Chapter 3: STRESS – Meaning, Impact,

and Sources
Table of Contents
Introduction to Stress ........................................................................................................ 3
1. Stressors cause the Stress Response (SR) ................................................................................ 3
Dimensions of Stress...................................................................................................................................... 3
Person Factors and Cognitive Appraisal (by Richard Lazarus) ....................................................................... 4
Primary Appraisal ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Secondary Appraisal .................................................................................................................................. 4
Transactional (Relational) Model of Stress by Richard Lazarus ............................................................ 4
Factors that influence Appraisal ................................................................................................................ 5
Stress not caused by Cognitive Appraisal .................................................................................................. 5
2. Stressors Come in Many Forms – Types of Stressors ............................................................... 5
(i) Social Sources of Stress ............................................................................................................................. 5
(ii) Environmental sources of Stress .............................................................................................................. 6
(iii) Psychological sources of Stress................................................................................................................ 7
(iv) Biological sources of Stress ...................................................................................................................... 8
3. Stressors are Not Always “Bad” .............................................................................................. 8
4. Stress Response is a Product of Natural Selection; It Confers an Advantage to the Organism .. 8
The Adaptive Nature of the Stress Response to Acute Stressor .................................................................... 8
5. Long term (Chronic) stress can have very negative effects : Negative Effects of Stress
Response to Chronic Stressors .................................................................................................... 9
Stress Response: Immediate Effects of Stress ................................................................... 10
Acute Stress Response: Fight-or-Flight Response ...................................................................... 10
Fight, Flight, or Freeze ................................................................................................................................. 10
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) ....................................................................................... 10
Stress Response: Physiological Basis and Effects....................................................................... 12
(i) Endocrine arm ......................................................................................................................................... 12
(ii) Neural arm .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Immediate effects ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Measurement of Stress .................................................................................................... 15
(1) Physiological Measures ....................................................................................................... 15
Advantages of Physiological Measures of Stress ......................................................................................... 15
Disadvantages of Physiological Measures of Stress..................................................................................... 15
(2) Pen and Pencil Tests ............................................................................................................ 15
(i) Life Events Scales ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) ................................................................................................ 16
Findings from the SRRS ....................................................................................................................... 16
Strengths of SRRS ................................................................................................................................ 17
Weaknesses of SRRS ........................................................................................................................... 17
Life Experiences Survey ........................................................................................................................... 17
PERI Life Events Scale .............................................................................................................................. 17
 Unpleasant Events Schedule ................................................................................................................... 17
(ii) Daily Hassles Scales ................................................................................................................................ 17
Hassles Scale............................................................................................................................................ 17
Hassles Assessment Scale for Students in College .................................................................................. 18
Uplifts Scale ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Strength of Pen and Pencil Tests (Self-report measures) ............................................................................ 18
Weakness of Pen and Pencil Tests (Self-report measures) .......................................................................... 18
Introduction to Stress
• 5 main points:
1. Stressors cause the stress response (SR).
2. Stressors come in many forms.
3. Stressors are not always “bad”.
4. The SR is a product of natural selection.
5. Long term stress can have very negative effects on psychological and physical
health.

1. Stressors cause the Stress Response (SR)

• Stressor [cause]:
o A challenging event that requires physiological, cognitive, and/or behavioral
adaptation on the part of the person.
• Stress Response (SR) [response]:
o The physiological, cognitive, and/or behavioral response to the stressor.
o It is the body’s attempt to mount an adaptive counter-response to that challenging
event. In doing so, biopsychosocial resources are expended.
o It is a time of energy utilization. The energy normally used to drive non-essential (in
that moment), energy-expensive functions (i.e. tissue repair, reproduction,
digestion) is shunted to those functions that will enable the person to handle and
survive the challenging event.
o i.e. cortisol and adrenaline release
• Stress [process]:
o The experience that is created (and felt by the person) when person-environment
transactions – person interacting with the environment – lead to a perceived
discrepancy between the physical or psychological demands of a situation AND the
resources of the individual’s biological, psychological, and/or social systems.
§ Perceived: meaning that the discrepancy between demand and resources
may not be actual. However, as long as it is perceived, the SR will ensue.
o Cognitive appraisal is an important determinant of stress.

Note for Exam:

Stressors as causes (i.e. trauma) of stress and the stress response.
Stress and the Stress Response (i.e. release of cortisol and adrenaline) as the effects of Stressors.

