T2P3

UEME4223 Sustainable Vehicular Technologies
Topic 2
Internal Combustion Engine Technologies
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

UEME4223 Sustainable Vehicular Technologies [Topic 2 – Internal Combustion Engine Technologies]
Related Cos:
Evaluate the importance of current sustainable vehicular
CO1 -
development globally and locally.
Distinguish the contribution technologies in vehicles powered by
CO2 -
internal combustion engine, electric and hybrid electric.
CO3 - Justify suitable vehicular technologies for various applications.
Appraise future sustainable powertrain and energy source for
CO4 -
vehicular use.
Conduct tests of alternative fuel and efficiencies of an electric
CO5 -
vehicle.

Turbocharging
• Means to improve engine performance is related to:

Power  RPM  Fuel burnt per cycle  thermal efficiency
m f
BP  N  i  m
2N
(a) Increase engine speed. This is limited by mechanical limitations. Also the mass of air entering the
inlet ports is limited by the sonic velocity.
(b) Increase the density of the air charge by supercharging or cooling.
(c) Increase the oxygen content of the inlet charge by
• Injection of liquid oxygen, (increases “knock”).
• Injection of N2O (Nitrous oxide) that would give benefits of:
(1) Cooling due to evaporation of N2O leads to increased density.
(2) Dissociation of N2O into N2 and O2 liberates heat.
(3) More fuel is burnt because of O2 enrichment.
(4) N2O has anti-knock effect.
(d) Increase the thermal efficiency by increasing the compression ratio, heat insulation,etc.
(e) Reduce mechanical losses.
ICE notes, Goh SY
Turbocharging
• Increasing air density is one of the approach to render higher

power output.
• Maximum power, limited by the amount of fuel burnt efficiently,
which limited by the amount of air.
• If the inducted air compressed to a higher density than ambient,
more fuel can be burnt, thus producing higher power.
• To retain the same power output of a large engine, smaller
engine can be used instead, done by having higher air density.
• This can be achieved by either:
• Turbocharging. A single shafted compressor and turbine
device, boosts the inlet density. Driven by the engine’s
exhaust stream.
• Mechanical supercharging. A pump / blower / compressor.
Driven by power from and engine to provide compressed air.
Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Turbocharging
• Cont.:
• Pressure wave
supercharging. A
wave action in the
intake and exhaust
system. Comprex
uses pressure
wave in the
exhaust gas to
compress the inlet
mixture through
direct contact of
the fluid in narrow
flow channels.

Ecotec 1.4
Turbocharging
Turbocharger concept and application
Honda Type-R 2.0

VTEC Turbo
Proton Exora
https://www.eagleridgegm.com/what-is-a-turbocharger-and-how-does-it-work/;
http://www.ledangexoracrew.com/2017/08/tips-penjagaan-enjin-turbo-exora-bold.html;
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman https://global.honda/innovation/technology/automobile/Vtec-turbo-picturebook.html
Turbocharging
Controls the maximum allowable pressure
in the intake manifold
Turbocharger control
Controls the speed of

the turbocharger by
bypassing the “driving”
exhaust gas through
monitoring the
compressed pressure
https://www.garrettmotion.com/knowledge-center-category/racing-and-performance/what-is-the-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman difference-between-a-wastegate-and-a-blow-off-valve/
Controls the vane direction, directing exhaust gas to

Turbocharging the turbine to alter speed and to reduce turbo lag
Turbocharger control – VGT / VNT
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-geometry_turbocharger#
Turbocharging
• In the near future, electric turbocharger may be used for reasons of producing power, efficiency, emission
as well as drivability, apart from just using it to reduce lag.
• With an electric motor on the turbo shaft, a larger turbine and compressor can be used to achieve target
boost level with minimum lag. This gives better drivability and emission during the transient state.
https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a42821665/how-electric-turbochargers-are-changing-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman internal-combustion/
Turbocharging
• An electric motor can act

as a generator, giving back
energy into the battery
pack, making it energy
neutral or even energy
positive, depending on the
drive cycle.
• AMG C63 hybrid system,
electric traction with a
smaller electric
turbocharged engine to
generate electricity for the
battery pack for high
energy consumption.
Replaces a range of V8
engines.
https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a42821665/how-electric-turbochargers-are-changing-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman internal-combustion/
Turbocharging
• Intercooler is an important part of a turbocharging system.

