant activity assay
DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging assay is a
common method for analyzing antioxidant activity in a biological ma­
trix (Romulo, 2020). The DPPH assay in this study was performed ac­
cording to Surya et al. (2021) with some modifications. Briefly, 2 g
sambal terasi was diluted in 100 mL distilled water and homogenized
(10,000 rpm, 3 min). The mixture was then centrifugated (3000 g, 10
min) at room temperature. The supernatant (1 mL) was added to
methanol (7 mL) and 0.15 mM DPPH (2 mL). The mixture was allowed
to stand at room temperature in the dark for 30 min prior to spectro­
photometric analysis at 517 nm. The blank was prepared in the same
manner, except that distilled water was used instead of the sample. The
antioxidant activity was expressed as percentage of free radical inhibi­
tion. Vitamin C/L-ascorbic acid (Sigma-Aldrich, 100 mg) was used as a
positive control.
2.7. Hedonic rating and ranking analysis
The hedonic rating and ranking analysis was performed using 137
untrained Indonesian panelists aged 19–36 years old who were used to
consuming sambal on daily basis. The human study has been reviewed
by the Ethics Committee at Bina Nusantara University (Jakarta,
Indonesia). Each panelist was asked to rate 5 attributes (color, texture,
aroma, taste and overall) of sambal terasi samples (±5 g) presented with
commercial cassava chips according to their preference using the Likert
scale of 1–7 (1 for strongly dislike and 7 for strongly like). They were
also asked to give a rank from 1 to 5 (1 for the most liked and 5 for the
least liked) to each of the 5 varieties of sambal presented to them (sambal
without terasi, sambal terasi/ST D0, ST D30, ST D60 and ST D90). The
ranks were then summed and a lower sum of rank indicated a higher
consumer preference towards sambal terasi. A glass of plain milk was
given to each panelist to neutralize their tongue between sample
tastings.
2.8. Statistical analysis
All the data obtained in this study (n ≥ 3) were analyzed using
software Systat 10 for Windows. All data were reported as mean ± SD.
The data were analyzed by one-way Anova followed by Dunnett’s post
hoc test in case of significant difference (p < 0.05). The data regarding
hedonic ranking analysis were analyzed using non-parametric Fried­
man’s test.
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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Changes in microbiological and chemical characteristics of shrimp
during the fermentation of terasi
Fig. 1 shows the changes in microbial load during the fermentation of
terasi. In general, the total viable count of bacteria increased mainly
following the first fermentation process of salted shrimp prior to drying
and continued to increase during the second fermentation, from 6.5 log
CFU/g dry shrimp paste at the beginning of fermentation to 8.9 log CFU/
g dry shrimp paste on the 90th day of fermentation. The fermentation of
terasi is a spontaneous fermentation since there is no specific microor­
ganism inoculated into the shrimp paste and the fermentation depends
on whatever microorganisms present in the shrimp paste (Narzary et al.,
2021). The microorganisms in the shrimp paste could come from the
microorganisms naturally present in the shrimp or be introduced from
the environment, such as from the air or through manual handling using
human hands. These microorganisms are the main contributors to the
physicochemical changes occurring during fermentation, as well as the
development of flavor and aroma (Surono and Hosono, 1994). The
addition of salt in a relatively high concentration (15%) in the produc­
tion of shrimp paste plays a key role in preservation by inhibiting the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms (Mulyani et al.,
2021). Salt is able to bind water molecules, thus reducing the water
activity required for microbial growth (Fennema, 1996). The high salt
environment supported the growth of halophilic bacteria during
fermentation (from 4.1 to 6.9 log CFU/g dry shrimp paste in 90 days) as
observed in Fig. 1. The increasing halophilic bacteria count during
fermentation was in accordance with the increasing total viable count
(Fig. 1), thus suggesting that the dominant microorganisms in the
shrimp paste could be halophilic bacteria. Some identified halophilic
bacteria in terasi include Tetragenococcus halophilus, Tetragenococcus
muriaticus and Bacillus cereus (Kobayashi et al., 2003; Cahyaningtyas
et al., 2021). In contrast with the halophilic bacteria, the number of
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) showed a slight increase in the first 30 days of
the fermentation (from 2.4 to 2.8 log CFU/g dry shrimp paste) and then
decreased continuously to 2.2 and 1.6 log CFU/g dry shrimp paste on the
60th and 90th day of the fermentation respectively. In general, LAB are
known to be the dominant microorganisms in many fermented foods
containing high salt, particularly halophilic LAB of genus Tetrageno­
coccus (Chuon et al., 2014). In fermentation, LAB develop flavor com­
ponents by mainly metabolizing carbohydrates (Bintsis, 2018). Since
shrimp paste is relatively low in carbohydrates (Harmayani et al., 2016),
the reduction of LAB during shrimp paste fermentation could be due to
insufficient carbohydrate as substrates for their growth. The reduction of
LAB during the fermentation of kapi, another variant of shrimp paste
from Thailand, has also been observed by Pongsetkul et al. (2017).