Dimensions of Stress
• The amount of stress that is experienced is related/positively correlated to:
o Stressor frequency
§ The more frequent the stressor (i.e. occur very often), the greater the toll on
the person. This makes the person more susceptible to illness and other
negative consequences.
o Stressor intensity
§ The greater the stressor intensity, the greater the physiological and
psychological strain produced.
o Stressor duration
§ The longer the stressor duration (i.e. last a long time [chronic]), the greater
the toll on the person. This makes the person more susceptible to illness and
other negative consequences.
• Stress is additive (add-on) in that it is experienced as the sum total of stress produced by
multiple varied stressors, and over time.
 o Both immediate and long lasting.

Person Factors and Cognitive Appraisal (by Richard Lazarus)

• Health Psychologists examine not only the stressors that affect people and their
physiological reactions to stressors (SR), but also the intervening psychological or person
factors that enhance or interfere with people’s ability to cope with stress.
• Importance of Person factors:
o Appraisal of events as stressful is very important in determining the SR.
o Cognitive appraisal refers to the evaluation of threat from a stressor against your
resources available. It is an important determinant of stress.
o Therefore, any situation, threatening or non-threatening, can cause stress – as long
as you believe that you do not have enough resources to overcome the challenge.
Primary Appraisal
According to Dr. Lazarus, the first step in experiencing stress is interpreting or appraising the
situation.
• Primary appraisal: Our initial judgment of event as potentially harmful.
o Relevant: Does this mean something to me? Have I experienced something similar
before that didn’t affect me?
o Good: Is this something I want?
o Stressful: THIS IS SERIOUS!
o In other words, our initial response to 1. Experiences that may harm us, 2)
Experiences that may cause us to lose something, 3) Experiences that may threaten
us, AND/OR 4) Experiences that may be challenging to us.
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o Events judged to be stressful are further evaluated in terms of 3 implications:
§ Harm or Loss: Amount of damage already occurred.
• Has the event already caused me to sustain damage or injury?
§ Threat: Expectation of future harm.
• Do I expect that this event will cause damage or injury in the near
future?
§ Challenge: Opportunity for growth, mastery or profit by using more than
routine resources.
• Does this event represent an opportunity for personal growth or
gain?
Secondary Appraisal
• Secondary appraisal refers to the ongoing assessment of available resources for coping to
determine if resources are sufficient to meet the demands, which leads to the perceived
ability to cope.
o The perceived discrepancy between demands and resources leads to stress.

Transactional (Relational) Model of Stress by Richard Lazarus

• According to the Transactional/Relational Model, whether or not people experience stress
is influenced by their (1) initial reaction to the challenge (event) [primary appraisal] and the
(2) resources they have to cope with this challenge [secondary appraisal].
Factors that influence Appraisal
Personal and Situational factors that increase the chances that cognitive appraisal will lead to
stress; Factors that tips the perceived balance between demands and resources away from
resources and toward demands.

• Personal factors
o Intellectual, motivational, and personal characteristics such as:
§ Self-esteem and self-efficacy level of the person
§ The importance of the outcome of the situation to the individual
§ The presence of any irrational beliefs
• Situational factors
o Strength of the demands and the imminence of the situation.
§ The stronger the demands and the more imminent the situation, the more
appraised as stressful it will be.
o Timing of the situation.
§ Situations that involve deviation from an expected timetable are more likely
to be appraised as stressful.
o Ambiguity of the situation.
o Desirability of the situation.
§ Undesirable events tend to be experienced as more stressful than desirable
ones.
o Controllability of the situation.
§ Events in which the individual feels that he or she has some degree of
control are experienced as less stressful than uncontrollable ones.

Stress not caused by Cognitive Appraisal

• Stress can occur without cognitive appraisal.
o In emergency situations, stress may occur before a person has had time to engage in
appraisal or when the person is experiencing “shock” – a period during which
cognitive functioning is greatly impaired.
o Note: Cognitive appraisal is most likely to occur in non-emergency situations.
• Stress produced by vicarious transactions.
o Seeing other people in stressful situations.
o Here, primary appraisal is an important determinant of stress.

