British Civilization

Thoroughly updated and revised, the ninth edition of the highly regarded British
Civilization: An Introduction continues to be the ideal textbook on Britain, its
country and people, religion, politics and government, international relations,
legal system, economy, education, media and culture for students of British
studies.
Examining central structural features of British society, the book provides
an introduction to British civilization that highlights its history of cultural,
geographical and human diversity. The book includes:

n expanded discussion of Britain’s current political climate and international

relations through an examination of the 2016 Brexit referendum, the
subsequent general election and Brexit negotiations up to April 2019
n discussion of the ever-shifting economy from a global perspective
n opinion polls and surveys that provide an insight into the attitudes of
British people to the conditions in which they live and operate today
n exercises, questions and suggestions for further reading and useful websites
that stimulate class discussion and provide a springboard upon which
students can develop their own independent study.

Supported by a companion website (www.routledge.com/cw/oakland), a long-

ranging chronology, full-colour illustrations, useful figures, exercises and discussion
questions, and suggestions for further reading, it is the perfect introduction to the
crucial and complex nature of British civilization, culture and society, past and
present.

John Oakland is former Senior Lecturer in English at the Norwegian University

of Science and Technology and the author (with David Mauk) of American
Civilization (2017, now in its seventh edition), Irish Civilization (2012, with
Arthur Aughey), British Civilization: A Student’s Dictionary (2003, in its second
edition) and Contemporary Britain (2001).
British Civilization
An Introduction

9th edition

John Oakland
Ninth edition published 2020
by Routledge
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© 2020 John Oakland
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without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 1989
Eighth edition published by Routledge 2016
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Oakland, John, author.
Title: British civilization : an introduction / John Oakland.
Description: Ninth edition. | London ; New York, NY : Routledge/
Taylor & Francis Group : 2020. | Includes index.
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ISBN 9781138318137 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138318144
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Subjects: LCSH: Great Britain—Civilization—Textbooks.
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 Contents

List of plates ix
List of figures xiii
List of tables xv
Preface and acknowledgements xvii
Chronology of significant dates in British history xix

l The British context 1

Historical growth 3
Structural change 12
Contemporary conditions 15
British attitudes to Britain 21
Exercises 24
Further reading 25
Websites 26

2 The country 27
Geographical identities 28
Physical features and climate 30
Agriculture, fisheries and forestry 40
Energy resources 44
Transport and communications 48
Attitudes to the environment 54
Exercises 59
Further reading 59
Websites 60

3 The people 61
Early settlement to ad 1066 63
Growth and immigration to the twentieth century 67
vi Con t e nt s

Immigration from 1900 72

Ethnic groups in the UK 79
Population movements from 1900 80
Attitudes to national, ethnic and local identities 82
Exercises 87
Further reading 87
Websites 88

4 Religion 89
Religious history 91
The Christian tradition 95
The non-Christian tradition 104
Cooperation among the faiths 108
Religion in schools 109
Religious identification 110
Attitudes to religion and morality 111
Exercises 114
Further reading 114
Websites 115

5 Politics and government 117

Political history 119
Local government and devolution 126
The contemporary British political framework 129
Constitution and monarchy 130
UK Parliament: role, legislation and elections 138
The UK party political system 144
The UK government 150
UK parliamentary control of government 153
Attitudes to politics 155
Exercises 157
Further reading 158
Websites 158

6 International relations 161

Foreign and defence policy 163
Empire, Commonwealth and Ireland 170
The European Union (EU) 174
Exercises 184
Further reading 184
Websites 185
 C o nte nts vii

7 The legal system 187

Legal history 189
Sources of British law 191
Court structures in England and Wales 192
Civil and criminal procedure in England and Wales 198
Law and order 204
The legal profession 211
Attitudes to the legal system and crime 214
Exercises 216
Further reading 216
Websites 217

8 The economy 219

Early British economic history 221
The modern economy: policies, structure and performance 223
Social class, the workforce and employment 233
Financial institutions 239
Industrial and commercial institutions 243
Consumer protection 247
Attitudes to the economy 248
Exercises 250
Further reading 251
Websites 251

9 Social services 253

Social services history 255
Household and family structures 257
Social security (pensions and welfare benefits) 261
The National Health Service (NHS) 264
The personal social services/social care 271
Housing 273
Attitudes to the social services 281
Exercises 284
Further reading 284
Websites 285

10 Education 287
School history 289
The 1944 Education Act 291
The contemporary state school sector 293
The contemporary independent (fee-paying) school sector 298
v iii Con t e nt s

School organization and examinations 300

Higher education 304
Further, adult and lifelong education 311
Attitudes to education 312
Exercises 315
Further reading 316
Websites 316

11 The media 319

The print media 322
The broadcasting media 332
Media ownership and freedom of expression 340
Attitudes to the media 344
Exercises 346
Further reading 346
Websites 347

12 Leisure, sport and the arts 349

Leisure activities 352
Sport 362
The arts 372
Exercises 382
Further reading 382
Websites 383

Index 385
 Plates

1.1 William the Conqueror, Norman Conquest, 1066 3

1.2 James 1, 1603, dynastic union 5
1.3 Queen Victoria, Empress of India, c. 1876 6
1.4 Clement Attlee, Labour Prime Minister, 1945–51 8
1.5 Margaret Thatcher, Conservative Prime Minister, 1979–91 9
1.6 Edward Heath signing EEC agreement, Belgium 1972 10
1.7 Bomb attack on London bus, Tavistock Square, 7 July 2005 11
2.1 The White Cliffs of Dover, England 33
2.2 Scafell Pike, National Park, Cumbria, England 35
2.3 Mt Snowdon, Wales 36
2.4 Ben Nevis, Scotland 37
2.5 The Giant’s Causeway, Antrim, Northern Ireland 38
2.6 Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant, Cumbria, England 47
2.7 Updated Routemaster London bus, 2012 50
3.1 Happisburgh, Norfolk, earliest known footprints in Britain 63
3.2 Avebury Henge, Wiltshire 64
3.3 St Patrick’s Day Parade, Belfast 67
3.4 St David’s Day, Cardiff 68
3.5 Scottish piper in traditional dress playing bagpipes 69
3.6 Notting Hill Carnival, London 74
3.7 Diwali Festival of Light, Leicester 77
4.1 The Martyrs’ Memorial, Oxford 93
4.2 West Newton church (Church of England), Sandringham, Norfolk 96
4.3 Canterbury Cathedral (Church of England) 97
4.4 Requiem Mass at Westminster Cathedral (Roman Catholic),
London101
4.5 Bayswater Synagogue, London 105
4.6 Muslim Friday prayers 106
4.7 A Hindu wedding ceremony 107
x Pla t e s