The pH of terasi fluctuated during the fermentation (Fig. 2A). Due to
the microbial activities during the fermentation, the pH of terasi was
generally lower than raw shrimp and salted shrimp. During the second
fermentation, the pH of terasi decreased from 6.91 to 6.41 during the
first 30 days and then increased to 7.25 and 7.34 on the 60th and 90th
day of fermentation respectively. The changes in pH during the
fermentation were mostly due to the microbial formation of organic
acids that would decrease the pH (Surono and Hosono, 1994). Indeed,
the pH fluctuation during fermentation was associated with the growth
of LAB (Fig. 1). The increase in LAB led to the decrease in pH and vice
versa. The increase of pH during fermentation was probably due to the
formation of volatile base compounds or other degradation products
such as ammonia by microorganisms (Pongsetkul et al., 2015), mainly
the Alkalibacteria whose number has been shown to increase dramati­
cally during the fermentation of shrimp paste (Helmi et al., 2022).
The moisture content tended to decrease during the entire produc­
tion process of terasi (Fig. 2B). While the moisture content was found to
be extremely high in raw shrimp (91.29%), it decreased in salted shrimp
(68.32%) due to release of water following the salting process. Terasi
R. Surya et al.
Fig. 2. Changes in (a) pH, (b) moisture content and (c) water activity of shrimp paste (terasi) during different steps of its production. Data (n = 3) were expressed as
mean ± SD. Different letters indicate significant difference (p < 0.05) following one-way Anova and Dunnett’s post hoc test. RS: raw shrimp, SS: salted shrimp, UT:
undried terasi, T D0: dried terasi collected at the beginning of fermentation, T D30: terasi collected on the 30th day of fermentation, T D60: terasi collected on the 60th
day of fermentation, T D90: terasi collected on the 90th day of fermentation.
exhibited a lower moisture content due to the drying process applied
prior to the second fermentation. During the fermentation process, the
moisture content of terasi remained stable, ranging from 28.35% to
29.61% with no significant difference (p > 0.05). However, we noticed
that the surface of terasi became drier with the time as it was in direct
contact with the air. The inner part of the shrimp paste stayed moist and
soft even after being fermented for 90 days. According to the Indonesian
National Standard for commercial shrimp paste (terasi), the maximum
moisture content allowed is 45% (BSN, 2016). The water activity (Aw)
also showed the same tendency as the moisture content with no changes
observed during fermentation (Fig. 2C). Overall, our terasi samples had
an Aw value ranging from 0.634 to 0.663. Therefore, shrimp paste can
be categorized as an intermediate moisture food (IMF). This finding was
in accordance with the previous study reporting the Aw of terasi of 0.687
(Ambarita et al., 2021). IMFs are shelf-stable foodstuff with an Aw value
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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643
Fig. 1. Microbial load in shrimp paste (terasi) during
different steps of its production. Data (n = 3) were
expressed as mean ± SD. Different letters in a group
indicate significant difference (p < 0.05) following
one-way Anova and Dunnett’s post hoc test. RS: raw
shrimp, SS: salted shrimp, UT: undried terasi, T D0:
dried terasi collected at the beginning of fermenta­
tion, T D30: terasi collected on the 30th day of
fermentation, T D60: terasi collected on the 60th day
of fermentation, T D90: terasi collected on the 90th
day of fermentation.
