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“Analytical study of a Turbo-charging Device”

Research · September 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3556.7849

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 A
PROJECT REPORT OF SUMMER INTERNSHIP
AT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOOGY, GUWAHATI

Subject- “Analytical study of a

Turbocharging Device”

Done Under the guidance of -

Dr. Karuna Kalita

Asst. Professor, School of Mechanical Engg.
IIT-Guwahati, Assam-781039

Duration : 28 days (from 18/05/2015 to 15/05/2015)

(A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the requirement for the

Degree of Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) of
KIIT UNIVERSITY, Bhubaneswar)

Submitted by:
TANMAY JYOTI DEKA
University Roll No: 1202373, 7th Semester
School of Mechanical Engineering
KALINGA INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY,
BHUBANESWAR-24, ODISHA
 (i)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report bears the inspiration, guidance, assistance and co-

operation of many persons without which my internship in such a great
academic institution could not be completed.
The first and foremost intellectual debt to my training co-ordinator
Dr. Karuna Kalita, Asst. professor, IIT Guwahati for giving me the chance
to get this valuable and important Summer Internship training.
I am very grateful to IIT-Guwahati authority for letting me to do
this summer/industrial training at this industry.
I wish to offer my deepest sense of gratitude and appreciation to Mr.
Bhaskor Bora, PhD. Student, IIT-Guwahati for his expert guidance, valuable
suggestion and encouragement throughout the course of work and training.
I am also highly obliged to the staff members of various section of
IIT-Guwhati for the valuable information provided by the in their respective
field. I am grateful for their corporation and help during my training days.

TANMAY JYOTI DEKA

School of Mechanical engineering
KIIT UNIVERSITY, Bhubaneswar
 (ii)

` CERTIFICATE

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THIS PROJECT

REPORT ON SUMMER INTERNSHIP/TRAINIG AT INDIAN
INSTITUDE OF TECHNOLOGY< GUWAHATI IS A
BONAFIED WORK CARRRIED OUT BY TANMAY JYOTI
DEKA, BEARING UNIVERSITY ROLL NO. 1202373
PERSUING B.TECH DEGREE IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING (during the academic session 2012-2016) IN THE
KALINGA INSTITUE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
(KIIT UNIVERSITY), BHUBANESWAR, UNDER THE
SUPERVISION OF THE FOLLOWING INTERNSHIP
SUPERVISOR/GUIDE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, IIT-GUWAHATI.

Dr. Karuna Kalita

(Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engg.
IIT- Guwahati, Assam- 781039)
 CONTENTS

(i) Acknowledgement

(ii) Certificate

Page No.
 CHAPTER 1 - Introduction
 1.1 Aim of the project 1
 1.2 Turbocharging 1
 1.3 Advantages of Turbocharger over Supercharger 1,2

 CHAPTER 2 - Analysis of a Turbocharger

 2.1 Working Principle of a Turbocharger 3
 2.2 Main Parts of a Turbocharger 4
 2.3 Description of different parts 4-7
 2.4 Some important processes and terms 7,8
related to turbocharging

 CHAPTER 3 – Turbocharging Systems- Principles

 3.1 The Energy in the exhaust system 9
 3.2 Principle of const. pressure Turbocharging 10
 3.3 Principle of Pulse Turbocharging 11,12,13
 3.4 Principles of Pulse Converter and other 13
Turbocharging systems

 CHAPTER 4 – Performances of a Turbocharger

 4.1 Compressor and turbine efficiency 14,15,16
 4.2 Analysis of Compressor flow rate 17
 4.3 Heat Exchanger analysis 18,19

 CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION 20
 Chapter 1- INTRODUCTION

1.1 Aim of the project

In this project report the theoretical analysis of a turbocharger is done. The different
parts of a turbocharger are studied here and are described completely. The main aim of this
project are as follows-
 Theoretical analysis of the Compressor & turbine
 Theoretical analysis of the water air radiator
 And Analysis of the Intercooler

1.2 Turbocharging
Turbocharging is basically one type of Supercharging. The purpose of supercharging is
to increase the mass of air trapped in the cylinders of the engine, by raising air density. This
allows more fuel to be burnt, increasing the power output of the engine, for a given swept
volume of the cylinders. Thus the power to weight and volume ratios of the engine increase.
Since more fuel is burnt to achieve the power increase, the efficiency of the engine cycle
remains unchanged.

