STE/SSC

Redeveloped Division Initiated Self-Learning Module

Department of Education – Division of Palawan

 Research II
First Quarter The Research Process- Part II
Week 5

MELC A. Determine the appropriate steps in planning and designing a

research study.
B. Point out the importance of conceptualizing/identifying original
topics in research.

Objective/s : 1. Differentiate independent and dependent variables;

2. Categorize variables based on the values of measurement
obtained;
3. Classify variables according to the level of measurement
obtained.
4. Follow the steps to be undertaken in doing a scientific
investigation; and
5. Apply the principles of experimental research design.

What I Know

I. Matching Type

Directions: Match column A with the correct answer in column B. Write only the
letter of your answer on the space provided before the number.

Column A Column B
_____1. A description of what the researcher a. Replication
would like to find out and how to find it
out.
_____2. The main material used in the experiment. b. Subject
_____3. Denotes any procedure done on the c. Research design
subject.
_____4. Repeating the experiment several times. d. Randomized
complete block design
_____5. Assigning treatments by chance. e. Homogenous group
_____6. Balancing, grouping, and blocking of f. Experimental design
subjects.
_____7. The sequence of steps followed in g. Local control
obtaining data.

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_____8. A design in which treatments are h. Extraneous variable
assigned randomly.
_____9. A design that divides the experimental i. Treatment
subjects by blocks.
____10. Subjects with similar characteristics. j. Completely
Randomized design
k. Randomization

II. Multiple Choice

Directions: Write the letter that corresponds to the best answer for each
question.

Montero farm studies the effects of initial weight and food consumption
on the gaining ability of 30 bacon pigs when given five different feed
treatments. The following data were recorded: Initial weight, final weight and
food intake.

_____1. What is the independent variable?

a. Food consumption c. gaining ability
b. Farm d. Bacon Pigs
c.
_____2. What is the dependent variable?
a. Food consumption c. gaining ability
b. Farm d. Bacon Pigs

_____3. What is the experimental unit?

a. Food consumption c. gaining ability
b. Farm d. Bacon Pigs

_____4. Which of the following is a potential extraneous variable in the study?

a. Living environments of pig c. Water intake
b. Time of feeding d. All of the above

_____5. What type of variable is weight?

a. Qualitative b. Quantitative c. Extraneous d. Controlled

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 What is It
The success or failure of an investigation usually depends on the design of
the experiment. An experimental design is a description of what a researcher
would like to find out and how to find it out. The background he has gathered
during preliminary research can be used as a guide.

What is a Research Design?

BEFORE designing an experiment:
A- Ask the questions you would like to be answered;
M- Make an educated guess or state your research hypothesis; and
M- Make a detailed description and explanation of the procedure of your
experiment.

Past experiences and observations suggest a certain hypothesis.

Theoretical considerations may also play a major role in arriving at a hypothesis.
After formulating a hypothesis, an experimental procedure is designed for its
verification.

The (4S) of experimental procedure:

1. Selection of the appropriate materials for the test;
2. Specification of the variable to be measured;
3. Selection of the procedure to be used in the measurement of the variable;
and
4. Specification of the procedure to be used to determine whether the
measurements support the hypothesis.

Specifying the first two parts of the procedure is fairly easy. Not much
statistics is needed to decide what materials to be used in the test and how to
specify the variable to be measured. On the other hand, parts 3 and 4 cannot
be done unless the experimenter has some knowledge of statistics. The
experimenter has to make an experimental design that includes the procedure
on how the measurements are to be made, the number of replicates, and how
they can be used to test the hypothesis.

A research design is…

1) A complete sequence of steps or procedures need to be followed
when obtaining the needed data during an investigation.
2) It serves as a guide during the actual experimentation.
3) It minimizes the cost of experimentation while maximizing the gathered
information relevant to the problem.
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 4) It validates the statistical test because it takes into consideration all the
assumptions that went through the process of deriving the various
statistics.

The design of an experiment depends on the type of research being

undertaken and the nature of the conditions under which the investigation is
done. It is dictated by the question it has to answer. Since each problem is
unique, it follows that it also requires a unique design.

Planning a Research Design

In planning a research design, the experimenter identifies the:
a. Subject of the study d. Experimental & control groups
b. Variables e. Instruments & devices
c. Controls f. Statistical tools

SUBJECT
➢ the main material used in the experiment. Also called the experimental unit.
➢ It can be a person, an animal, a plot in a field, a plant, a leaf, or a model of
a device.
➢ It may be subjected to different treatments depending upon the objectives
of the study.

TREATMENT
➢ Denotes any procedure done on the experimental unit. The effect of this
procedure is to be measured and analyzed.

SIGNIFICANCE OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

➢ A research design serves as a guide during the conduct of an experimental
investigation.
➢ It minimizes the cost while gaining maximum information relevant to the
problem.
➢ The assumptions that underlie within the selected statistical test are
considered in the design of the experiment.
➢ This makes the statistical test of significance valid.