of 0.6–0.84 and a moisture content of 15%–40% (Qiu et al., 2019). Such
characteristics would allow to prevent the growth of spoilage and
pathogenic microorganisms since most bacteria require an Aw of 0.9 or
higher to live and carry out metabolic activities (Matthews et al., 2017).
The reduction of Aw in the shrimp paste was mainly due to the addition
of salt at relatively high concentration (15%).
Fig. 3A demonstrates a sharp increase in TCA-soluble peptides during
the production of terasi, from 33.14 mmol/g dry matter in raw shrimp to
496.3 mmol/g dry matter on the 90th day of fermentation. These find­
ings illustrate the proteolytic activities of the microorganisms present in
the shrimp paste that particularly took place during fermentation. Mi­
croorganisms are able to secrete proteases that hydrolyze protein into
smaller peptides and free amino acids (Matthews et al., 2017). This
phenomenon also contributes to increase the protein bioavailability in
human body (Mann and Truswell, 2017). Amino acids are essential for
R. Surya et al.
Fig. 3. Changes in (a) trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-soluble protein, (b) thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value, (c) histamine and (d) acrylamide of
shrimp paste (terasi) during different steps of its production. Data (n = 3) were expressed as mean ± SD. Different letters indicate significant difference (p < 0.05)
following one-way Anova and Dunnett’s post hoc test. RS: raw shrimp, SS: salted shrimp, UT: undried terasi, T D0: dried terasi collected at the beginning of
fermentation, T D30: terasi collected on the 30th day of fermentation, T D60: terasi collected on the 60th day of fermentation, T D90: terasi collected on the 90th day
of fermentation.
flavor development in shrimp paste. Among all the amino acids, alanine,
glutamic acid, leucine, aspartic acid and lysine were the most abun­
dantly found in terasi (Ambarita et al., 2021). Aspartic acid and glutamic
acid have also been reported to increase sharply during shrimp paste
fermentation (Pongsetkul et al., 2017). Aspartic acid gives a sweet hint
to fermented foods while glutamic acid is associated with umami taste
(Zhao et al., 2016). The enzymatic oxidation of amino acids, particularly
L-tyrosine into quinones that are further metabolized into melanins is
responsible for the dark color of shrimp paste (Riley, 1997).
Lipid oxidation also ensued during fermentation as suggested by the
increasing TBARS value as presented in Fig. 3B. While the TBARS value
appeared to be very low in raw and salted shrimp (0.33–0.38 mg MDA/
kg dry matter), it showed a significant increase mainly following the first
fermentation (0.88 mg MDA/kg dry matter) and continued to increase
during the second fermentation until it reached 3.86 mg MDA/kg dry
matter at the end of the 90-day fermentation. Thus, these findings sug­
gested that microbial activity was the main contributor of lipid oxida­
tion in shrimp paste besides the heat generated from the drying process.
Lipolytic microorganisms present in shrimp paste would produce li­
pases, an enzyme promoting the hydrolysis of triglyceriedes into glyc­
erols and free fatty acids (Ambarita et al., 2019). Some abundant
short-chained fatty acids present in terasi were acetic, isovaleric, pro­
pionic, isobutyric and butyric acids (Ambarita et al., 2021). These latter
could be subsequently oxidized into various byproducts of lipid oxida­
tion that would contribute to the very flavor of terasi. Some aldehydes
such as benzaldehyde, phenylethylaldehyde and 3-methylbutyralde­
hyde provide an intense malt, caramel and pleasant odor in shrimp
paste (Yu et al., 2022). However, other aldehydes such as TBARS are
associated with rancidity and off-flavor in meat and oil (Decker et al.,
2005).