5.1 Oliver Cromwell, 1599–1658 120

5.2 Sir Robert Walpole, 1676–1745 122
5.3 City Hall, London 129
5.4 The Scottish Parliament, Edinburgh 132
5.5 The Welsh Assembly, Cardiff 133
5.6 Stormont, Northern Ireland 133
5.7 Houses of Parliament, UK 138
5.8 State Opening of UK Parliament 140
5.9 Cabinet meeting in the Cabinet Room, Downing Street 152
6.1 Queen Elizabeth II at Commonwealth reception 163
6.2 G7 leaders’ group 165
6.3 British troops withdraw from Afghanistan 168
6.4 Commonwealth Heads of Government meeting 173
6.5 The European Parliament, Brussels 175
6.6 The European Court of Justice, Luxembourg 178
7.1 The Old Bailey, London 195
7.2 Kingston-upon-Thames crown court 195
7.3 The UK Supreme Court 196
7.4 The Royal Courts of Justice, the Strand, London 198
7.5 Occupy London protesters clash with police, London, 2012 209
7.6 Middle Temple, London 212
8.1 Ironbridge, Shropshire 222
8.2 BMW Mini car plant, Cowley, Oxford, 2009 226
8.3 Bombardier train production, Derby 227
8.4 Rolls-Royce aircraft engine production, Derby 228
8.5 The Lloyd’s Building, London 230
8.6 The Bank of England, London 235
8.7 Canary Wharf, London 240
9.1 Doctors’ waiting room at busy GPs’ medical practice 267
9.2 NHS operating theatre in action 267
9.3 University College Hospital, London 268
9.4 Detached house on new housing estate 274
9.5 Terraced housing, Kensal Rise, London 275
9.6 A council estate with tower blocks, Thamesmead, London 276
9.7 Homeless man begging, Cromwell Road, London 280
10.1 Pupils in a primary school class, Tooting, London 294
10.2 Nottingham Bluecoat Academy 297
10.3 Pupils at Eton College (public school) 299
10.4 Secondary school chemistry class 301
10.5 Balliol College, Oxford 305
10.6 Leeds University 306
11.1 News UK printing plant, Broxbourne, London 324
11.2 National daily newspapers 326
 P la te s xi

11.3 New Broadcasting House, Portland Place, London 344

11.4 Photographers and press outside hospital after birth of
Prince George 345
12.1 Drinking outside the White Horse pub, Soho, London 355
12.2 Eagle and Child pub, Oxford 358
12.3 Benidorm, Costa Blanca, Spain 360
12.4 FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium, 2018 366
12.5 Wembley Stadium, London 367
12.6 Village cricket match, Chagford, Devon 368
12.7 Surfers on Cornish coast 369
12.8 Shaftesbury Avenue theatres, London 375
12.9 The Millennium Walkway and Tate Modern, London 380
 Figures

2.1 The United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland 32

2.2 Highland and lowland Britain 34
2.3 English regions (4–12), devolved areas (1–3) and energy sources 46
4.1 Main contemporary religious groups 95
5.1 The contemporary British political framework 130
5.2 The House of Commons 141
5.3 From bill to UK Act of Parliament 143
6.1 The European Union, 2019 177
7.1 Civil and Criminal courts in England and Wales 192
7.2 A typical magistrates’ court in action 200
7.3 A typical crown court in action 201
7.4 Criminal procedure 202
8.1 Inflation rate (% consumer price index), 2014–19 231
8.2 Unemployment rate (percentage) 1971–2019 238
10.1 The state school sector in England and Wales 296
10.2 The independent school sector 298
 Tables

1.1 British attitudes in the first decade of the twenty-first

century, 2009 22
1.2 Most important issues facing Britain today (%), 2017 23
3.1 Early settlement to ad 1066 66
3.2 Composition of ethnic groups in the UK, 2011 79
3.3 Population of the UK, 2017 81
3.4 Estimated populations of city regions, mid-2015 82
5.1 British governments and Prime Ministers since 1945 145
5.2 General election results (UK), 8 June 2017 149
6.1 European Union Parliament election results 2014
(Britain: main parties) 179
6.2 UK results of EU Referendum 23 June 2016 183
9.1 Types of household, UK, 2017 258
9.2 Types of families, UK, 2017 259
11.1 Main national print newspapers (average circulation 2018)  327
12.1 Adult leisure pastimes in Britain (%) 2017  354
12.2 Leading countries visited by UK residents (million), 2016  361
12.3 Leading countries visiting the UK: visits and spending, 2016  361
12.4 Most popular sports events (attended) in the UK, 2018 365
12.5 Live music events, 2015–16, attendance by percentage  377
 Preface and
acknowledgements

The term ‘British civilization’ describes a developed society, which occupies a

specific physical space (the United Kingdom). It has been populated by suc-
cessive migrant peoples, whose cultures, customs and evolution have variously
contributed to institutional building blocks which today collectively represent
‘a whole way of life’. Although the word ‘civilization’ has been traditionally
associated with notions of national and racial superiority and imperialism, it
now has a more descriptive, or neutral, force.
This book specifically examines central structural features of British soci-
ety, such as the political and governmental system, international relations, the
law, the economy, social services, the media, education, religion, the country,
the people, the arts, sport and leisure. These illustrate a history of cultural, geo-
graphical and human diversity, which still influences debates about identities
and social change. The chapters include opinion polls and surveys, which con-
sider the attitudes of British people to the conditions in which they live and
operate today.
Methodologically, the book uses descriptive and analytical approaches in
its examination of the UK. Each chapter refers to relevant historical and policy
contexts and provides information on current developments in Britain. This
allows students to organize their own study needs and responses to British
society, and encourages critical discussion. Essay and term exercises at the end
of each chapter deal with central issues, and most can be initially answered
from material contained in the text. Additional information may be found in
suggested further reading and websites. Introductory reference dictionaries are
Crowther, J. (2005) Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, and (2005–13) Longman Dictionary of English Lan-
guage and Culture, London: Longman.
x v iii Pr ef ac e and ac k no w l e dg e m e nt s

A book of this type is necessarily indebted for many of its facts, ideas and
statistics, to a range of sources, to which acknowledgement is gratefully made
(see also Further reading at the end of each chapter). Particular thanks are due
to the annual publications of the Office for National Statistics (ONS), London:
Palgrave Macmillan (especially Regional Trends, Social Trends, Annual Abstract
of Statistics, Family Spending and Key Population and Vital Statistics); the annual
British Social Attitudes, NatCen for Social Research, London; newspapers and
magazines such as The Times (London) and The Economist (London); and pub-
lic opinion poll sources, such as Ipsos MORI; Gallup; ICM; Populus; YouGov,
ONS surveys and Department for Culture, Media and Sport statistical releases
(DCMS).
Many of the websites referenced in this book are produced by public and
government organizations. Although these provide official perspectives, they
are often more up to date and informative than some independent websites,
which can frequently change their addresses and content or disappear.
The term ‘billion’ in this book means a ‘thousand million’ (1,000,000,000).
 Chronology of
significant dates in
British history