Principles of a Research Design

In a research design, there are certain basic principles to be followed. The
principles which are always present in a research design are replication,
randomization, local control, and control of extraneous variables.

REPLICATION
➢ Is a very necessary element in the design of any research. Doing just the
basic experiment is not enough. The experiment should be repeated several
times to find an estimate of variations among observations on the group of
subjects treated alike.

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 ➢ Replications allow the researcher to assess the significance of the observed
differences.
➢ Only through several repetitions of the experiment will make a statistical test
of significance be possible.
RANDOMIZATION
➢ It refers to the assignment of the experimental subjects to the treatments by
chance.
➢ It is done to create equivalent groups before the experiment. It tends to
average out differences among groups.
➢ It reduces possible bias in comparative experiments. It also assures a valid
or unbiased estimate of population parameters and the validity of the
statistical test of significance.

LOCAL CONTROL
➢ Local control is done when balancing, grouping, and blocking experimental
units are employed in the adopted design. Experimental units are allocated
to a block in such a manner that the units within the block are relatively
homogenous.
➢ Experimental units may be blocked according to certain characteristics
such as height, age, weight, gender, grade level, pH level, and so on.`
CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
➢ In an experimental design, we have to make sure that no outside or
extraneous variables may affect the experimental subjects.
➢ The control of extraneous variables is necessary.
➢ Identical conditions must be provided for the control and experimental
groups. These two groups should differ only in terms of the absence (control)
or presence of the treatment (experimental).
Note: The principles of research design can be applied to single-factor two-
factor and three-or-more factor experiments.

Types of Research Design

There are two basic types of experimental designs: the completely
randomized design (CRD) and the randomized complete block design (RCBD).
The other designs are variations of these two basic types.

COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN

In a completely randomized design (CRD), treatments are assigned

randomly to the experimental subjects without restriction.
The experimental subjects, in this case, should be homogenous concerning all
other factors which could affect the treatments being compared if they were
not controlled.
The CRD is flexible and is limited only by the number of experimental
subjects. It is, therefore, possible that the number of replicates per treatment is
not the same for the different groups. Still, the statistical analysis remains simple
and easy even if some experimental subjects or an entire treatment group is

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missing. The loss of information due to missing observations is small compared to
those with other designs.
However, it is not easy to obtain experimental subjects with homogenous
characteristics. The accuracy of the design is reduced when the experimental
subjects differ significantly. Any variations between the experimental subjects
enter into the experimental error. The statistical test used may indicate a
significant difference among the treatments when actually there is none.
It is appropriate to use CRD if the experimental subjects have the same
characteristics and if several drop-outs are expected.

WHEN TO USE THE CRD?

In single-factor experiments, only a single factor varies while all others are
kept constant. The CRD can be used especially for experiments with
homogenous experimental units or in experiments where environmental effects
are easily controlled like a laboratory experiment. This is rarely used in field
experiments. Randomization can be accomplished by assigning treatments to
experimental units entirely at random. This can be done by using a table of
random numbers or by drawing lots.

Example
Let us say an experiment involves three treatments and each treatment is
replicated six times. This means that the total number of experimental units is
3x6= 18. Each experimental unit will be assigned a number from 1 to 18.
Treatments can now be randomly assigned to the experimental units.

The configuration of the design will be the following:

Experimental units are randomly assigned

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3

3, 9, 4, 5, 7, 1 8, 10, 2
11, 13, 17 14, 16, 18 6, 12, 15

RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN

The randomized complete block design (RCBD) divides the experimental

subjects into more or less homogenous groups called blocks. Blocking is done to
make sure that the experimental subject in a group have similar characteristics
so that the observed differences among the groups will be largely due to the
treatments. Blocking also helps in giving more accurate results than CRD. There
are no restrictions as to the number of treatments or number of blocks in the
experiments.
Extra replications for some treatments may be applied if desired by adding
two or more experimental subjects per block. Unusable data may be omitted
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without complicating the analysis. Even the experimental error for testing the
difference between any two-treatment means can still be obtained.
However, it is difficult to form blocks with homogenous experimental units
and a large error will be obtained when variations among experimental subjects
within a block are large.
The RCBD is most appropriate to use if (1) the subjects can be categorized
according to certain characteristics like gender, age, weight, and height which
can affect the comparison of treatments, and (2) a few drop-outs are expected.

WHEN TO USE THE RCBD?