2. Stressors Come in Many Forms – Types of Stressors

i. Social
ii. Environmental
iii. Psychological
iv. Biological

(i) Social Sources of Stress

• Personal relationships
o Conflict
§ 1/3 of stressful events that college students experience is caused by
relationships.
§ Interpersonal conflicts account for as much as 80% of the stress experienced
by married couples.
§ In fact. Karen Rook suggests that having undermining disruptive
interpersonal relationships can have an even greater negative impact on
health than having supportive and positive ones.
 § In addition, caring for a loved one with a chronic illness presents both
financial burdens and emotional burdens (i.e. depression, anxiety, stress) to
the caregiver.
o Compromise
• Work/Study Demands
o Long hours
o Constant deadlines
§ i.e. The occupational stress for accountants is usually greatest at the end of
each financial year.
§ i.e. The occupational stress for students is usually greatest at the end of the
semester when they must take exams and finish papers.
o Substantial responsibility
o Responsibility
§ Those with jobs in which they have a responsibility for saving the lives of
others (i.e. doctors, firefighters, air traffic controllers) often experience
particularly high levels of stress because mistakes can have fatal
consequences.
o Physical environment
§ i.e. factory workers who experienced loud noise at work had higher blood
pressure, especially if they were working on complex tasks that required
concentration.
o Little/Lack of control
§ People who have little control in their job – including when, where, and how
they will complete their work – also experience considerable stress.
§ i.e. Restaurant servers who must satisfy both customers and their employers
and who have little control (e.g. they don’t make the food or determine the
prices) can experience more stress
VS College professors, who may work more hours than the servers, BUT who
often have more control (e.g. in choosing when and where to write their
lectures).
• Working parents (esp. mothers)
o Research in psychology suggests that women who are employed are less depressed
than non-employed women, and this is true even for women with children.
o One study found that employed women and employed men experience similar
levels of illnesses, whereas women who are homemakers only experience higher
levels of illnesses.
o The benefit of having multiple roles (i.e. being a mother + career women):
§ The negative experiences in one domain can be buffered by experiencing
positive effects in another.
§ That is, for women, being employed outside of home may help to buffer the
effects of stressful conditions at home, and vice versa.

(ii) Environmental sources of Stress

• Natural disasters
o Can produce both psychological and physical distress.
o After a hurricane of earthquake, there is an increase in the number of calls to the
mental health hotline, reports by police of domestic abuse, and visits to the hospital
emergency rooms.
o Climate change (Ref: supplementary reading)
• Pollution
• Noise
 o People. Who work in noisy conditions or live in busy cities experience increased
stress.
• Crowding
• Poverty
o Often associated with other stressors such as crime, overcrowded housing,
pollution, and noise.

(iii) Psychological sources of Stress

• Internal conflict
o Generated when you have to choose between at least 2 options; internal-conflict
types:
§ Approach-Approach
• When you must choose between 2 desirable yet incompatible
alternatives.
• i.e. go out on a date VS hang out with friends.
§ Approach-Avoidance
• When you must choose whether to do something that has both
desirable and undesirable aspects.
• i.e. wanting to eat dessert but wanting to lose weight.
§ Avoidance-Avoidance
• When you must choose between 2 undesirable alternatives.
• i.e. choose between chemotherapy VS radiation to treat cancer
(both have negative side effects).
o Research indicates that those who experience internal conflict have more
depression and anxiety, as well as more psychological complaints, including
headaches, chest pains, and nausea.
• Lack of control
o People often experience considerable stress when they are in situations in which
they have little or no control.
§ i.e. seemingly minor situations, such as being stuck in a traffic jam, can be
very stressful.
o Lack of control can have very negative impact on health and well-being.
§ i.e. when people are exposed to uncontrollable events, such as problems
that can’t be solved or loss of personal freedom, they experience distress
and psychological arousal.
o A study exposed people to a loud noise in a condition they could avoid VS a
condition they could not avoid (i.e. lack of control).
§ Noise was rated to be much less stressful when people could avoid the noise
than when it was unavoidable.
• Trauma/Loss
• Life changes
• Frustration
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• Conclusion:
o Giving people a sense of control over their environment can lead to decreased stress
and, in turn, greater psychological and physical well-being.
§ Supported by a study by Langer and Rodin (1976) that empirically examined
the relationship between control and well-being in nursing home residents.
(iv) Biological sources of Stress
• Illness
• Substance abuse
• Poor nutrition
• Sleep deprivation
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• All these make demands and tax the resources of an individual.