Early history
Prehistory: British Isles and Ireland originally part of European land mass; warmer
conditions alternated with long Ice Ages
c. 850,000 BC: human footprints found on the beach at Happisburgh, Norfolk, are the
oldest discovered outside Africa
c. 800,000 BC: flint tools, found on the Norfolk coast, indicate human occupation
c. 700,000 BC: butchered animal bones and stone tools found in southern England
suggest human hunting activity
c. 520,000 BC: earliest human bones found, in southern England (Boxgrove Man)
c. 250,000 BC: nomadic Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) peoples arrived
50,000 BC: warmer climate encouraged arrival of ancestors of modern populations
c. 10,000 BC: end of Ice Ages; population consisted of Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic)
hunters and fishers
5,000 BC: today’s British islands gradually separated from continental Europe
c. 3,000 BC: New Stone Age (Neolithic) peoples populated the western parts of the
islands; farming introduced; stone and earth monuments built
c. 1,800 BC: Bronze Age settlers (Beaker Folk) in south-east and eastern England;
traded in gold, copper and tin
600 BC: settlement of Celts (Iron Age) from western and central Europe began
c. 200 BC: invasions by Belgic (allegedly Celtic) tribes; mainly in eastern England
55–54 BC: Julius Caesar’s exploratory expeditions
ad 43: Roman conquest of England, Wales and (temporarily) lowland Scotland
by Emperor Claudius and later governors such as Agricola; Christian
influences
122–38: Hadrian’s Wall built between Scotland and England
c. 400: Celtic/Gaelic groups from Ireland colonized western Scotland
c. 409: Roman army withdrew from Britain; wars between the Celts
xx Ch r o no l o g y o f s i g ni f i c ant dat e s

c. 410: Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) invasions began

430: existing Celtic Christianity in Ireland later spread by St Patrick (from
432) and other Irish missionaries to Scotland, Wales and northern
England
c. 500–820: seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (Heptarchy) evolved, which later
became England; mainly Celtic peoples populated Wales, Ireland,
Scotland and Cornwall
597: St Augustine preached Christianity (Roman Catholic Church model)
to Anglo-Saxons of southern England; creation of ecclesiastical capital
in Canterbury, Kent
664: Synod of Whitby chose Roman Catholic Church model for British
Christianity
789–95: Scandinavian (Viking) raids began
800: Cornwall conquered by Anglo-Saxons
820: Anglo-Saxon kingdoms dominated by Wessex
832–60: union of most Scots and Picts in Scotland under Kenneth MacAlpin to
form the eventual kingdom of Scotland
860s: Scandinavians controlled much of northern and eastern England (East
Anglia, Northumbria and eastern Mercia – the Danelaw)
871–99: reign of Alfred the Great of Wessex
878: Scandinavians defeated in England by King Alfred and confined to
Danelaw
954–9: Anglo-Saxon kingdoms consolidated into Kingdom of England:
recovery of the Danelaw
1013–14: Sven of Norway conquered England
1014: Scandinavians defeated in Ireland
1018: Scotland came under English rule

The early Middle Ages

1066: September, King Harold defeated Norwegian army at Stamford Bridge; Octo-
ber; William I (the Conqueror) defeated Harold at Hastings and ascended the
English throne; The Norman Conquest, feudalism introduced
1072: William I invaded Scotland
1086: Domesday Book (tax and land records) compiled for England by Normans
1169: Henry II invaded and controlled the east coast of Ireland
1200s: first Oxford and Cambridge colleges founded
1215: King John forced by barons to seal the Magna Carta at Runnymede near Wind-
sor, which protected English aristocratic rights against royal abuse
1265: following earlier attempts to establish English parliament structures in 1254
and 1258, Simon de Montfort organized a short-lived English proto-parliament
1282: much of Wales controlled by England under Edward I
1295: Model Parliament (first regular English Parliament) created by Edward I
1296: Scots defeated by Edward I
1297: first Irish Parliament
1301: Edward of Caernarvon (later Edward II) named as first Prince of Wales
1314: Scottish victory at battle of Bannockburn regained Scottish independence
1326: first Scottish Parliament
 C hr ono lo g y o f signific a nt d a te s xxi

The late Middle Ages

1337: Hundred Years War between England and France began
1348–9: plague (Black Death) destroyed a third of the islands’ population
1362: English replaced French as the official language
1381: Peasants’ Revolt (popular rebellion) in England
c.1387–c.1394: Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales
1400–10: failed Welsh revolt by Owain Glyndwr against English rule
1406: Earl of Derby bought Isle of Man from Scotland
1407: House of Commons became responsible for taxation
1411: first university in Scotland founded (St Andrews)
1415: Battle of Agincourt; England defeated France
1455–87: Wars of the Roses between Yorkists and Lancastrians
1469: Orkney and Shetland transferred to Scotland by Norway
1477: first book printed in England, by William Caxton

Towards the nation state (Britain)

1509: accession of Henry VIII
1513: Henry VIII defeated the Scots at Flodden
1534–40: Henry VIII broke with Papacy and became Head of the English
Church (Roman Catholic); beginning of the English Reformation
1536–42: Acts of Union created legal and administrative integration of England
and Wales
1547–53: Protestantism became official religion in England under Edward VI
1553–58: Catholic reaction under Mary I: Roman Catholicism restored
1558–1603: Elizabeth I: Protestantism reconfirmed
1558: Calais, England’s last possession in France, lost
1560: Protestant Church of Scotland created by John Knox; Scottish
Reformation
1585–90: first English colonial ventures in North America
1587: Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, executed in London
1588: defeat of Spanish Armada
c.1590–c.1613: plays of William Shakespeare written
1600: East India (trading) Company founded
1603: dynastic union of England and Scotland under James VI of Scotland
(James I of England); Union of the Two Crowns
1607: Plantation of Ulster (Northern Ireland) with Scottish and English
Protestant settlers: establishment of first permanent English colony in
North America at Jamestown (Virginia)
1611: Authorized (King James) Version of the Bible issued
1628: monarch’s power restricted by the Petition of Right
1641: rebellion in Ireland
1642–48: Civil Wars between King Charles I and Parliament
1649: execution of Charles I; monarchy abolished
1653–58: Oliver Cromwell ruled England as Lord Protector
1660: monarchy restored under Charles II (the Restoration)
1665: Great Plague in England
x xii Ch r o no l o g y o f s i g ni f i c ant dat e s