A compressor is used to achieve the increase in air density. Two methods of

supercharging can be distinguished by the method used to drive the compressor. If the
compressor is driven from the crankshaft of the engine, the system is called 'mechanically
driven supercharging' or often just 'supercharging'. If the compressor is driven by a turbine,
which itself is driven by the exhaust gas from the cylinders, the system is called 'turbocharging'.
The shaft of the turbocharger links the compressor and turbine, but is not connected to the
crankshaft of the engine (except on some experimental 'compound' engines, see Chapter 3).
Thus the power developed by the turbine dictates the compressor operating point, since it must
equal that absorbed by the compressor.

1.3 Advantages of Turbocharger over Supercharger

The advantage of the turbocharger, over a supercharger, is that the power required to
drive the compressor is extracted from exhaust gas energy rather than the crankshaft. Thus
turbocharging is more efficient than mechanical supercharging.

In contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine.

Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, placing a
mechanical load on the engine. For example, on the single stage single speed supercharged
Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower (110 Kilowatts). Yet
the benefits outweigh the costs; For the 150 hp (110 kW) to drive the supercharger the engine
generates an additional 400horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp (190 kW). This is where the
principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent; The engine must withstand the net
power output of the engine plus the power to drive the supercharger.

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 Another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared
to turbochargers (especially Roots type superchargers). Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of a
compressor's ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal
conditions, the compression process always results in elevated output temperature; However,
more efficient compressors produce less excess heat. Roots superchargers impart significantly
more heat to the air than turbochargers. Thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the
turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and
therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity
between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power
based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency (however, due to heat transfer from the
hot exhaust, considerable heating does occur).

By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine,
although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, increasing pumping losses.
This is more efficient, because while the increased back pressure taxes the piston exhaust
stroke, much of the energy driving the turbine is provided by the still expanding exhaust gas
that would otherwise be wasted as heat through the tailpipe. In contrast to supercharging, the
primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as "lag" or "spool time". This is
the time between the demand for an increase in power (the throttle being opened) and the
turbocharger(s) providing increased intake pressure, and hence increased power.

Fig.1 Turbocharger

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 Chapter 2- Analysis of a Turbocharger

2.1 Working Principle of a turbocharger

The turbocharger's compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it enters
into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results in a greater mass of air entering the
cylinders on each intake stroke. The power needed to spin the centrifugal compressor is derived
from the kinetic energy of the engine's exhaust gases.

Compressing the air increases its temperature, which lowers the density of the charge
air and creates a less efficient cycle and loss of power. The higher temperatures can also have
detrimental effects on the materials and structure of the engine. To counteract this issue the
compressed air needs to be cooled in order to achieve maximum power and maintain the
structural integrity of the pistons. A heat exchanger, or intercooler, is installed between the
compressor and engine inlet to cool the charge air. There are two different types of intercoolers,
air-air and air-water (these two types are discussed later).

The turbine of a turbocharger imposes a flow restriction in the exhaust system, and
therefore the exhaust manifold pressure will be greater than atmospheric pressure. If sufficient
energy can be extracted from the exhaust gas, and converted into compressor work, then the
system can be designed such that the compressor delivery pressure exceeds that at turbine inlet,
and the inlet and exhaust processes are not adversely affected. The process of compression
raises temperature as well as pressure. Since the objective is to increase inlet air density,
charger air coolers (heat exchangers) are often used to cool the air between compressor delivery
and the cylinders, so that the pressure increase is achieved with the maximum rise in density.