RCBD is used when the randomization will tend to produce groups that are
not nearly equivalent for comparison. This happens when the experimental
subjects are not homogenous but can be divided into more or less homogenous
groups or blocks in which each has subjects that have similar characteristics or
properties. The experimental units in each block are randomly assigned to the
different treatments so that the treatments are more or less alike in composition
in terms of the subject’s characteristics.
RCBD is one of the most widely used experimental designs in the field of
researches. This is characterized by blocks of equal size, each of which contains
a complete set of all treatments. RCBD reduces experimental error through
proper blocking while retaining much of the flexibility and simplicity of the CRD.
Blocking is done to reduce as much as possible heterogeneity among
experimental units within each block. It increases the differences among blocks
while leaving the subjects within a block more homogenous.
Except for different treatments, the assigned experimental units within
each block should be managed as uniformly as possible.
The experimental area is divided into as many blocks as the number of
replicates. Each block is then divided further into groups as many as the number
of treatments. Randomization is then done separately for each block. It is
specified that all treatments must appear once in each replication.
Randomization may be done with the use of a table of random numbers.

Example
How will you design an experiment with four treatments replicated three
times?

Solution:
Randomization will be done block by block using a table of random
numbers. In this experiment, there will be three blocks since there are three
replicates. In each block, the four treatments are assigned randomly to each
of the four subjects. For the first block we get the following:

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 Random Subject Rank Treatment Group No. Block 1
No.
920 1 4 A 1 Treatment C
770 2 3 B 2 Treatment D
240 3 1 C 3 Treatment B
490 4 2 D 4 Treatment A

The same will be done for the rest of the blocks.

What are Variables?

We make observations in our daily activities. We say that the weather is
fine, the soup is too hot, the drink is refreshing, the uniform is cool, and many other
things that note our daily observations. All these remarks are informal, casually
made, or unplanned. On the other hand, scientific observations are systematic
and carefully planned. Before any actual observation is made, we decide what
subject is to be observed, how will it be observed, and when it will be observed.

The decision on what to observe depends on the problem being

investigated. Let us say we want to find the effects of light and temperature on
the growth of tomatoes. Here, we have to decide what specific observations
must be made like what aspect of the growth of tomatoes can be measured. Do
we want to observe the number of leaves per plant, length of the stem, number
of flowers per plant, or the yield in terms of the number of fruits per plant? What
aspects of light and temperature do we want to vary?
To answer these, we have to make measurements about light and
temperature. For light, we can measure intensity, wavelength, frequency, and
color. For temperature, it can be qualitative like hot or cold, or specific values in
degrees Celsius.
There are many variables to watch and observe. This requires that in the
research design of the problem being investigated, all relevant factors must be
specified. The researcher must be knowledgeable about variables.

In doing observation, you identify the variables that appear to be

important in explaining observed effects or behavior. A variable is a property or
quantity that can take on different values.

Example:

Topic: Effect of light and temperature on the growth of tomatoes.

Variables:
➢ Growth of tomatoes measured in terms of:
a. Number of leaves per plant
b. Length of stem
c. Number of flowers
d. Yield per plant
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➢ Intensity, wavelength, frequency, and color of light.
➢ Type of temperature and temperature in degrees Celsius.

Types of Variables?
Variables are categorized according to the role they play in the research
being done. They may be dependent, independent, continuous or discrete, or
extraneous.

TYPES OF VARIABLES
INDEPENDENT (IV)
➢ Manipulated- values are chosen
and set by the researcher.
➢ Its value is independent of the
behavior of the subject.
➢ Example:
The effect of light and
temperature on the growth of
tomatoes.
Light & temperature are the IV.
Why?
➢ The researcher might assign the
subjects (tomatoes) to different
intensity levels of light (Low,
Medium & High) or two specific
temperatures (20°C & 35 °C)
➢ The three intensity levels of light
and the two temperature levels
would constitute the experimental
treatments to which the subjects
must be exposed.
➢ In the course of the experiment,
while the subjects are exposed to
these treatments, changes in their
behavior or characteristics are
being observed and recorded
(length, number of leaves) as a
result of manipulation.
QUANTITATIVE
➢ Can take values corresponding to
the points on a real line scale.
➢ Example: temperature, height,
length, etc.
CONTINUOUS
➢ Based on the values of
measurement.
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DEPENDENT (DV)
➢ The behavior or change in the
characteristic of the subjects that
are recorded during
experimentation.
➢ If there is an existing relationship
between the two variables, then
the value of DV will depend to
some extent on the change done
on the level of the IV.
➢ The value depends on the
response of the subjects towards
the change done by the
experiment in the IV.
➢ Example:
The growth of tomatoes
(Height, No. of leaves, yield,
etc.) is dependent on the
effect of light & temperature.
QUALITATIVE
➢ “Quality”
➢ Does not have a value
corresponding to the points on a
real line scale.
➢ Example: Hot & Cold
DISCRETE
➢ Based on the values of
measurement.
➢ Take fractional values. ➢ Discontinuous
➢ Example: ➢ Assume fixed or exact amounts
Length & Weight and have no values in between
whole exact numbers or in
between fixed points in a
continuum.
➢ Example:
Number of flowers, levels of
intensity (Low, Medium & High),
Temperature levels.