1666: Great Fire of London

1679: Habeas Corpus Act passed; party political system gradually initiated
1686: Isaac Newton proposed laws of motion and gravitation
1688: Glorious Revolution; accession of William III and Mary II to the
throne
1689: Declaration of Rights
1690: Irish defeated by William III at the Battle of the Boyne

The eighteenth century

1707: Acts of Union joined England/Wales and Scotland (Great Britain); uni-
fication of Scottish and English Parliaments
1715: Scottish Jacobite (Stuart) rebellions crushed
1721: Robert Walpole became Britain’s first prime minister
1739: War with Spain
1742: War with France
1745: Failed Scottish rebellion under Bonnie Prince Charlie to restore the
British throne to the Stuarts
1756: Seven Years War between European powers
1750s–1830s: Industrial Revolutions
1759: war with France; Canada won from French
1761: opening of the Bridgewater Canal began the Canal Age
1765: Isle of Man purchased by British Crown
1769: the steam engine and the spinning machine invented
1775–83: American War for Independence; loss of the Thirteen Colonies
1793–1815: Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

The nineteenth century

1801: Act of Union joined Great Britain and Ireland (United Kingdom)
1805: Battle of Trafalgar; Nelson defeated the French navy
1807: abolition of the slave trade in the British Empire; ending of slavery in
1833
1815: Napoleon defeated by Wellington and Prussian allies (Blücher) at
Waterloo
1825: opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the world’s first pub-
lic passenger railway
1829: Catholic emancipation (freedom of religious worship)
1832: First Reform Act extended the male franchise (vote) by 50 per cent
1837–1901: reign of Queen Victoria
1838: People’s Charter and the beginning of trade unions
1839: the Durham Report on dominion status for some colonies, such as
Canada
1845: disastrous harvest failure in Ireland
1851: first organized trade unions appeared
1853–6: the Crimean War
 C hr ono lo g y o f signific a nt d a te s xxiii

1868: Trade Union Congress (TUC) established

1870: compulsory elementary state school education introduced in England;
Canada became first dominion state
1871: legal recognition of trade unions
1899: the Boer War (South Africa)

The twentieth century

1901: death of Queen Victoria
1904: Entente Cordiale with France
1910–36: British Empire reached its global territorial peak
1911: political veto power of the House of Lords restricted
1914–18: First World War
1916: Easter Rising against Britain in Dublin
1918: all men over 21 and women over 30 received the vote
1919: League of Nations created
1921–2: Irish Free State established by Anglo-Irish Treaty; Northern Ireland remained
part of the United Kingdom with its own devolved parliament
1924: first Labour government
1926: General Strike
1928: votes for all women over 21
1930s: economic depression, poverty and high unemployment; Jarrow March
1936
1931: British Commonwealth of Nations emerges
1936: abdication of King Edward VIII
1939–45: Second World War (W. Churchill, prime minister 1940)
1940: Battle of Britain
1941: Anglo-American alliance sealed by the Atlantic Charter
1942: Beveridge Report laid the foundations for the Welfare State; American
troops arrived in Europe (Belfast)
1944: Butler Education Act; state secondary education free and compulsory to
age 15; allied troops landed in Normandy on D-Day (liberation of France)
1945: United Nations formed with Britain as a founder member; Labour won
landslide general election with Clement Attlee as prime minister
1947: the Yalta Conference shaped post-war Europe; independence for India
and Pakistan, beginning of large-scale decolonialization; coal industry
nationalized
1948: National Health Service created, free medical care for all; post-war immi-
gration from the Commonwealth began; Olympic Games, London
1949: Irish Free State became the Republic of Ireland; NATO created; the mod-
ern Commonwealth emerged
1950–3: British troops supported UN action in Korean War
1951: Conservatives (Churchill as PM) won general election; Festival of Britain
1952: accession of Elizabeth II
1953: Watson and Crick published discovery of DNA
1955: Conservatives won general election with Sir Anthony Eden as prime minis-
ter; commercial television started
1956: the Suez Canal Crisis; Britain’s first nuclear power station became operative
x xiv Ch r o no l o g y o f s i g ni f i c ant dat e s

1957: Ghana became first British colony in Africa to gain independence; Britain
tested its first hydrogen bomb: Clean Air Act; Eden resigned as prime min-
ister, replaced by Harold Macmillan
1958: first phase of motorway system opened
1959: Conservatives under Harold Macmillan won general election
1960: Britain joined European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
1963: Conservative Sir Alec Douglas-Home became prime minister; new univer-
sities, such as York and Sussex, created; France vetoed Britain’s entry to
European Economic Community (EEC), now EU
1964: the rise of supermarkets; Labour won general election with Harold Wilson
as prime minister
1965: death penalty (by hanging) for serious crimes effectively abolished; com-
prehensive education system initiated
1965–9: oil and gas discoveries in the North Sea
1966: England won football World Cup
1967: abortion and homosexuality decriminalized
1968: protest and violence erupted in Northern Ireland
1969: vote extended to all persons over 18; Concorde, world’s first supersonic
airliner, made its first flight
1970: Conservatives won general election with Edward Heath as prime minister
1971: decimal currency introduced; first British soldier killed in Northern Ire-
land’s ‘Troubles’; North Sea oil concessions auctioned
1972: direct rule from Westminster in Northern Ireland; 14 protesters killed
on Bloody Sunday, Londonderry, Northern Ireland; Asians expelled from
Uganda with many settling in Britain
1973: Britain left EFTA and entered EEC (now EU)
1974: February, general election resulted in ‘hung Parliament’ with Harold Wilson
as prime minister; October, Labour won small majority in general election
with Harold Wilson as prime minister
1975: referendum affirmed Britain’s continued membership of EEC
1976: Britain forced to borrow money from International Monetary Fund;
Harold Wilson resigned as prime minister and was replaced by James
Callaghan
1978–79: strikes paralysed Britain during ‘Winter of Discontent’
1978: world’s first test tube baby born in Oldham
1979: Margaret Thatcher, Britain’s first woman prime minister; Lord Mountbat-
ten killed by IRA; Wales and Scotland rejected devolution
1981: Social Democratic Party (SDP) formed; hunger strikes by Republican
prisoners ended after ten deaths; Humber Bridge opened; race riots in
Brixton
1982: the Falklands War with Argentina; economic recession
1983: Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher re-elected
1984: miners’ strike over pit closures; IRA bombers attacked Conservative Party
Conference in Brighton
1985: Anglo-Irish Agreement gave Irish Republic a voice in the organization of
Northern Ireland
1986: major national industries privatized
1987: Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher won third general election
1988: SDP merged with Liberal Party to become the Liberal Democrats
1989: Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web
 C hr ono lo g y o f signific a nt d a te s xxv