Fig.2 Turbocharging process

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2.2 Main parts of Turbocharge

The essential components of the 'turbocharger' are the turbine, compressor, connecting
shaft, intercooler, radiator, bearings and housings.

The turbocharger components can be mainly divided into 3 parts-

 The turbine, which is almost always a radial inflow turbine (but is almost always a
single stage axial inflow turbine in large Diesel engines)
 The compressor, which is almost always a centrifugal compressor
 The centre housing/hub rotating assembly

Modern turbocharger installations use additional technologies, such as waste gates,

intercooling and blow off valves.

2.3 Description of different parts

2.3.1 Turbine

Energy provided for the turbine work is converted from the enthalpy and kinetic energy
of the gas. The turbine housings direct the gas flow through the turbine as it spins at up to
250,000 rpm. The size and shape can dictate some performance characteristics of the overall
turbocharger. Often the same basic turbocharger assembly is available from the manufacturer
with multiple housing choices for the turbine, and sometimes the compressor cover as well.

The turbine and impeller wheel sizes also dictate the amount of air or exhaust that can
be flowed through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they operate. In general, the
larger the turbine wheel and compressor wheel the larger the flow capacity. A turbocharger’s
performance is closely tied to its size. Large turbochargers take more heat and pressure to spin
the turbine, creating lag at low speed. Small turbochargers spin quickly, but may not have the
same performance at high acceleration.

2.3.1.1 Twin-turbo

Twin-turbo or bi-turbo designs have two separate turbochargers operating in either a

sequence or in parallel.
In a parallel configuration, both turbochargers are fed one-half of the engine’s exhaust.
In a sequential setup one turbocharger runs at low speeds and the second turns on at a
predetermined engine speed or load. Sequential turbochargers further reduce turbo lag, but
require an intricate set of pipes to properly feed both turbochargers.
Two stage variable twin turbo employ a small turbocharger at low speeds and a large
one at higher speeds. They are connected in a series so that boost pressure from one
turbocharger is multiplied by another, hence the name "2stage." The distribution of exhaust gas
is continuously variable, so the transition from using the small turbocharger to the large one
can be done incrementally. Twin turbochargers are primarily used in Diesel engines.

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2.3.1.2 Twin scroll

Twin scroll or divided turbochargers have two exhaust gas inlets and two nozzles, a
smaller sharper angled one for quick response and a larger less angled one for peak
performance. With high-performance camshaft timing, exhaust valves in different cylinders
can be open at the same time, overlapping at the end of the power stroke in one cylinder and
the end of exhaust stroke in another. In twin scroll designs, the exhaust manifold physically
separates the channels for cylinders that can interfere with each other, so that the pulsating
exhaust gasses flow through separate spirals (scrolls). With common firing order 1342, two
scrolls of unequal length pair cylinders 14 and 32. This lets the engine efficiently use exhaust
scavenging techniques, which decreases exhaust gas temperatures and NOx emissions,
improves turbine efficiency, and reduces turbo lag evident at low engine speeds.

2.3.1.3 Variable geometry

Variable geometry or Variable nozzle turbochargers use moveable vanes to adjust the
airflow to the turbine, imitating a turbocharger of the optimal size throughout the power curve.
The vanes are placed just in front of the turbine like a set of slightly overlapping walls. Their
angle is adjusted by an actuator to block or increase air flow to the turbine. This variability
maintains a comparable exhaust velocity and back pressure throughout the engine’s rev range.
The result is that the turbocharger improves fuel efficiency without a noticeable level of
turbocharger lag.

2.3.2 Compressor

The compressor increases the mass of intake air entering the combustion chamber. The
compressor is made up of an impeller, a diffuser and a volute housing. The operating range of
a compressor is described by the "compressor map".
The compressor impeller is an aluminium alloy (LM- 16-WP or C-355T61) investment
casting, with a gravity die-cast aluminium housing (LM-27-M). The design of the impeller is
a compromise between aerodynamic requirements, mechanical strength and foundry
capabilities. To achieve high efficiency, and minimum flow blockage, very thin and sharp
impeller vanes are required, thickening at the root (impeller hub) for stress reasons.