• It cools down the intake charge, further increase the density.
• It also reduces the energy required to compress during the compression stroke.
https://low-offset.com/workshop/turbo-intercoolers-explained/
Turbocharging
• Intercoolers is essentially a heat exchanger.

• It can either be air-to-air intercooler or liquid-to-air intercooler.
• Performs differently in terms of physical size and temperature change.
Various sources
Supercharging
• Supercharging uses power from an engine to drives its compressor.

• There are two types of superchargers, positive displacement compressors and aerodynamic compressors.

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman https://dieselnet.com/tech/air_supercharger.php
Supercharging
Vane compressor

Supercharging
Belt driven off crankshaft.
Roots
Lysholm
https://mechstuff.com/how-superchargers-work-types-advantages-limitations/; https://www.moss-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman europe.fr/supercharger-system-150-040.html; https://dieselnet.com/tech/air_supercharger.php
Supercharging
Centrifugal supercharger
https://mechanicaljungle.com/centrifugal-superchargers/
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman https://x-engineer.org/mechanical-centrifugal-supercharger/
Supercharging Bypass valve
Supercharger control
Electromagnetic clutch
https://www.challengertalk.com/threads/smooth-boost-controller.679788/
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman https://ogura-clutch.com/featured_product_superchargers.php?type=6
Supercharging and turbocharging
• Concept of supercharging and turbocharging in a system.

• Turbo compounding sends extra energy from exhaust back to the crankshaft.
Turbo compounding
VW TSI engine – supercharging and turbocharging
https://media.vw.com/en-us/releases/96; https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a15359491/turbo-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman compounding-is-the-next-big-thing-in-energy-recovery/
Exhaust emission and its treatment
• Each speed and load, there’s an optimum air-fuel ratio, depending

on the engine operating condition (cold or operating temp.).
• Wide-open throttle’s priority requirement is high power output
while part load throttle are good fuel economy and compliance
with emission standards.
• For high power output, the engine requires a rich mixture (relative
air-fuel ratio, λ of 0.9 to 1.0) that gives maximum burn rate and
minimum ignition delay. It also gives high specific fuel consumption
and high CO and HC emissions.
• For part-load range, it need leaner mixture of λ > 1 that leads to a
reduction in fuel consumption and CO and HC emissions.
• Different years of emission regulations in Europe, different range
of air-fuel ratio operation.
H.P. Lenz, 1991. Mixture Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines, SAE

Hydrocarbon emission
• Cause irritation to mucous membranes in humans.

• Primarily cause by incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel.
• Essential components are aromatics, olefins, acetylene and paraffines.
• Remain in areas where flame does not propagate to such as gaps closed to the cylinder head gasket, piston
top land, piston rings and spark plugs.
• Formed due to the quench effect, misfire as well as detachment of lubricating film.
A.A. Abdel-Rahman, 1998. On the Emission from Internal-Combustion Engines: A Review, IJER.
Carbon monoxide emission
• Low concentration may cause suffocation due to strong adherence to haemoglobin. Maximum workplace
concentration is 33 mg/m3.
• Primarily influenced by the air-fuel ratio.
• Usage of fuel of high H to C ratio lowers the concentrations of CO emission.
• For rich mixture, CO increase with the decrease of air-fuel ratio.
• For lean mixture, CO varies very little with air-fuel ratio.
• In the lean region, CO production can caused by conditions of poor mixing, local rich region, incomplete
combustions and also lack of time to reach equilibrium of oxidation of CO to CO2.
Oxides of nitrogen emission
• Low concentration of NO2 can cause lung irritation, tissue damage and irritation of mucous membranes.
There is also a risk of acid formation. The maximum workplace concentration is 9 mg/m3.
• NO modifies the function of lungs and irritates mucous membranes in human. There is a risk of nitric acid
formation. Maximum workplace concentration is 9 mg/m3. NO constitutes 90 – 98% of all NOx.
• NOx production reaches a maximum at slight excess air. It is enhanced by high, local peak temperatures and
a corresponding excess of air.
• High temperature encourage splitting of N2 and O2. Excess air ensures sufficient oxygen is present for the
process.
• Engine related parameters of load, air-fuel ratio, ignition angle, compression ratio, etc. influences NOx.
Tetraethylled (TEL) emission
• Lead reduces oxygen absorption of the blood. Maximum workplace concentration of lead is 0.6 mg/m3.
• Lead contaminates catalytic converters.
• This form of emission solely comes from additives in petrol as an anti-knock.
• It is based on chlorine and bromium compounds to reduce the high boiling temperature of lead.
Formation of emission
• Catalytic converters are used to treat