1990: introduction of ‘poll tax’ provoked riots in London; Thatcher resigned;

replaced by John Major
1991: liberation of Kuwait by coalition forces; Operation Desert Storm
1992: Conservatives won general election with John Major as prime minister;
withdrawal of pound sterling from ERM on ‘Black Wednesday’
1994: Channel rail tunnel between France and Britain opened; first women priests
ordained in Church of England
1997: referendums on devolution for Scotland and Wales; sovereignty of Hong
Kong transferred to China; Labour won general election with Tony Blair as
prime minister
1998: Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement; endorsed by referendums in both parts
of Ireland; election of devolved Northern Ireland Assembly
1999: devolution structures in Scotland (a Parliament) and Wales (an Assembly)

The twenty-first century

2000: number of hereditary peers in the House of Lords reduced from 750 to 92
(now 88); stock markets fell as ‘dotcom bubble’ burst
2001: Labour won general election with Tony Blair as prime minister; foot and
mouth disease in rural Britain; Northern Ireland Assembly suspended
until 2007; Britain engaged in NATO and UN peacekeeping action in
Afghanistan
2003: gains for Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn Féin in Northern Ireland
Assembly elections; coalition forces (including Britain) invaded Iraq
2004: ten new states joined EU
2005: Labour Party achieved third successive victory in general election (Tony
Blair as PM); IRA ordered members to cease ‘military operations’; inter-
national decommissioning body reported that IRA weapons had been ‘put
beyond use’; some Unionist paramilitaries moved to disarm; Kyoto Protocol
on climate change came into force; suicide bombers killed 52 people on
London’s transport system
2006: Northern Ireland Assembly met between May and November for first time
since suspension in 2001
2007: Northern Ireland Assembly restored and Ian Paisley led power-sharing
government as first minister, with Sinn Féin’s Martin McGuinness as
his deputy; Gordon Brown became PM and Labour Party leader follow-
ing resignation of Tony Blair: severe floods in central England caused
great damage; Romania and Bulgaria joined EU; Alex Salmond, leader
of the Scottish National Party (SNP), became first minister of Scotland
following the Scottish Parliament election and led a minority Scottish
government
2007–10: credit crunch; financial and banking problems; international recession
2008: Labour Party suffered worst local election results in 40 years finishing
behind the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats with 24 per cent of the
national vote
2009: in European elections, on a low turnout of 33 per cent, Labour polled 15.7
per cent of the vote and finished third behind the Conservatives (27.7 per
cent) and the United Kingdom Independence Party (16.5 per cent)
x xv i Ch r o no l o g y o f s i g ni f i c ant dat e s

2010: British general election resulted in hung Parliament and coalition gov-
ernment between Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, David Cameron
(Con) becoming prime minister and Nick Clegg (Lib Dem) as deputy prime
minister
2011: Ian Paisley resigned and was replaced as first minister in Northern Ireland by
Peter Robinson; the SNP gained an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament
with Alex Salmond as first minister
2012: Olympic Games, London
2013: despite austerity measures, deficit crisis continued; some improvement in eco-
nomic growth, manufacturing output, unemployment and building works; for-
mer PM Margaret Thatcher died on 8 April; Croatia joined EU
2014: widespread severe floods and property damage; substantial victory for the
United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) winning 24 seats in the Euro-
pean Union Parliament election, with Labour on 20 seats and the Conservatives
on 19; the Liberal Democrats lost all but one of their seats; Commonwealth
Games held in Glasgow, 23 July–3 August; Britain began withdrawal of troops
from Afghanistan; British economic growth continued, but budget deficit still a
major problem resulting in austerity cuts; in the referendum on 19 September
for Scottish independence from the UK, 2,001,926 (55.30 per cent) voted ‘No’
and 1,617,989 (44.70) voted ‘Yes’; Alex Salmond, First Minister in Scottish
Parliament resigned and was replaced by Nicola Sturgeon (SNP); first woman
bishop of the Church of England consecrated
2015: inflation dropped below 0 per cent in February, the lowest since records began;
support for death penalty dropped (March) to below 50 per cent (48 per
cent) for the first time since 1983; immigration headed list of main concerns
of electorate (March), replacing the NHS; general election (May) returned the
Conservatives to power with an overall majority and David Cameron as prime
minister.
2016: referendum on UK’s membership of the EU, 23 June 2016; on a turnout of
72.2 per cent, 51.9 per cent (17,410,742 voters) voted to leave the EU (Brexit)
and 48.1 per cent (16,141, 241) voted to remain; people’s belief in God fell to
below 50 per cent; collapse of NHS forecast with increases in waiting times;
rise in pollution caused by commuters and vehicles; new forests proposed to
restore the countryside.
2017: general election, Thursday 8 June, resulted in a hung Parliament, where no
party had an overall majority of seats in the House of Commons (Conservative
42.4 per cent, Labour 40.0 per cent); Theresa May (Conservative) continued
as PM, supported by Northern Ireland’s DUP; Article 50 triggered British exit
from the EU; crime statistics and prison population increase; growth in popu-
larity of women’s sport; increase of hate speech on the Internet; net immigra-
tion falls; weak pound, decline in wages, drop in household spending and weak
productivity, but low unemployment; cinema attendance grew; slow progress
in Brexit negotiations between UK and EU; breakdown of devolved govern-
ment in Northern Ireland; Islamist terrorist attacks in Manchester and central
London, with heavy loss of life
2018: UK and EU negotiators agree a timeline on ‘implementation’ of Brexit talks;
Brexit bill passes through Parliament, with promise of ‘meaningful say for
MPs’ on any deal agreed; Chequers cabinet summit agreement on plan for
Brexit; resignation of cabinet ministers; 14 November UK cabinet approved
draft Brexit outline deal on future relations and sent to EU for approval;
 C hr ono lo g y o f signific a nt d a te s xxv ii

December, UK Parliament votes on deal and EU members ratify withdrawal

agreement
2019: UK is scheduled to end its membership of EU at 11 pm on 29 March; then
enters a transition period designed to avoid a ‘cliff-edge’ Brexit. On 14 March
after months of inconclusive debates, MPs vote to delay the Brexit process for
3 months or more. 8 April 2019, the Brexit path for the UK to leave the EU is
deadlocked.
 1
The British context

n Historical growth
n Structural change
n Contemporary conditions
n British attitudes to Britain
n Exercises
n Further reading
n Websites
2 Th e B r i t i s h c o nt e x t