Microbial activities occurring during the fermentation of shrimp
paste might also lead to the formation of potential toxic components.
Biogenic amines are basic nitrogenous compounds formed mainly by
microbial degradation of amino acids. Histamine is a common biogenic
amine in seafood products derived from histidine. High levels of dietary
histamine may lead to scombroid food poisoning that resembles an
allergic reaction in humans (Feng et al., 2016). Fig. 3C demonstrates the
level of histamine during the preparation process of terasi. The increase
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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643
of histamine levels in terasi took place mainly during the first and second
fermentation, thus suggesting that microbial activities were the main
contributor of histamine formation. The U.S. Food and Drugs Adminis­
tration (FDA) considers fish and fishery products with a histamine level
of 35 ppm or more to be adulterated and those containing 200 ppm or
more histamine to be injurious to human health (FDA, 2022). The his­
tamine level of the terasi samples in our study (67.19–96.32 ppm)
exceeded the safe level of FDA. However, it is noteworthy that terasi is
usually consumed in a low amount as food seasonings and its concen­
tration in the final food products is suggested to be negligible.
The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids
and reducing sugars at high temperature that causes browning and
development of distinctive flavor in shrimp paste. Acrylamide is an
example of the Maillard reaction byproducts formed through a heat-
catalyzed chemical reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars
(Rifai and Saleh, 2020). It is considered genotoxic and classified by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) under the World
Health Organization (WHO) as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group
2A) (IARC, 2022). Fig. 3D shows that the level of acrylamide increased
significantly during the oven-drying process following the first
fermentation of salted shrimp due to the presence of heat. Such an in­
crease of acrylamide was also in accordance with the browning of terasi
following the drying process. Therefore, microbial activities were not
responsible for the formation of acrylamide in terasi. The levels of
acrylamide in the terasi samples ranged from 46.24 to 50.61 ppb and the
tolerable daily intake of acrylamide is set at 2.6 μg/kg body weight
(Tardiff et al., 2010) to avoid cancer risk. Since terasi is consumed in a
relatively low amount, it might not be a significant contributor of di­
etary acrylamide to humans. Other food products, such as French fries,
potato chips, crackers, cookies, breakfast cereals, bread and coffee are
popularly recognized as the major food sources of acrylamide in human
diet (Zhang and Zhang, 2007).
3.2. Nutritional aspects of terasi
Fig. 4 shows the most notable change in the proximate composition
of the samples during the preparation of terasi was the addition of salt
that resulted in a significant increase of ash/mineral content in the
R. Surya et al.
Fig. 4. Proximate composition of shrimp paste (terasi) dry matters during different steps of its production (n = 3). RS: raw shrimp, SS: salted shrimp, UT: undried
terasi, T D0: dried terasi collected at the beginning of fermentation, T D30: terasi collected on the 30th day of fermentation, T D60: terasi collected on the 60th day of
fermentation, T D90: terasi collected on the 90th day of fermentation.
salted shrimp (18.67%) compared to fresh shrimp (4.83%). The proxi­
mate profile of terasi remained constant during fermentation. Therefore,
the ash/mineral content in shrimp paste was mainly composed of salt
minerals, mainly sodium and chloride. High consumption of sodium is
associated with high blood pressure, which is a major risk factor for
heart disease and stroke (O’Donnell et al., 2015). Shrimp paste contains
protein in a high concentration (68.58%–69.32%). Shrimp is indeed a
source of essential amino acids (Anton et al., 2021). Fat is present in a
low amount in shrimp paste (6.33%–7.06%). Shrimp is rich in unsatu­
rated fatty acids, mainly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosa­
pentaenoic acid (EPA) (Balange et al., 2018). However, it is also worth
noting that shrimp paste contains a high level of cholesterol since shrimp
is high in cholesterol (189 mg cholesterol/100 g shrimp) (Fletcher,
2019). High consumption of cholesterol is linked to a higher risk of
cardiovascular diseases (Ma and Shieh, 2006). Shrimp paste is also low
in carbohydrates (4.92%–5.12%) since shrimp contains little carbohy­
drates and no starch or sugar was added during the paste preparation.