emission gasses.
• Optimum lambda values at operating
temperatures without closed-loop control
is shown.
• Idle enrichment is required due to low
pressure and high portion of residual gasses
in the cylinder.
• Catalytic converter is a device that controls
the emission of pollutant at the exhaust. It
converts toxic gasses and pollutant into less
toxic pollutants. This is done through a
catalyzing a redox reaction where a
oxidation state of substrate changes.
• Can be used for petrol or diesel ICE and
kerosene fueled heaters and stoves.
H.P. Lenz, 1991. Mixture Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines, SAE
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Catalytic converter, Wikipedia.
• Two-way catalytic converters oxidases CO and HC.

• Three-way catalytic converters includes NOx. This needs stoichiometric
combustion, thus the use of closed-loop control via exhaust gas oxygen
sensor.
• Newer catalytic converters can be used on lean-burn engines.
• It requires a working temperature of above 400 °C, requiring to be
place close to the engine.
• At times, there is a smaller catalytic converter (pre-cat) placed earlier
than the other.
• As the catalytic converter is placed in the exhaust system, it restricts
the flow of exhaust.
• This reduces the performance and fuel economy of an ICE. Modern
designs of catalytic converters does not restrict much.
• Aftermarket catalytic converters can improve 10.6 whp from 253.6 whp
in some cases.
Catalytic converter, Wikipedia; https://eurosporttuning.com/blog/high-flow-cats-worth-it/;
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman http://speed.academy/infiniti-g35-bolt-on-power-adders-nissan-vq/2/
• Another device that can be used is a thermal reactor. Its an enlarged exhaust manifold. It promotes rapid
mixing of exhaust gasses with secondary air injected, ensuring equal temperature and exhaust gas
compositions, and to retain gasses at high enough temperature (600 to 700 °C) for sufficient time for HC
and CO to oxidise. This however requires rich engine operation.

• Diesel emission are mostly particulate matter. A trap oxidizer is a device that removes particulate material
from exhaust gas which is then cleaned off by oxidizing the accumulated particles.
• Issues are increase exhaust back pressure, further increase when particulates trap, normal operation could
not ignite and oxidize the particulates, and once ignition occurs, it must be carefully controlled to prevent
high temperature and trap damage / destruction.
• Ignition of particulates occur around 50 to 600 °C. Catalytic coatings would bring it lower by 200 °C.
• Proper location of trap would ensure that it self regulating. Efficiency can be of 70% or more.