This chapter examines four aspects of British civilization (historical growth,

structural change, contemporary conditions and British attitudes to Britain).
These are related in later chapters to thematic topics such as government, edu-
cation or religion. Each is placed within a historical context in order to illustrate
how Britain has evolved to its contemporary position.
The historical context is important for understanding British society,
whether for Britons or for overseas observers. However, searches for histori-
cal ‘truth’ inevitably involve contested interpretations or ignorance of the pre-
sumed facts. Polls regularly suggest that many British respondents often lack
an adequate knowledge of Britain’s past, current conditions and institutional
structures.
International respondents’ replies to polls may also reveal stereotypical
perceptions about Britain and its people. They tend to see the British as either
fair-minded, outward-looking and tolerant or, conversely, as close-minded, insu-
lar, conventional and backward-looking with an exaggerated respect for their
history and traditions. The country is sometimes perceived through images of
monarchy, castles, aristocracy, quaint and eccentric behaviour, class conflict,
a stagnating, risk-averse economy, unimaginative food and dysfunctional old-
fashioned institutions. Such views arguably do not accurately convey the com-
plex and diverse reality of Britain, with its problems, strengths and weaknesses.
For example, historical confusion was shown in replies by both British and
overseas respondents to a British Council survey in February 2014 at a time
when the centenary anniversary of the 1914–18 First World War was being
commemorated as a significant event in British and world history. Only 38 per
cent of British respondents knew that US and Canadian troops fought in the
War and 35 per cent were aware that Australian and New Zealand Common-
wealth troops also took part. There was ignorance about which side (Allied or
German) some countries fought on, with 27 per cent of Indian respondents
thinking that India fought against Britain, despite 1.4 million Indians serving
in the British forces. The survey noted how the War still provokes positive and
negative overseas attitudes to the UK and revealed how many British often tend
to view their wartime experiences in terms of patriotism and sacrifice.
British state schools have recently been criticized for their teaching of his-
tory by restricting study to limited periods and subjects, such as the Tudors
or Nazism. In an attempt to correct an alleged lack of historical knowledge,
reforms have been made to the state school National Curriculum, so that his-
tory is now intended to be a more fact-based and chronological subject. Courses
 The Br itish c o nte xt 3

on citizenship have also been introduced in the hope that pupils will learn what
constitutes British civic culture. These efforts at consciousness raising may not
always be successful, but politicians argue that such reforms of the school cur-
riculum do valuably promote debate on national identity, and improve pupils’
knowledge.

Historical growth

Britain’s constitutional title is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland (UK). The nation comprises large and smaller islands off
the north-western European mainland, which are touched by the North Sea,
the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The biggest island,
Great Britain, is divided into England, Scotland and Wales, and Northern Ire-
land shares the second-largest island with the Republic of Ireland, with which
it has a land border. This border remains a crucial and divisive element in the
UK’s attempt to leave the European Union (EU).

<CT> PB

PLATE 1.1 Representation of William

the Conqueror (centre with his half-
brothers) on the Bayeux Tapestry;
a 70 m embroidered cloth made
in England in the 1070s (now in
Bayeux Abbey, France), depicting
events leading to the Norman
Conquest of England, 1066.
© Hemis/Alamy Stock Photo
4 Th e B r i t i s h c o nt e x t

In prehistory, these areas were visited by Old, Middle and New Stone Age
nomads (Palaeolithic), some of whom stayed permanently. From about 600
BC–ad 1066, the islands experienced settlement and invasion movements from
people who originated in mainland Europe, such as Celtic groups, Belgic tribes,
Romans, Germanic tribes (Anglo-Saxons), Scandinavians (Vikings) and Nor-
mans. The Norman Conquest by William the Conqueror was a defining event,
which spread Norman control over much of the islands and fundamentally
influenced the country’s social and political structures.
Conventional accounts of British history suggest that descendants of these
early immigrants over time collectively created the foundations for a multi-
ethnic UK with mixed identities and cultures. Various degrees of interbreeding
between newcomers and natives produced further, and often contested, identi-
ties. Research published in Nature in 2015 (see Further reading) indicated for
example that assumed majority Celtic areas were more genetically diverse than
has been thought, while other groups (such as Picts and Scots) are thought to
have been isolated for centuries.
The settlers and invaders contributed between the ninth and twelfth centu-
ries ad to the building-blocks which gradually established the separate nations
of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland (with England and Scotland gaining
stronger individual identities by the tenth century). The countries experienced
different internal developments and political changes, as well as conflicts with
each other and other countries, in their growth to nationhood. There are still
differences between these peoples and competing allegiances within and among
the four nations.
The later development of the islands was greatly influenced first by the
expansionist, military aims of English monarchs and second by political unions.
Ireland and Wales had been effectively under English control since the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries respectively. In 1603, James VI of Scotland, whose
mother was Mary, Queen of Scots, inherited the English throne as James I after
the death of Elizabeth I, which dynastically joined Scotland and England.
Movement towards a British state (with its parliamentary power base at West-
minster in London) was achieved by political unions between England, Wales
and Scotland (Great Britain) in 1707 and between Great Britain and Ireland
(United Kingdom) in 1801. In 1921, Southern Ireland left the union to become
the independent Republic of Ireland while Northern Ireland remained part of
the United Kingdom.
These historical developments involved political deals, manipulation, wars,
constitutional struggles and religious conflicts, and resulted in the gradual cre-
ation of a British state (the UK), which owed much to English models and
dominance. State structures, such as the monarchy, government, the Church,
Parliament and the law, often developed slowly and unevenly, rather than by
long-term planned change and there were also periods of upheaval and ideolog-
ical conflict (such as royalist and tribal battles, civil wars, nationalist revolts by
 The Br itish c o nte xt 5

PLATE 1.2 James I of England (VI of

Scotland) in full state robes. Portrait
by Inigo Jones c. 1620, following
the dynastic union of the Scottish and
English crowns in 1603.
© GL Archive/Alamy Stock Photo

the Scots, Welsh and Irish against the English, struggles with European powers,
religious ferment, the Protestant Reformation and social dissent).
It might seem that this British story involves a confused and haphazard
history of often unforeseen events, rather than purposeful action. Yet some
historians have argued that Britain has developed in a gradualist, evolutionary
and pragmatic manner, where common-sense change was accepted if it worked.
This process has been attributed to the supposed insular and conservative men-
talities of island peoples, with their preference for traditional habits and institu-
tions, orderly progress and distrust of sudden change. Although some influences
have come from abroad during the long historical process, the absence of any
successful military invasion of the islands since the Norman Conquest of 1066
has allowed England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland to develop internally in dis-
tinctive ways, despite frequent and violent struggles between and within them.
The social organizations and constitutional principles of the British state,
such as parliamentary democracy, government, the rule of law, economic sys-
tems, a welfare state and varied religious faiths, have been slowly and variously
forged by disputes, conflict, conquest, self-interest, consensus and compromise.
6 Th e B r i t i s h c o nt e x t