Overall, despite the nutritional content of shrimp paste, it is mostly used
in cuisine in low amounts as a flavor enhancer. Therefore, shrimp paste
would not contribute significantly to human daily nutritional
requirements.
3.3. Antioxidant activity and organoleptic characteristics of sambal terasi
Introducing terasi into chili sauce (sambal) is the most common
manner by which shrimp paste is consumed in Indonesia (Harmayani
et al., 2016). In this study, the concentration of terasi used in the chili
sauce was 5%. Ambarita et al. (2019) reported that introducing more
6
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643
than 13.8% terasi would create a salty and bitter character while
weakening the umami and sweet character of sambal terasi.
Fig. 5 shows that terasi had a low antioxidant activity (7.42%–
7.68%) compared to sambal terasi (69.21%–70.18%). The sambal pre­
pared without terasi had an antioxidant activity of 70.71%, thus
resembling the antioxidant activity of sambal terasi. Therefore, it can be
concluded that terasi is not a source of antioxidants. Nevertheless,
sambal terasi is a good source of antioxidants due to the presence of chili
pepper and other spices that are rich in bioactive compounds that
possess antioxidative properties (Azlan et al., 2022). The antioxidant
activity of sambal terasi was found to be almost as high as 100 mg of
vitamin C used as a positive control (86.71%). Chili peppers are high in
vitamin C, capsaicinoids and polyphenols that exert potent antioxidant
activities (Hamed et al., 2019). Shallot contains compounds with anti­
oxidant activity, such as quercetin, kaempferol and allicin (Leelarun­
grayub et al., 2006). Garlic contains allicin, diallyl sulfides and other
sulfur compounds which also exert antioxidative properties (Rahman
et al., 2012).
The organoleptic acceptance of sambal terasi is presented in Fig. 6.
The hedonic ranking analysis demonstrated significant differences
among the five sambal terasi samples (p < 0.05). ST D60 and ST D90
were ranked first (sum of rank 257) and second (sum of rank 272)
respectively (Fig. 6A). In general, the panelists preferred sambal terasi to
sambal prepared without terasi in terms of aroma, taste, and overall
characteristics (Fig. 6B). The acceptance of the panelists towards
appearance and texture of sambal terasi did not differ among samples
since all the samples showed similar appearance and texture. Regarding
the aroma and taste attributes, the highest hedonic scores were obtained
Fig. 5. Antioxidant activity of shrimp paste (terasi)
during fermentation expressed as percentage of
neutralized DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) in
each sample. Data (n = 3) were expressed as mean ±
SD. Different letters indicate significant difference (p
< 0.05) following one-way Anova and Dunnett’s post
hoc test. T D0: terasi collected on the first day of
fermentation, T D30: terasi collected on the 30th day
of fermentation, T D60: terasi collected on the 60th
day of fermentation, T D90: terasi collected on the
90th day of fermentation, S: sambal prepared without
terasi, ST D0: sambal terasi prepared with T D0, ST
D30: sambal terasi prepared from T D30, ST D60:
sambal terasi prepared from T D60, ST D90: sambal
terasi prepared from T D90.
R. Surya et al.
in the sambal prepared with terasi fermented for 60 (ST D60) and 90 days
(ST D90). The sambal prepared with terasi fermented for 30 days (ST
D30) also showed higher hedonic scores than the sambal prepared with
fresh shrimp paste (ST D0) in terms of aroma and taste. The overall score
was found to be the highest in ST D60 and ST D90 (5.86/7 and 5.89/7
respectively).