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman https://www.drive.com.au/news/what-is-a-diesel-particulate-filter-or-dpf/
Hydrogen and other alternative fuels
• Current reluctance to purchase EV are cost (NOTE:

high cost), lack of charging facilities, travel range.
• According to the EY, chargers (public and private)
are concern, together with range, cost (upfront
and running).
• As a bridge, consumers are purchasing more
hybrids.
• Future of ICE is dependable on the fuel, being
hybridized or not.
• Therefore the options are zero-carbon in long

term and low-carbon in short term.
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/ev-sales-charging-infrastructure-transport-sector-
sustainable/; https://assets.ey.com/content/dam/ey-sites/ey-com/en_gl/topics/automotive-and-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman transportation/automotive-transportation-pdfs/ey-mobility-consumer-index-2022-study.pdf
Common fuels
NOTE:
43 – 47.3 MJ/kg • These are naturally
in liquid form, easy
42.5 – 44.8 MJ/kg to induced into
ICE.
41.4 – 43.8 MJ/kg
https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69204
Hydrogen and other alternative fuels NOTE:

• Hydrogen and ammonia is zero carbon while methane and natural gas are lox-
carbon fuels.
Common hydrocarbon components • Ammonia is available in liquid.
• Others are in gaseous form, challenging to induce the proper mixture of fuel and
air into ICE. If naturally aspirated, the amount of gaseous fuel induced is lesser,
generating lesser power for the same engine capacity.
Density Higher Heating Value (HHV) Lower Heating Value (LHV)
Fuel
@0°C/32°F, 1 bar (Gross Calorific Value - GCV) (Net Calorific Value - NCV)
Gaseous fuels [kg/m3] [g/ft3] [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb] [MJ/m3] [Btu/ft3] [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb] [MJ/m3] [Btu/ft3]
Acetylene 1.097 31.1 13.9 49.9 21453 54.7 1468
Ammonia 22.5 9690
Hydrogen 0.09 2.55 39.4 141.7 60920 12.7 341 33.3 120 51591 10.8 290
Methane 0.716 20.3 15.4 55.5 23874 39.8 1069 13.9 50 21496 35.8 964
Natural gas (US market)* 0.777 22 14.5 52.2 22446 40.6 1090 13.1 47.1 20262 36.6 983
Town gas 18 483
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorific-values-d_169.html

Density Higher Heating Value (HHV) Lower Heating Value (LHV)
Fuel
@15°C/60°F (Gross Calorific Value - GCV) (Net Calorific Value - NCV)
Liquid fuels [kg/l] [kg/gal] [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb] [MJ/l] [Btu/gal] [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb] [MJ/l] [Btu/gal]
Common hydrocarbon components Acetone 0.787 2.979 8.83 31.8 13671 25 89792 8.22 29.6 12726 23.3 83580
Butane 0.601 3.065 13.64 49.1 21109 29.5 105875 12.58 45.3 19475 27.2 97681
Butanol 0.81 10.36 37.3 16036 30.2 108359 9.56 34.4 14789 27.9 99934
Diesel fuel* 0.846 3.202 12.67 45.6 19604 38.6 138412 11.83 42.6 18315 36 129306
NOTE: Dimethyl ether (DME) 0.665 2.518 8.81 31.7 13629 21.1 75655 8.03 28.9 12425 19.2 68973
Ethane 0.572 2.165 14.42 51.9 22313 29.7 106513 13.28 47.8 20550 27.3 98098
• Ethanol is low carbon fuel, liquos, and Ethanol (100%) 0.789 2.987 8.25 29.7 12769 23.4 84076 7.42 26.7 11479 21.1 75583
require compatible of plastics and Diethyl ether (ether) 0.716 2.71 11.94 43 18487 30.8 110464
Gasoline (petrol)* 0.737 2.79 12.89 46.4 19948 34.2 122694 12.06 43.4 18659 32 114761
rubber. Gas oil (heating oil)* 0.84 3.18 11.95 43 18495 36.1 129654 11.89 42.8 18401 36 128991
Glycerin 1.263 4.781 5.28 19 8169 24 86098
Heavy fuel oil* 0.98 3.71 11.61 41.8 17971 41 146974 10.83 39 16767 38.2 137129
Kerosene* 0.821 3.108 12.83 46.2 19862 37.9 126663 11.94 43 18487 35.3 126663
Light fuel oil* 0.96 3.634 12.22 44 18917 42.2 151552 11.28 40.6 17455 39 139841
LNG* 0.428 1.621 15.33 55.2 23732 23.6 84810 13.5 48.6 20894 20.8 74670
LPG* 0.537 2.033 13.69 49.3 21195 26.5 94986 12.64 45.5 19561 24.4 87664
Marine gas oil* 0.855 3.237 12.75 45.9 19733 39.2 140804 11.89 42.8 18401 36.6 131295
Methanol 0.791 2.994 6.39 23 9888 18.2 65274 5.54 19.9 8568 15.8 56562
Methyl ester (biodiesel) 0.888 3.361 11.17 40.2 17283 35.7 128062 10.42 37.5 16122 33.3 119460
• Sustainable and direct applicable for MTBE 0.743 2.811 10.56 38 16337 28.2 101244 9.75 35.1 15090 26.1 93517
diesel engines. Oils vegetable (biodiesel)* 0.92 3.483 11.25 40.5 17412 37.3 133684 10.5 37.8 16251 34.8 124772
Paraffin (wax)* 0.9 3.407 12.78 46 19776 41.4 148538 11.53 41.5 17842 37.4 134007
Pentane 0.63 2.385 13.5 48.6 20894 30.6 109854 12.6 45.4 19497 28.6 102507
Petroleum naphtha* 0.725 2.745 13.36 48.1 20679 34.9 125145 12.47 44.9 19303 32.6 116819
Propane 0.498 1.885 13.99 50.4 21647 25.1 89963 12.88 46.4 19927 23.1 82816
Residual oil* 0.991 3.752 41.8 150072 10.97 39.5 16982 39.2 140470
Tar* 10 36 15477
Turpentine 0.865 3.274 12.22 44 18917 38.1 136555
Common hydrocarbon components