3. Stressors are Not Always “Bad”

• Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. That is, not all stressors are labelled
as “bad” or “negative” stressors.
• Positive stressors can lead to stress because each increases the demand side of the demand-
resource equation.
• Even if they are joyful for the individual, each of these events demands utilization of
resources on the part of the individual.
• Positive stressors that can lead to stress:
o Marriage or engagement
o New house
o New baby
o New pet
o Finding money.

4. Stress Response is a Product of Natural Selection; It Confers an Advantage to the

Organism
The Adaptive Nature of the Stress Response to Acute Stressor
While the TB highlights only the negative aspects of the SR, it is also advantages.

• Stress is not only a beneficial aspect of life, but also a necessary part of life → part of
survival!
o SR incurs mobilization of all bodily resources, which enables the person to
effectively deal with the challenge (the perceived threat) at hand.
o While stress taxes and drains a person’s biopsychosocial resources, if it is necessary
for survival, then those resources are well spent.
• As a product of natural selection, the SR is ideally suited for brief activation, specifically to
short-lasting physical stressors.
o Hence, the SR is turned on to deal with the stressor and quickly turned off when the
stressor has been dealt with and the challenge has been resolved.
 o At this point, the system switches to a period of energy conservation and storage, so
that when the situation again demands, there are sufficient resources to handle the
new challenge.
o The very negative consequences of stress are most often associated with prolonged
activation of the SR, which are usually to persistent psychological stressors.
• The SR evolved to meet an important need in human beings: survival in the face of great
physical challenge.
o Our ancestors had to deal with highly intense, but brief, physical stressors (i.e.
meeting a tiger).
o This SR had evolved such that now, when we face persistent psychological stressors
(i.e. seemingly nonstop deadlines at work/school), the same SR is disadvantageous
and can lead to psychological and physical consequences such as:
§ Mental disorders (posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorder,
depression, affective disorder).
§ Suppressed immune system functioning and decreased resistance to
pathogens.
§ Even brain damage.
o However, the continual and/or exceedingly intense activation of the stress response
to stressors that don’t demand mobilization of energy – without intervening periods
of rest – can drain the body’s resources and can make more likely negative
consequences.
• The SR is adaptive.
o In certain situations, it may save your life.

5. Long term (Chronic) stress can have very negative effects : Negative Effects of
Stress Response to Chronic Stressors
• Negative effects include:
o Physical illness
o Mental illness
o Reproductive problems
o Ageing
o Brain damage
• Long term stress can be referred to as repeated or chronic stress.
o Can diminish an individual’s immunocompetence – the ability of the immune
system to protect the body from pathogen assault – resulting in repeated infections
and illnesses.
o Can be manifested in 5 major body systems:
§ Immune system
• Reduces the number of white blood cells (and their ability to ward
off illnesses), leaving the body vulnerable to sickness.
§ Skeletomuscular system
• Results in lower back pain and tension headaches.
§ Parasympathetic nervous system
• Results in constipation, ulcers, diarrhea, irritable bowels, ulcerative
colitis.
§ Endocrine system
• Affects reproduction and growth systems.
§ Sympathetic nervous system
• Results in arrhythmia, hypertension, and the retention of salt and
water.
Stress Response: Immediate Effects of Stress
Short-term effects of SR revolve around the preparation of the organism to meet the
demands of the perceived threat.