The structures and philosophies of British civic statehood have often been imi-
tated by other countries, or exported abroad through the creation of a global
empire from the sixteenth century and a commercial need to build world mar-
kets for British goods.
The developed British Empire was an extension of earlier English mon-
archs’ internal military expansionism within the islands and in mainland Europe.
Following later European reversals, they sought raw materials, possessions, trade
and power abroad. This colonialism was aided by increasing military strength
(achieved by successive victories) into the twentieth century. In Britain today,
there is a vigorous debate about colonialism. Some critics see it as a negative,
regrettable stain on British and world history, while others controversially feel
that it may have some positive features.
Internally, agricultural and farming revolutions in Britain from the New
Stone Age and Anglo-Saxon periods added appreciably to the country’s wealth,
exports, prestige and international trade. It also developed a manufacturing and
financial base, with connections to Europe and beyond. It became an industrial
and increasingly urbanized country from the late eighteenth century because of

PLATE 1.3 Queen Victoria, 1819–

1901. Queen of the UK, became
Empress of India in 1876; had the
longest reign of any British monarch
(63 years) until overtaken by Queen
Elizabeth 11 (66 years in 2018);
photograph by Alexander Bassomo,
1882. © Mary Evans Picture Library
 The Br itish c o nte xt 7

a series of industrial revolutions and inventions. Throughout its history, Britain

has been responsible for major and influential scientific, medical and technolog-
ical advances.
The development of the British state and its empire was aided by increasing
economic and military force, so that by the nineteenth century the country had
become a dominant industrial and political world power. It was a main player
in developing Western civic principles of law, property, business, liberty, capital-
ism, parliamentary democracy and civil society.
Acts of Union within Britain in 1707 and 1801, despite continuing tensions
and allegiances to long-held separate identities, had also gradually encouraged
the idea of a British identity (Britishness), in which all the component countries
of the eventual United Kingdom could share. This was tied to Britain’s imperial
position in the world and an identification with the powerful institutions of the
state, such as monarchy, law, Parliament, the military and Protestant religion.
But individual identities in the four nations of the union persisted and became
stronger as other forces, such as class and inequalities of wealth, arose in the
nineteenth century. Pressure for political and constitutional change eventually
resulted first in the partition of Ireland in 1921 and second in devolution (trans-
fer of some political power from the London Parliament to elected bodies in
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) by 1998–99. These changes encouraged
debates about such issues as the nature of Britishness and the structure of the
United Kingdom. Although Scotland voted against independence in a 2014 ref-
erendum after a fierce Nationalist campaign, the question of ultimate indepen-
dence for Scotland is still debated.
The British state has seen other fundamental political reforms and changes
over time, such as extension of the vote in the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies, the diminishing power of the aristocratic House of Lords, the growing
authority of the elected House of Commons, the decline of executive mon-
archy and a weakening of church authority and religious observance. Britain
underwent substantial collectivist social changes in the twentieth century with
the growth of a labour movement, the formation of the Labour Party, eco-
nomic policies of nationalization (with the state becoming the owner of public
industries and services) and the creation of a welfare state, associated with the
first large majority Labour government led by Prime Minister Clement Attlee
(1945–51).
These emphases later changed in the twentieth century as new political
parties and alliances developed, and government economic policies shifted
British society, collectively and individually, along more free market lines (pri-
vatization of state-owned businesses and services). Britain’s first woman Prime
Minister (Margaret Thatcher) and her Conservative governments (1979–90)
were central to such developments, which attracted both strong support and
fierce opposition. It was felt that the state should not interfere in business, and
the power of the trade unions was reduced by a series of laws. These battles
8 Th e B r i t i s h c o nt e x t

PLATE 1.4 Clement Attlee,

Labour Prime Minister
in first majority Labour
government 1945–51
inaugurated radical
reform programmes
leading to the Welfare
State, National
Health Service and
nationalization of private
industry into public
services. © Pictorial Press
Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

between broadly ‘centre-left’ (Labour) and ‘centre-right’ (Conservative)’ views

of politics, economics and society continue to characterize most of the country’s
structures and influence people’s votes, despite attempts by other parties, such
as the Liberal Democrats, the Greens, the United Kingdom Independence Party
(UKIP), and Welsh and Scottish Nationalist Parties, to break into the two-party
tradition. However, the centralized state based in London has fragmented to a
degree as the governments in the component countries gained greater devolved
political powers by 1998–99.
Britain also experienced significant change (as well as relative international
decline) in the twentieth century. Its social and economic strength was seri-
ously reduced by the effects of two world wars in the first half of the twentieth
century and by the dismantling of its imperial global power in the second half.
Its ethnic composition, state structures, social policies, religious beliefs and eco-
nomic institutions have all been affected by profound domestic developments
(such as large-scale immigration) and external pressures. Traditional notions of
Britain’s place in the world, the nature of its society and hopes for its future
have been subjected to dissent, re-evaluation and pressures on many levels, and
 The Br itish c o nte xt 9

PLATE 1.5 Margaret Thatcher,

at a press conference,
London, 8 June 1987, during
general election campaign.
Conservative Prime Minister
and first British woman Prime
Minister 1979–91, introduced
privatization programmes and
denationalization of public
services. © David Levenson/
Alamy Stock Photo

by a pervasive sense of decline. These continued as the country entered the

twenty-first century.
Since the Second World War (1939–45), Britain has had to adjust with dif-
ficulty to a withdrawal from empire, which was inevitable in the face of rising
nationalism and self-determination in the colonies; a reduction in world polit-
ical status; global economic recessions; a relative decline in economic power;
increased foreign competition; internal social change; a geopolitical world order
of superpowers (the United States and the Soviet Union); new tensions after
the break-up of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, with the USA becoming the
dominant force; the emergence of Far Eastern powers such as Japan, China and
India; growing South American economies; a changing Europe following the
destruction wrought by two world wars; continuing unrest in Eastern Europe,
the Middle and Far East and Africa; and a grudging acknowledgement by the
British people and their politicians that the world had inevitably changed.
The nation has been forced into a reluctant search for a new identity and
direction, both internationally and nationally, which, arguably, it has not yet
achieved. While maintaining many of its traditional worldwide commercial,
10 Th e B r i t i s h c o nt e x t

cultural and political links, such as the increasingly criticized ‘special relation-
ship’ with the United States of America, it moved from empire and the succes-
sor Commonwealth of Nations towards an economic and political commitment
to Europe, mainly through membership of what is now the European Union
(EU). But this relationship, in its turn, is also now changing.
In recent centuries, Britain had rarely seen itself as an integral part of
mainland Europe. It has instead sheltered behind the sea barrier of the English
Channel and its outlook was westwards and worldwide. The psychological and
physical isolation from Europe had slowly begun to change, as illustrated by
increased cooperation between Britain and other European countries and by
the opening (1994) of a Channel rail tunnel between England and France. How-
ever, the relationship between Britain and Europe continues to be problematic
and new associations have been forced by events and circumstances, rather than
wholeheartedly sought. Scepticism about Europe and the historical impulses
to national independence and isolationism still condition many British people
in their dealings with and attitudes to the outside world, despite their reliance
on global trade and international relationships. Proposals to leave the EU had
increased in recent years and Prime Minister David Cameron promised a refer-
endum (vote) on EU membership if the Conservatives won the 2015 General
Election, which they did. Negotiations continued between Britain and the EU