Higher Heating Value (HHV) Lower Heating Value (LHV)
Fuel Density
(Gross Calorific Value - GCV) (Net Calorific Value - NCV)
Solid fuels* [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb] [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb]
NOTE: Anthracite coal 9.06 32.6 14015
• These fuel are solid fuel. Bituminous coal 8.39 30.2 12984 8.06 29 12468
Carbon 9.11 32.8 14101
• Charcoal is much used in power Charcoal 8.22 29.6 12726 7.89 28.4 12210
generation. It is phasing out. Coke 7.22 26 11178
Lignite (brown coal) 3.89 14 6019
Peat 4.72 17 7309
Petroleum coke 8.69 31.3 13457 8.19 29.5 12683
Semi anthracite 8.19 29.5 12683
Sub-Bituminous coal 6.78 24.4 10490
Sulfur (s) 2.56 9.2 3955 2.55 9.2 3939
• Wood is carbon neutral as it consumes Wood (dry) 0.701 4.5 16.2 6965 4.28 15.4 6621
carbon dioxide in its lifetime.
• Hydrogen (H2) properties enabling to combustion are its:

• Wide range of flammability (can be burnt lean that reduces final combustion temperature, reducing
pollutants such as NOx but sacrificing power output)
• Low ignition energy (needed lesser energy than petrol to ignite. May ignite due to hot gasses or hot
spots, creating premature ignition and flashback)
• Small quenching distance (smaller than gasoline, flame goes nearer to the cylinder wall before
extinguished, higher tendency to backfire at intake valve)
• High autoignition temperature (allows larger compression ratio used)
• High flame speed at stoichiometric ratios (faster than petrol, can more closely near thermodynamic
ideal engine cycle, lean mix slows the flame propagation)
• High diffusivity (disperse in air greater than petrol, better formation of mixture, disperses leak H2,
minimize unsafe condition)
• Very low density (needed large volume for adequate driving range and would reduce power output).
https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/tech_validation/pdfs/fcm03r0.pdf
• Stoichiometric air fuel ratio based on

mass = 34.33:1 (can be combusted at lean
combustion limit of 180:1)
• Stoichiometric air fuel ratio based on
volume = 2.4:1
• If air is mixed with gaseous H2,
performance is expected to drop 15%.
• If air is mixed with liquid H2, performance
to increase 15%.
• If the composition is induced under
pressure, performance increase further.
• To be used in ICE, pre-ignition is to be avoided.