Fig.3 Turbine and Compressor

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2.3.3 Centre housing/hub rotating assembly

The centre hub rotating assembly (CHRA) houses the shaft that connects the
compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to suspend the shaft,
allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction. For instance, in automotive
applications the CHRA typically uses a thrust bearing or ball bearing lubricated by a constant
supply of pressurized engine oil. For low cost, simplicity and ease of maintenance, the bearing
system must be designed to use the lubricating oil of the engine. All automotive turbochargers
use simple journal bearings, since ball bearings are more expensive, have a short life at very
high speeds and are difficult to replace.
The CHRA may also be considered "water-cooled" by having an entry and exit point
for engine coolant. Water-cooled models use engine coolant to keep lubricating oil cooler,
avoiding possible oil coking (destructive distillation of engine oil) from the extreme heat in the
turbine. The development of air foil bearings removed this risk. Ball bearings designed to
support high speeds and temperatures are sometimes used instead of fluid bearings to support
the turbine shaft. This helps the turbocharger accelerate more quickly and reduces turbo lag.
Some variable nozzle turbochargers use a rotary electric actuator, which uses a direct stepper
motor to open and close the vanes, rather than pneumatic controllers that operate based on air
pressure.

2.3.4 Intercooler

When the pressure of the engine's intake air is increased, its temperature also increases.
In addition, heat soak from the hot exhaust gases spinning the turbine may also heat the intake
air. The warmer the intake air, the less dense, and the less oxygen available for the combustion
event, which reduces volumetric efficiency. Not only does excessive intake air Turbocharger
temperature reduce efficiency, it also leads to engine knock, or detonation, which is destructive
to engines. Turbocharger units often make use of an intercooler (also known as a charge air
cooler), to cool down the intake air. Intercoolers are often tested for leaks during routine
servicing, particularly in trucks where a leaking intercooler can result in a 20% reduction in
fuel economy.

2.3.5 Water injection

An alternative to intercooling is injecting water into the intake air to reduce the
temperature. This method has been used in automotive and aircraft applications.

2.3.6 Waste gate

Many turbochargers use a basic waste gate, which allows smaller turbochargers to
reduce turbocharger lag. Waste gate regulates the exhaust gas flow that enters the exhaust side
driving turbine and therefore the air intake into the manifold and the degree of boosting. It can
be controlled by a boost pressure assisted, generally vacuum hose attachment point diaphragm
(for vacuum and positive pressure to return commonly oil contaminated waste to the emissions
system) to force the spring loaded diaphragm to stay closed until the over boost point is sensed
by the ecru or a solenoid operated by the engine’s electronic control unit or a boost controller,
but most production vehicles use a single vacuum hose attachment point spring loaded
diaphragm that can alone be pushed open, thus limiting over boost ability due to exhaust gas
pressure forcing open the waste gate.

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2.3.7 Anti-surge/dump/blow off valves

Turbocharged engines operating at wide open throttle and high rpm require a large
volume of air to flow between the turbocharger and the inlet of the engine. When the throttle
is closed, compressed air flows to the throttle valve without an exit (i.e., the air has nowhere to
go). In this situation, the surge can raise the pressure of the air to a level that can cause damage.
This is because if the pressure rises high enough, a compressor stall occurs—stored pressurized
air decompresses backward across the impeller and out the inlet. The reverse flow back across
the turbocharger makes the turbine shaft reduce in speed more quickly than it would naturally,
possibly damaging the turbocharger.
To prevent this from happening, a valve is fitted between the turbocharger and inlet,
which vents off the excess air pressure. These are known as an anti-surge, diverter, bypass,
turbo relief valve, blow off valve (BOV), or dump valve. It is a pressure relief valve, and is
normally operated by the vacuum in the intake manifold. The primary use of this valve is to
maintain the spinning of the turbocharger at a high speed. The air is usually recycled back into
the turbocharger inlet (diverter or bypass valves), but can also be vented to the atmosphere
(blow off valve).