Acute Stress Response: Fight-or-Flight Response

• According to Walter Cannon (1915), the physiological reaction that
occurs in response to threat is called the Fight-or-Flight response.
• It is part of the acute stress response, which serves to prime the
organism for effectively fighting or fleeing a perceived threat and thereby
surviving the challenge.
• This response is due to the activation of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system, which causes the release (via neural
stimulation) of 2 main hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal
medulla:
o Adrenaline (epinephrine); leads to
§ Increased heart rate and blood pressure
§ Peripheral vasoconstriction (constriction of peripheral
blood vessels)
o Noradrenaline (norepinephrine); leads to
§ Increased heart rate and blood pressure
§ Peripheral vasoconstriction (constriction of peripheral
blood vessels)
§ Increased lipid breakdown (lipolysis; enabling fatty acids to be available for
energy)
§ Coronary blood vessels dilation and Bronchial blood vessels dilation
§ Conversion of stored forms of sugar (glycogen) into readily usable form
(glucose)
----------------------------------------------------------------
o In sum, the 2 hormones’ action is to mobilize the resources of the body to handle
the perceived threat.
Fight, Flight, or Freeze
• Fight, Flight and Freeze is a newly proposed acute stress response by today’s psychologists.
• i.e. The highly adaptive value of a rabbit freezing (remining motionless) until a would-be
predator passes; freezing makes it more likely that the rabbit will be undetected and survive.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Background
GAS by Hans Selye, the “father of stress research”
• His book The Stress Of Life (1956) did much to bring the concept of stress into the public eye
and his General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is one of the seminal concepts in the field.
• According to Selye,
o Stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand on it for readjustment
or adaptation.
o The effects of stress are applicable to any type of stress.
• Development of General Adaptation Syndrome
o Study:
§ He ran a study describing the stages the body goes through when reacting to
a stressor.
§ In this series of tests, laboratory rats were exposed to different types of
stressors, such as heat, food deprivation, and electric shock.
 o Results:
§ Found that regardless of the type of stress that the rats were exposed to,
they developed similar physiological reactions, including enlarged adrenal
glands (or hypertrophy of adrenal glands), shrunken lymph glands (or
atrophy of lymph glands), and gastric ulcers.
o Conclusion:
§ Led to the development of the General Adaptation Syndrome – model that
describes the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress.
§ Named it GAS in this way: “I call this syndrome general because it is
produced only by agents which have a general effect upon large portions of
the body. I call it adaptive because it stimulates defense... I call it a
syndrome because its individual manifestations are coordinated and even
partly dependent upon each other.”

General Adaptive Syndrome

• Classified in 3 stages:
o Stage 1: Alarm Reaction (AR)
§ The immediate reaction to a stressor (initial phase of stress).
§ It is the mobilization of defenses to exhibit the “flight-or-flight” response,
which prepares the body for the physical activity of fighting off or fleeing
from the threat.
§ However, this initial response can also decrease the effectiveness of the
immune system, making the person more susceptible to illness during this
phase.
o Stage 2: Stage of Resistance (SR) / Stage of Adaptation
§ If the stress continues (the body continues to struggle to overcome the
demand), the body will work hard to adapt to or resist the stressor on a
long-term basis.
§ Changes at many levels take place in order to reduce the effect of the
stressor.
o Stage 3: Stage of Exhaustion (SE)
§ Given that the stress has continued for some time, there is a prolonged
period of energy expenditure. Hence, the body’s resources are depleted,
and the nervous system can no longer maintain even a normal arousal level.
§ Failure of multiple body systems.
§ Fatigue
§ Errors: hypervigilance is replaced by carelessness and distractibility.
§ Irritability.
§ Less adrenaline.
§ Vulnerable to stress-related illnesses such as coronary heart disease, high
blood pressure, ulcers, stroke, depression.
 § Flare-ups of other chronic illnesses such as arthritis, asthma, Parkinson’s
disease, multiple sclerosis, herpes.
§ Even death.

Stress Response: Physiological Basis and Effects

• SR has 2 main arms of action:
o Endocrine arm
o Neural arm (the fight-or-flight-response)
Endocrine arm Neural arm (fight-or-flight response)
The brain sends information to the adrenal The brain sends information to the adrenal
cortex (by the way of the anterior pituitary) via medulla via action potentials that travel in
hormones that travel in the blood. The adrenal nerves.
cortex will then respond to this message by • Note: The adrenal medulla responds to
secreting the hormone cortisol (a type of this message by secreting the 2 types of
glucocorticoid). catecholamines, which are hormones
norepinephrine (NE; also called
noradrenaline) and epinephrine (E; also
called adrenaline)
Adrenal cortex releases: Adrenal medulla releases catecholamines:
• Cortisol (a type of glucocorticoid) • Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
• Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
Other chemicals released:
• Endogenous opioids like beta-
endorphin (that causes Stress-Induced
Analgesia [SIA]; pain suppression/relief)

(i) Endocrine arm

• The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a major part of the neuroendocrine system