• Feasible injection of H2 is either port or direct injection. While direct injection improves power output and
reduce pre-ignition problem during the intake stroke, it can still occur within the cylinder. Lesser time to mix
with air also cause non-homogeneous mixture and higher NOx production.
• To reduce the internal cylinder temperature for thermal dilution, EGR can be used. This can reduce NOx but
would reduce power output as it displaces fresh charge. Another approach is water injection.
• Designing of the combustion chamber and cooling system is another approach. The chamber do not need to
amplify inlet swirl. Use a large bore to stroke ratio with 2 spark plugs to make use of higher flame speed.
The cooling system has to assure al part of the engine is cooled.
• Emission from H2 fueled ICE is only H2O. Due

to high combustion temperature (if not
avoided), NOx is formed.
• NOx is controlled via air / fuel ratio,
compression ratio, engine speed, ignition
timing and usage of thermal dilution.
• CO can also formed due to the use of
lubricating oil where it seeps through.
• Toyota is very upfront about H2 ICE.

• Developed a H2 engine and while under development, it participated in endurance races.
• It is an inline 3-cylinder turbo intercooler engine, using compressed H2, with a displacement of 1618 cc.
• By the end of the race season, Toyota had learn to up its power by 24% and torque by 33%. Range was
expanded to 30% while the refueling time reduced from initial 5 minutes to 90 seconds.
https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/35209996.html; https://www.toyota-
europe.com/news/2022/prototype-corolla-cross-hydrogen-concept;
https://www.autoevolution.com/news/toyota-to-test-hydrogen-combustion-engine-in-race-cars-
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman save-petrolheads-from-ev-menace-172528.html

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UEME4223 Sustainable Vehicular Technologies

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

• Means to improve engine performance is related to:

• Increasing air density is one of the approach to render higher

Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Turbocharger concept and application

Honda Type-R 2.0

Controls the speed of

Controls the vane direction, directing exhaust gas to

Turbocharger control – VGT / VNT

• An electric motor can act

• Intercooler is an important part of a turbocharging system.

• Intercoolers is essentially a heat exchanger.

• Supercharging uses power from an engine to drives its compressor.

Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Belt driven off crankshaft.

Supercharging Bypass valve

Supercharging and turbocharging

• Concept of supercharging and turbocharging in a system.

Exhaust emission and its treatment

• Each speed and load, there’s an optimum air-fuel ratio, depending

H.P. Lenz, 1991. Mixture Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines, SAE

Exhaust emission and its treatment

• Cause irritation to mucous membranes in humans.

Exhaust emission and its treatment

Carbon monoxide emission

Exhaust emission and its treatment

Oxides of nitrogen emission

Exhaust emission and its treatment

Tetraethylled (TEL) emission

Exhaust emission and its treatment

Exhaust emission and its treatment

• Catalytic converters are used to treat

Exhaust emission and its treatment

• Two-way catalytic converters oxidases CO and HC.

Exhaust emission and its treatment

Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Exhaust emission and its treatment

Fundamentals of Internal Combustion engines, Heywood

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

• Current reluctance to purchase EV are cost (NOTE:

• Therefore the options are zero-carbon in long

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels NOTE:

Town gas 18 483

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

Common hydrocarbon components

Solid fuels* [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb] [kWh/kg] [MJ/kg] [Btu/lb]

NOTE: Anthracite coal 9.06 32.6 14015

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

• Hydrogen (H2) properties enabling to combustion are its:

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

• Stoichiometric air fuel ratio based on

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

• To be used in ICE, pre-ignition is to be avoided.

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

• Emission from H2 fueled ICE is only H2O. Due

Hydrogen and other alternative fuels

• Toyota is very upfront about H2 ICE.

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