2.4 Some Important Processes and terms related to turbocharging

2.4.1 Pressure increase (or boost)

In automotive applications, boost refers to the amount by which intake manifold

pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure. This is representative of the extra air pressure that is
achieved over what would be achieved without the forced induction. The level of boost may
be shown on a pressure gauge, usually in bar, psi or possibly kPa.
In all turbocharger applications, boost pressure is limited to keep the entire engine
system, including the turbocharger, inside its thermal and mechanical design operating range.
Over boosting an engine frequently causes damage to the engine in a variety of ways including
pre-ignition, overheating, and overstressing the engine's internal hardware.

2.4.2 Turbocharger lag

Turbocharger lag (turbo lag) is the time required to change power output in response to
a throttle change, noticed as a hesitation or slowed throttle response when accelerating as
compared to a naturally aspirated engine. This is due to the time needed for the exhaust system
and turbocharger to generate the required boost. Inertia, friction, and compressor load are the
primary contributors to turbocharger lag. Superchargers do not suffer this problem, because the
turbine is eliminated due to the compressor being directly powered by the engine.

While important to varying degrees, turbocharger lag is most problematic in

applications that require rapid changes in power output. Engine designs reduce lag in a number
of ways-
 Lowering the rotational inertia of the turbocharger by using lower radius parts and
ceramic and other lighter materials
 Changing the turbine's aspect ratio
 Increasing upper-deck air pressure (compressor discharge) and improving waste gate
response
 Reducing bearing frictional losses, e.g., using a foil bearing rather than a conventional
oil bearing
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  Using variable nozzle or twin scroll turbochargers
 Decreasing the volume of the upper deck piping
 Using multiple turbochargers sequentially or in parallel
 Using an anti-lag system
 Using a turbocharger spool valve to increase exhaust gas flow speed to the (twin scroll)
turbine

2.4.3 Boost threshold

The boost threshold of a turbocharger system is the lower bound of the region within
which the compressor operates. Below a certain rate of flow, a compressor produces
insignificant boost. This limits boost at a particular RPM, regardless of exhaust gas pressure.
Newer turbocharger and engine developments have steadily reduced boost thresholds.
Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") is a new technology under development. It uses an electric
motor to bring the turbocharger up to operating speed quicker than possible using available
exhaust gases. An alternative to E-boosting is to completely separate the turbine and
compressor into a turbine generator and electric compressor as in the hybrid turbocharger.
Turbochargers start producing boost only when a certain amount of kinetic energy is
present in the exhaust gasses. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine blades, the
turbocharger cannot produce the necessary force needed to compress the air going into the
engine. The boost threshold is determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm, throttle
opening, and the size of the turbocharger. The operating speed (rpm) at which there is enough
exhaust gas momentum to compress the air going into the engine is called the "boost threshold
rpm". Reducing the "boost threshold rpm" can improve throttle response.

2.4.4 Free floating

A free floating turbocharger is the simplest type of turbocharger. This configuration has
no waste gate and can’t control its own boost levels. They are typically designed to attain
maximum boost at full throttle. Free floating turbochargers produce more horsepower because
they have less backpressure, but are not driveable in performance applications without an
external waste gate.

Fig. 4
A complete turbocharger system

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 Chapter 3- Turbocharging systems-principles

Successful design of a turbocharged diesel engine is highly dependent on the choice of

system for delivering exhaust gas energy from the exhaust valves or ports, to the turbine, and
its utilization in the turbine. Virtually all the energy of the gas leaving the cylinders arrives at
the turbine. Some is lost on the way, due to heat transfer to the surroundings, but this is unlikely
to exceed 5% unless water cooled exhaust manifolds are used, and will usually be much less.
However, the design of the exhaust manifolds between the exhaust valve and turbine influence
the proportion of exhaust gas energy that is available to do useful work in the turbine. An
important parameter is the pressure in the exhaust system. Various turbocharging systems have
been proposed to rationalize the apparently conflicting requirements.