involving the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands (i.e.
adrenal cortex), is activated.
o Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is released by the hypothalamus.
o Which causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior
pituitary into the circulatory system.
o ACTH signals the adrenal cortex to release cortisol (which is a type of glucocorticoid)
– hormone of stress – and other glucocorticoids.
 § These glucocorticoids involve the whole body in the organism’s response to
stress, and in particular, increase blood glucose (brain fuel), increase blood
fatty acids (muscle fuel), and suppress the immune system.
o In addition, endogenous opioids (like beta-Endorphin) are released.
§ Causing stress-induced analgesia (SIA; pain relief), allowing the organism to
remain relatively free of pain despite potential bodily injury, which would
otherwise dimmish the ability of the organism to respond effectively to a
perceived threat or danger.
§ Note: the pain suppression that occurs as part of the SR is NOT due to
adrenaline (or noradrenaline) [both of which are catecholamines] as
commonly thought; Pain suppression is due to endogenous (internally
created) opioid release.
(ii) Neural arm
• Occurring at the same time, but producing a more rapid effect in the body is the neural arm
of the SR.
• Here, the autonomic nervous system mediates the rapid response to stress commonly
known as fight-or-flight response.
• This engages the sympathetic nervous system and withdraws the parasympathetic nervous
system,
• thereby enacting cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and endocrine changes
that complement the action of the endocrine arm.

Immediate effects
• The release of adrenaline, noradrenaline, opioids (like beta-endorphin), and cortisol that
occurs as part of the SR induces immediate effects that include:
o Dilation of pupils
o Increased heart rate, force of heart muscle contraction, and blood pressure.
o Shunting/Constriction of blood vessels that serve “nonessential” organs like kidneys
and gastrointestinal tract to “essential” organs.
§ Note: “nonessential” refers to organs not necessary for immediate survival.
o Dilation of blood vessels that serve organs involved in fighting off danger (i.e.
skeletal muscles, cardiac, liver, and adipose tissue) to allow greater flow of blood to
these organs.
§ Note: the liver converts glycogen to glucose and adipose tissue splits
triglycerides into fatty acids, both of which are used by muscle fibers to
generate energy [adenosine triphosphate: ATP]
o Increased respiration:
§ Increased rate and depth of breathing and dilation of airways, which allows
more rapid movement of air into and out of the lungs
o Increased blood glucose levels.
§ Liver glycogen is converted to blood glucose.
o Inhibition of processes that are not essential for immediate survival.
§ i.e. muscular activity in the gastrointestinal tract and digestive secretions
slow down or even stop.
o Acceleration of heart and lung action
o Liberation of nutrients for muscular action
o Inhibition of lacrimal glands (tear production) and salivary glands (salivation)
o Inhibition of erection
o Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing) and tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision).
• Summary:
o During the exposure to stressor, these intense vigorous physical reactions
(immediate effects) are necessary in order to survive the challenge.
o When the perceived threat is gone, all the systems that were activated during the SR
are designed to return to normal function via the relaxation response.
§ However, in times of chronic stress, this often doesn’t happen enough,
which causes damage to the body (including the brain).
Measurement of Stress
• 2 common research methods for measuring stress:
1. Physiological measures
2. Pen and pencil tests
a) Life events measures
b) Daily hassles measures
(1) Physiological Measures
• Physiological measures used to assess Polygraph (lie detector test)
stress include: • Combines the assessment of
o Blood pressure these 4 measures.
o Heart rate • Therefore, it is a direct
o Respiration rate measure of the Sympathetic
o Galvanic skin response (GSR) Nervous System Activity.
o Biochemical measures
§ Measures corticosteroid (i.e. cortisol) and catecholamine
(adrenaline/epinephrine & noradrenaline/norepinephrine) levels in the
blood, urine, and/or saliva.

Advantages of Physiological Measures of Stress

• Measures are direct and objective.
• Measurement is reliable.
• Outcomes are quantifiable.

Disadvantages of Physiological Measures of Stress

• Measurement techniques are expensive.
• Person may experience stress due the to the test itself.
• Outcomes can be affected by sex, body weight, level of prior activity, and consumption of
stimulants.
o Hence, these variables must be controlled through a scientific study.