It is noteworthy that in this study, the fermentation time (30–90
days) was determined according to the local practices of terasi producers
that fermented terasi for 20–30 days prior to selling and sold their terasi
for 60–90 days. However, Helmi et al. (2022) recently investigated the
dynamic changes in the bacterial community of terasi and recommended
that the fermentation of shrimp paste should be stopped on the 7th day
and not exceed 21 days in order to produce shrimp paste with reduced
health risks. Longer fermentation of terasi (28 days) was strongly asso­
ciated with the accumulation of putrefaction products and byproducts of
Maillard reaction, as well as the alteration of bacterial community.
Therefore, these findings should be taken into account in the future
studies with regard to the fermentation of terasi.
4. Conclusions
Microbiological and chemical characteristics of shrimp paste (terasi)
changed throughout the fermentation process. The number of microor­
ganisms in the shrimp paste increased continuously with halophilic
bacteria dominating the microbial population. Protein degradation and
lipid oxidation occurred during the fermentation. These processes,
mediated by both endogenous and microbial activities, contributed to
the flavor development in the final product. Shrimp paste had a low
antioxidant activity and, therefore, was not a source of antioxidants. Its
use in sambal terasi with chili peppers and other spices that are rich in
antioxidants would significantly improve its antioxidant activity.
Finally, the sensory testing revealed the consumer preference for sambal
terasi prepared with shrimp paste fermented for a longer period. Taken
together, our findings suggested that fermenting shrimp paste for 60–90
7
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643
Fig. 6. Sensory acceptance of chili sauce (sambal)
prepared using shrimp paste (terasi) analyzed using
hedonic (a) ranking and (b) rating analyses. In (a),
data were expressed as sum of rank received by each
sample, thus meaning that a lower sum of rank in­
dicates a higher consumer preference. In (b), data (n
= 137) were expressed as mean ± SD and different
letters indicate significant difference (p < 0.05)
following one-way Anova and Dunnett’s post hoc test.
S: sambal prepared without terasi, ST D0: sambal terasi
prepared with terasi collected on the first day of
fermentation, ST D30: sambal terasi prepared from
terasi collected on the 30th day of fermentation, ST
D60: sambal terasi prepared from terasi collected on
the 60th day of fermentation, ST D90: sambal terasi
prepared from terasi collected on the 90th day of
fermentation.
days would be preferable to develop its complex flavor and maximize
the consumer preference. However, a shorter fermentation time of terasi
(7–21 days) should be considered in further studies to produce terasi
with reduced health risks.
Implications for gastronomy
Fermented shrimp paste (terasi) has been an integral in Indonesian
food culture for thousands of years. Today, it is widely produced in
many coastal areas in the archipelago, mostly at the level of home in­
dustries. There have been few studies regarding the optimization of
terasi fermentation. Particularly, the effects of fermentation duration on
the characteristics of terasi have not been studied. With regard to
gastronomy, this study allows to understand the changes occurring
during terasi fermentation and subsequently deduce the optimal
fermentation time for producing terasi with the best sensory acceptance.
Moreover, besides terasi, this study also focused on sambal terasi, a
traditional Indonesian chili sauce incorporating terasi in its recipe.
Indeed, sambal terasi is the most common food containing terasi widely
consumed on daily basis in Indonesia. Therefore, this study could
contribute to the progress of gastronomic knowledge and give an insight
into developing terasi in gastronomy.
Funding
This study was co-funded by PT Sekar Laut, Sidoarjo, East Java,
Indonesia (Grant Number RG-2021-008).
Author contribution
RS designed the study and was responsible for writing the manu­
script. FT, DN and NK helped in data collection, data analysis and review
of the manuscript.
R. Surya et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 31 (2023) 100643

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