5
3.1 The energy in the exhaust system

The energy potentially available in the

exhaust system, with an ideal cycle is shown Figure 5
in Figure 5. The exhaust valve opens at BDC,
point 5, where the cylinder pressure is much
greater than the ambient pressure at the end
of the exhaust pipe. If the contents of cylinder
at EVO were somehow allowed to expand
isentropically and reversibly down to the
ambient pressure (to point 6), then the work
that could be done is represented by the cross-
hatched area 5-6-1. This could be recovered
by allowing the piston to move further than
normal as shown in Figure 6. However, this
requires an engine with an exceptionally long
stroke. The work represented by area 5-6-1
is therefore potentially available to a
turbocharger turbine placed in the exhaust
manifold. It is called the 'blow-down' energy,
since it involves the combustion products being 'blown-down' from cylinder pressure at point
5 to atmospheric pressure at point 6, when the exhaust valve opens. Figure 2.17 represents a
naturally aspirated engine.

Figure 6

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 In an ideal turbocharged four-stroke engine, turbocharging raises the inlet manifold
pressure, hence the inlet process (12-1) is at pressure P1, which is above ambient pressure Pa
(as shown in fig.2). The 'blow-down' energy is represented by area 5-8-9. The exhaust manifold
pressure (P7) is also above the ambient pressure Pa. The exhaust process from the cylinder is
represented by line 5, 13, 11, where 5, 13 is the 'blow-down' period when the exhaust valve
opens and high pressure gas expands out into the exhaust manifold. Process 13, 11 represents
the remainder of the exhaust process, when the piston moves from BDC to TDC displacing
most of the gas from the cylinder to exhaust manifold. This gas is above ambient pressure and
therefore also has the potential to expand down to ambient pressure whilst doing useful work.
The potential work is area 9-10-11. This work is done by the piston but could be recovered by
a turbine in the exhaust. It will be called the piston pumping component of exhaust energy.

The maximum possible energy available to drive a turbine will be sum of areas 5-8-9
and 13-9-10-11, but it is impossible to devise a practical system that will harness all this energy.
To achieve this, the turbine inlet pressure must instantaneously rise to P5 when the exhaust
valve opens, followed by isentropic expansion of the exhaust gas through P7 to the ambient
pressure (P8 = Pa). During the displacement part of the exhaust process, the turbine inlet
pressure would have to be held at P7. Such a series of processes is impractical.

3.2 Principle of constant pressure turbocharging

With constant pressure turbocharging, the exhaust ports from all cylinders are
connected to a single exhaust manifold whose volume is sufficiently large to ensure that its
pressure is virtually constant. The unsteady exhaust flow processes at the cylinders are damped
into a steady flow at the turbine. Only one turbocharger need be used, with a single entry from
the exhaust manifold, but frequently several smaller units are fitted so that a reasonable boost
pressure can be obtained in the event of a turbocharger failure.
 Advantage - Turbine inlet conditions are steady and known, hence the turbine can
be matched to operate at optimum efficiency at specified engine conditions.
 Disadvantage- The available energy entering the turbine is low, since full advantage
has not been taken of the pulse energy.
Advantages Disadvantages

1. High turbine efficiency due to 1. Low available energy at turbine.

steady flow
2. Good performance at high load 2. Poor performance at low speed
and load
3. Simple exhaust manifold 3. Poor turbocharger acceleration
Typically, a constant pressure exhaust manifold will consist of a large diameter pipe
running along the exhaust side of an engine, with each exhaust port connected to it via a short
stub pipe. On a 'V' engine, the large bore manifold will usually lie between the banks with the
inlet valves and manifolds arranged to be on the outside. The volume of the exhaust manifold
should be sufficient to damp pressure pulsations down to a low level. Thus the volume required
will depend on cylinder release pressure (point 5) and frequency of the exhaust gas pulsations
coming from each cylinder in turn. Pulse amplitude will be a function of engine loading (b.mep.
or boost pressure), the timing at which the exhaust valve or port opens, turbine area and exhaust
manifold volume. Frequency will be dependent on the number of cylinders. The volume of the
exhaust manifold should be sufficient to damp pressure pulsations down to a low level.