PLATE 1.6 Edward Heath (1916–2005) who, as British Conservative Prime Minister (1970–74)
led Britain into the then European Economic Community (now European Union) by signing the
EEC Agreement in 1972. © Publi Press/Shutterstock
 The Br itish c o nte xt 11

following the 2016 Referendum in which Britain voted to leave the EU in 2019
and the 2017 triggering of the Lisbon Treaty’s Article 50 to formalize departure.
This process, to what many Britons regard as an unknown future, is complex
and opposed, but supported by others.
Despite a current nationalist and populist trend among some Britons, critics
argue that isolationism is not a viable option in a globalized and unpredict-
able world. Britain has been involved, not without continuing public protest, in
recent overseas military action in Bosnia, Kosovo, two Iraq wars, Afghanistan,
Libya and other trouble spots worldwide as a coalition partner in the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and American-led military action. Britain
has itself attracted terrorist attacks (arguably as a reaction to these commit-
ments), such as suicide bombings against the London public transport system
by British-born Islamists on 7 July 2005. These and frequent further attacks
in London and throughout the country, and the continuing high-level terror
threat, have raised debates about the nature and loyalty of Britain’s multi-ethnic
population and about government policies on asylum seekers and immigration
as the country seeks to protect itself in a changing world. Britain is involved in

PLATE 1.7 Bomb attack on London

double-decker bus, Tavistock
Square, 7 July 2005. Suicide
bombers attacked the London
Transport system, including the
Underground, killing 56 people
(including 13 on the bus).
© Balkanpix.Com/Shutterstock
12 Th e B r i t i s h c o nt e x t

the global debates of the twenty-first century, from which it cannot isolate itself,
as it did at some periods in its earlier history.
It is likely that an exit from the EU will oblige Britain to increase its global
‘free trade’ connections, while preserving some kind of European relationship,
in addition to defensive and diplomatic alliances. Meanwhile, the British are still
fundamentally divided over Europe and the country’s future. Remainers voted
in the 2016 referendum to stay within the EU and most of them regard the
poll result as the most disastrous British political mistake of the past 70 years.
The Leavers (Brexiteers) see a future of economic and political opportunity for
Britain to ‘take back control’ of its own destiny, economically and politically.

Structural change

It has been traditionally argued that British historical growth has been guided
by pragmatism, gradualism, flexibility, common sense and experience of what
works in practice. The creation of a way of life, government, social structures,
economic relationships and law supposedly depends upon evolutionary adapta-
tion to changing, often unforeseen, circumstances.
This gradualist model of change is often contrasted to formally developed
constitutionalism and nation building, by which British historical growth has
been implemented by laws passed through state institutions. In Britain, these
are not contained in any one written constitution with checks and balances, but
derive from many separate sources.
The resulting structures and institutions from both models have been con-
ditioned by struggles between social, economic, legal, religious, constitutional
and political arguments. Some changes were abrupt, while others occurred in
a slower, more pragmatic fashion. They have taken different institutional forms
and sizes; operate on national and local levels; and shape cultural identities,
values and attitudes. The social organization and constitutional principles of the
state, such as parliamentary democracy, government, the rule of law, economic
systems, a welfare state and religious faiths, have mostly been slowly forged
by disputes, conflicts, self-interest, consensus and compromise, which continue
today. Sometimes, however, the process has been abrupt and accomplished
more quickly.
The major formal institutions, such as Parliament, law and government, are
concerned with state or public business. They initiate policies in ‘top-down’ form
so that decisions are often decided by centralized and multi-level bodies (whether
elected or appointed) and then applied on lower levels. Some of these processes
are criticized in Britain because they allegedly distance decision-makers from the
general public, undercut accountability and result in a ‘democratic deficit’.
British people frequently complain that they should be consulted more
about institutional changes in society and have a greater voice in local and
 The Br itish c o nte xt 13

national affairs. They increasingly allege that elites and bureaucracies at various
levels ignore them, lack competence, waste taxpayers’ money on dubious proj-
ects and produce inadequate policies. This situation has led to a disenchantment
with and withdrawal from political processes by many people; a distrust of poli-
ticians; and demands that public officials should be more accountable. Polls sug-
gest that individual citizens are now unwilling to engage in local and national
affairs, often partly due to a feeling that their opinions would not be considered.
However, despite an apparent withdrawal from politics, there are still
levels of social activity, such as sports activities, families, leisure events, neigh-
bourhoods, youth culture, faith and special interest groups, local communities,
ethnic fellowships and habitual ways of life which have their own particular
value systems and organizations. They often have a ‘bottom-up’ form in which
policies and behaviour are said to be linked closely to the concerns of society’s
grassroots. They may illustrate more localized, informal and democratic char-
acteristics than the top-down model. But these communities, including local
government, can also be dominated by groups, which may be in conflict with
other individuals who object to being controlled by the leadership. This sit-
uation may provoke disputes, alienation and a sense of powerlessness in the
excluded groups.
The ‘British way of life’ and British identities are determined by how peo-
ple function within and react, whether positively, negatively or apathetically,
to the two local and national structures. These are not remote abstractions, but
affect individuals directly and immediately in their daily lives. For example, gov-
ernment policies impinge upon citizens and their families; commercial organi-
zations influence choices in food, music, clothes and fashion; the media may try
to shape news values and agendas, or seek more profits; sponsorship and adver-
tising may determine the nature of sports, commerce and the media; devolved
government bodies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland initiate policies for
their own regions; local government throughout the UK attempts to organize
and condition communal activities; and community life is subject to small-scale
(and sometimes eccentric) influences.
These structural features reflect a range of cultural practices on both high
and popular cultural levels in Britain. High cultural forms may often appeal to a
minority and be connected to wealth and social concerns, although the gradual
blurring of class barriers, expanded education and a decline in deference have now
opened these up to wider participation. Yet popular cultural activities have always
been present in British society. They have become more numerous and diverse
since the 1960s because of greater affluence, more varied life opportunities and
new accessible forms, such as social media. A mass popular culture (reflected, for
example, in sport, television, music and fashion) now influences social patterns,
behaviour, economic consumption, and the adoption of diverse lifestyles.
The number and variety of top-down and bottom-up structures mean that
there are many different and often conflicting ‘ways of life’ in contemporary