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
➢ A group exposed to a certain treatment.

CONTROL GROUP
➢ A group exposed to the absence of the treatment.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
➢ Variables which may affect the behavior or characteristics of the
experimental subjects even though we are not concerned with these
variables.
➢ They have to be controlled to eliminate their effect on the subjects’ behavior
or characteristics.
➢ In our example, the amount of water used to water the tomatoes must be
controlled. All the treatments must receive the same amount of water at the
same time they are watered to eliminate chance differences in the behavior
or characteristics among the tomatoes across different treatments.
➢ There are two methods of controlling an extraneous variable. (1) Held it
constant, (2) Randomize or distribute randomly its effect across treatments.

Levels of measurement of variables?

The type of measurement of the variable will become the basis in choosing
the analytical procedure to be done on the data. Levels of measurement are
categorized into four scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio.

SCALE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE/s

1) Nominal ➢ Values are given names ➢ Temperature levels.
hence “Nominal”. ➢ Variety
➢ The lowest level of ➢ Blood type
measurement. ➢ Race
➢ Simply defines a group of ➢ Religion
subjects. ➢ Eye color
➢ Values differ by category.

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 ➢ We cannot apply
arithmetic.
2) Ordinal ➢ Next to nominal.
➢ Values are given names but
are arranged according to
the amount or quantity of
the attribute.
➢ Values are ranked from
lowest to highest but the
difference from one rank to
another does not matter or
maybe different or
unknown.
3) Interval ➢ There are equal differences
between values.
➢ Spacing between values
along the scale of
measurement is known.
➢ Zero point is arbitrarily
assigned and does not
suggest the absence of the
property being measured.
4) Ratio ➢ Similar to interval scale in
terms of known spacing
between values along the
scale. However, the zero
points in this scale indicate
the absence of the quantity
being measured.
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➢ Intensity: Low, Medium,
High.
➢ Socio-economic status
(“low income”,”middle
income”,”high income”)
➢ education level (“high
school”,”BS”,”MS”,”PhD”)
➢ satisfaction rating
(“extremely dislike”,
“dislike”, “neutral”, “like”,
“extremely like”)
➢ The difference between
20°C and 25°C is the
same as the difference
between 25°C and 30°C.
➢ SAT score (200-800)
➢ credit score (300-850)
➢ Zero-point in the ratio
scale Kelvin temperature
scale indicates the
temperature at which
heat is absolutely absent
in a body.
➢ dose amount
➢ reaction rate
➢ flow rate
➢ pulse
➢ the temperature in Kelvin
(0.0 Kelvin really does
mean “no heat”)
 What I Can Do

Activity 1. CRD vs RCBD

Directions: Complete the Venn diagram below by writing down differences and
similarities between completely randomized design (CRD) and randomized
complete block design (RCBD).

CRD RCBD

Activity 2. VARIABLES
Directions: Classify the measurements in items 1-5 by using the given choices
below.
a. Qualitative and Discrete c. Quantitative and Discrete
b. Qualitative and Continuous d. Quantitative and Continuous
________1. Number of vehicles owned by a family
________2. Homicide rate in a major city
________3. Socio-economic status
________4. Reaction time to stimulus
________5. Number of trials to complete a task

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 What’s More

Activity 3. Designing Experiments

Direction: Given below is an example of an experiment. What experimental
design is the best fit for this investigation and how will you assign the treatments
to the subjects? Show your configuration of design and explain briefly.

A diaper manufacturer would like to compare a newly designed baby

diaper to that of their original design in terms of the amount of urine absorbed
and the acceptability of the product. Twenty sets of identical twins are to be
used as subjects or scientific investigations.

Your answer…

Activity 4. Identify and Categorize

Directions: Identify at least five (5) variables in the given experiment. Categorize
them according to the type of the variable used, type of values taken by the
measurement, and type of measurement.

SMC conducted an experiment on the differences among the yields of

five different varieties of corn using three fertilizer treatments and two methods
of cultivation. Seven farms were used as experimental stations. The following
data were observed during experimentation: average weight of an ear of
corn, the number of ears of corn per plant, the yield of corn per farm in tons,
the intensity of the yellow color and taste.

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 Variable Independent or Continuous or Qualitative or
Dependent Discrete Quantitative

What I Have Learned

Activity 5. Let me tell you!

Directions: Write about what you’ve learned by doing the activity below on a
separate sheet of paper. Be as specific as possible and use complete
sentences/statements.

Let me tell you about some of the important things I’ve learned about the
lesson. First I’ll start
with…___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Next I’ll tell you
about…_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Something else I learned
was…___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Lastly, I now really know and understand
about…_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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