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 Any heat loss from the exhaust manifold will result in reduced energy available at the
turbocharger turbine, therefore it is sensible to insulate the manifold. When the large surface
area of the manifold is considered, it is not surprising that such insulation can significantly
increase the boost delivered by the turbocharger compressor.
Compressor power is equal to the product of turbine power and turbocharger
mechanical efficiency, hence
Wc = Wt * Ƞmech
The mass flow rate through the turbine (mt ) must equal the mass flow rate through the
compressor (mc) plus fuel flow rate (mf), if piston blow by is neglected, hence
𝒎𝒕 𝟏
mt = mc + mf or =𝟏+ where AFR = air-fuel ratio.
𝒎𝒄 𝑨𝑭𝑹

Although the turbocharger efficiency (and air-fuel ratio) governs the relationship
between exhaust and inlet pressures, it is the turbine area that controls the exhaust pressure
itself, since it acts as a restricting orifice.
With constant pressure turbocharging, the amount of scavenge air that passes through
the cylinder (expelling exhaust residuals out of the clearance space) is directly governed by the
pressure drop between inlet and exhaust manifold and the valve overlap period, if the engine
is a four-stroke. A two-stroke engine is not self-aspirating and hence this pressure drop is the
only factor that expels the exhaust gas and charges the cylinder with fresh air. This difference
has major implications concerning the turbocharging system.

Applications
Large industrial and marine engines operating at steady speed and load, highly rated; two- and
four-stroke

3.3 Principles of pulse turbocharging

Objective - The objective is to make the maximum use of the high pressure and
temperature which exists in the cylinder when the exhaust valve opens, even at the expense of
creating highly unsteady flow through the turbine. In most cases the benefit from increasing
the available energy will more than offset the loss in turbine efficiency due to unsteady flow.
The majority of turbocharged engines use the pulse, not the constant pressure
turbocharging system. However, the pulse system that has been developed is not the pure
impulse system which is impractical, but a system that tries to make some use of the available
energy of pure pulse and constant pressure systems.

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 In this principle the effect of varying pipe length on the timing of the reflected pulse is
shown. In case 1, the reflection occurs after the exhaust valve has closed causing no problem,
but this is a rare case since it can occur with an exceptionally long manifold. More common is
case 4, in which the reflection time is very short relative to the valve opening period. Case 2 is
the serious one, that can occur with long pipes, of the reflected pulse raising exhaust pressure
at the valve or port, during the scavenge period. The turbocharger position and exhaust pipe
length must be chosen to avoid this situation, or scavenging will be seriously impaired.

Figure 8

On a multi-cylinder engine, as shown in above fig. narrow pipes from several cylinders can
be connected via a single branch manifold to one turbine. In a three cylinder four-stroke engine due
to the phase angle between cylinders the opening periods of the exhaust valves follow successively
every 2400 with very little overlap between them. Thus a steady ‘train’ of pressure pulses arrives at
the turbine, virtually eliminating the long periods of pure windage (although the average turbine
efficiency will remain lower than that obtained with correctly matched constant pressure system).
Advantage and Disadvantage of Pulse turbocharging
 The principal advantage of the pulse turbocharging over the constant pressure system
is that the energy available for conversion to useful work in the turbine is greater.
However, this is of little value if the energy conversion process is inefficient.
 It is disadvantageous to connect more than three cylinders to a single turbine entry.
Thus for the four-cylinder engine, pairs of cylinders (1-2 and 3-4) would be connected
to a double entry turbine.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. High available energy at 1. Poor turbine efficiency with one or
turbine two cylinders per turbine entry
2. Good performance at low 2. Poor turbine efficiency at high
speed and load ratings
3. Good turbocharger 3. Complex exhaust manifold with
acceleration large number of cylinders
4. Possible pressure wave reflection
problems on some engines
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 Applications
Automotive, truck, marine and industrial engines; two-and fourstroke; low and medium rating
(e.g. up to 17-18 bar b.m.e.p. on four-stroke engines)

3.4 Principles of pulse converter and other turbocharging systems

Pulse converter turbocharging systems have been developed to improve the

performance of those engines that suffer from low turbine efficiency with pulse turbocharging
due to long windage periods and partial admission (multiple turbine entries) losses. A pulse
converter system, in its simplest form, is shown in Figure 2.34 applied to a four-cylinder.