(2) Pen and Pencil Tests

• Involves self-report.
• Measures the frequency of life events that require some kind of psychological adjustment.
o The assumption in these tests is that the greater the amount of psychological
adjustment that is needed during a specific time period, the greater the stress level
and the greater the effect on health.
• Pen and Pencil tests used to assess stress include:
o Life Events Scales
§ *Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRRS) (Holmes & Rahe, 1967) [TB p76 &
77]
§ Life Experience Survey
§ PERI Life Events Scale
§ Unpleasant Events Schedule
o Daily Hassles Scales (DHS) [TB p79]
§ Hassles Scale
§ Hassles Assessment Scale for Students in College
§ Uplifts Scale
(i) Life Events Scales
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
• Provides a list of major life events that are common stressors and provides a relative
intensity rating for each event.
o Relative intensity rating: meaning that each life event is assigned a value in arbitrary
“life-changing units” chosen to reflect the relative amount of stress the event causes
in the population studied.
o Stress is cumulative, so to estimate the total stress that someone is currently
experiencing, the values corresponding to the events that have occurred in his or
her life over some time period (usually in the past year) are added together.
• The scale is based on the idea that change in one’s life requires an effort to adapt;
Furthermore, there is a link between overall level of adaptation and incidence of medical
illness.
• Interpretation of the overall score:
o It is difficult to interpret because of large differences in individual reactions to stress
and in each person’s ability to cope with stress.
o However, there are general guidelines to follow:
§ ≤ 150: Good; suggesting a low level of stress in your life and a low
probability of developing a stress-related disorder.
§ ≥ 300: Statistically, you stand an almost 80% chance of getting sick in the
near future.
§ 150 – 299: Statistically, you stand about 50% chance of getting sick in the
near future.
§ < 150: Statistically, you stand about 30% chance of getting sick in the near
future.

Figure 1: Subset of the complete SRRS Scale; Only some imported stressors are listed in this subset

o Stressors not included in this subset:

§ Deterioration in function associated with old age, immigration, war, racism,
natural disaster, poverty, isolation, terrorism.
§ And many other conditions that prevent needs from being met such as
hunger, thirst, isolation, boredom, alienation, loud noise, chaos, exposure to
noxious (harmful/poisonous) agents.
Findings from the SRRS
• The number of events decreases with age and increases with education.
 • Single, separated, and divorced people report more events than married and widowed
people.
• Increases in illness and accident rate follow increases in stress.
• The correlation between SRRS score and illness is only 0.3.
o This indicates that stress is NOT the only factor associated with illness and accidents.

Strengths of SRRS
• A wide range of events are represented.
• The values of items reflect the relative impact of events assessed.
• It is quick and easy to administer.

Weaknesses of SRRS
• Some items listed in the SRRS are vague.
• Subjective appraisals or personal meanings for an event are NOT taken into account.
• There is no distinction between desirable and undesirable events.
o Subsequent studies find that it is undesirable events that are associated with illness.
• The life-changing events that are listed in the 1st version of the scale (1967) reflect a world
existing in the late 1960s, which are presumably NOT identical to those of 2021.

Other Life Events Scales

Life Experiences Survey
• A 57-item scale that rates items along an extremely positive (+3) to extremely negative (-3)
continuum (7-point scale).
• Advantage:
o Positive and Negative items can be examined separately or combined for a total
score.
PERI Life Events Scale
• A 102-item scale that describes events involving a gain, a loss, or an ambiguous outcome.
Unpleasant Events Schedule
• A 302-item scale with multiple events categories in which events are rated in terms of both
frequency and averseness.
• A shorter 53-item form is also available.

(ii) Daily Hassles Scales

• Contrasts Life Events Scales; uses irritating, frustrating events that occur during everyday
transactions with the environment or “hassles” as a measure of stress.
• Measuring such events is an attempt made by psychologists to better (and differently)
assess the stress an individual experiences.

Hassles Scale
• A 117-item scale that measures events that range from minor annoyances (i.e. silly practical
mistakes) to major problems (i.e. not enough money for food).
• Respondents indicate which hassles occurred in the past month and rate each event as
“somewhat”, “moderately”, or “extremely” severe.
• Note: Empirical investigation showed that Hassles Scale scores were weakly associated to
health status BUT still more strongly correlated to health status than Life Events Scales
scores were correlated to health status [correlation between SRRS and illness is 0.3].
Hassles Assessment Scale for Students in College

Figure 2: Subset of the complete Hassles Assessment Scale for Students in College

• Designed to measure events that college students are likely to face.

• The scale asks respondents to rate the frequency of each event, the unpleasantness of each
event, and the degree to which they dwell on each event.

Uplifts Scale
• Developed because researchers felt having desirable experiences may make hassles more
bearable and reduce their impact on health.
• A 135-item scale which lists positive events that bring peace, satisfaction, or joy.
• Weakness:
o Studies found that the scores on the Uplifts Scale were NOT associated with health
status.

Bottom-line

Strength of Pen and Pencil Tests (Self-report measures)

• Overall findings suggest that stress, as measured on these scales, is moderately related to
health.
Weakness of Pen and Pencil Tests (Self-report measures)
• These scales may be unreliable because stress is a very difficult concept to define and
measure.