A conventional pulse manifold is used, but a carefully designed junction connects the
two branches of the manifold to a single entry turbine. By connecting all four cylinders to a
single turbine inlet, windage periods between exhaust pulses are totally avoided. Turbine entry
conditions are not steady, as per the constant pressure system, but the very low efficiency
operating points of the pulse system are avoided. The junction is designed to minimize pressure
pulse transmission from one branch of the exhaust manifold to the other, thereby avoiding a
blow-down pulse from one cylinder destroying the scavenge process of another. This is
achieved by accelerating the gas as it enters the junction, reducing its pressure at the junction,
and minimizing its effect on the other branch.

 Advantages- Simple exhaust manifold

 Disadvantages- Poor turbocharger acceleration (between pulse and constant pressure
systems)

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 Chapter- 4 (Performance of Turbocharger)

The performance of turbochargers can be defined by the pressure ratio, mass flow rate
and efficiency characteristics of the compressor and turbine, plus the mechanical efficiency of
the bearing unit. In this section we will look at the efficiency of compressors and turbines
leading into a description of typical turbocharger performance maps.

4.1 Compressor and Turbine Efficiency

The work output from (or input to) a turbomachine can be found from the first law of
thermodynamics. From this law the steady flow energy equation may be derived. A
turbomachine has one inlet and one outlet port. The steady flow energy equation becomes:

Q-W= m [(h2 +KE2 + PE2) - (h1 + KE1 +PE1)] ………… (1)

Where, Q = heat transfer rate (+ ve to the system);

W = work transfer rate (+ ve by the system);
m = mass flow rate;
h — specific enthalpy;
KE = specific kinetic energy;
PE - specific potential energy;
Suffixes 1, 2 = inlet and outlet ports respectively.

Denoting the stagnation enthalpy (h0) as

h0 =h + KE ………….. (2)
And neglecting changes in potential energy and heat transfer, since these terms are small, this
becomes

-W = m [(h02-h01)] ………….. (3)

Both air and exhaust gas are considered as perfect gases. Hence they obey the equation of state.
Pu = RT ………….. (4)

Where, P, v, R and T denote pressure (absolute), specific volume, Gas constant and
temperature respectively. The specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) for a perfect gas
is given by:
Cp = dh/dT ……….... (5)

Thus eqn (3) becomes

-W=mCp[(To2 -To1) ………….(6)

Where, To denotes stagnation (or 'total') temperature, the temperature of a gas if

brought to rest. Relative to the free stream temperature (T) of a gas moving at velocity V,
To = T1+ (V2/ 2Cp) ………… (7)

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 The second law of thermodynamics tells us that specific entropy is related to the
specific heat transfer
ds > dQ/T …………(8)

The second law can also be used to show that ideal adiabatic compression or expansion
takes place at constant entropy.

One definition of the efficiency of a compressor is the power required for ideal,
adiabatic compression divided by the actual power required in a non-ideal, non-adiabatic
compressor, working with the same inlet pressure and temperature and outlet pressure.
𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Ƞ(𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄) =
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫

Hence, Ƞis is termed as isentropic efficiency of the compressor. From eqns (3),(6)& (8),
𝒉𝟎𝟐(𝒊𝒔) −𝒉𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟐(𝒊𝒔) −𝑻𝟎𝟏
(Ƞ𝒊𝒔 )𝑻𝑻 = ……(9) and (Ƞ𝒊𝒔 )𝑻𝑻 = ……….(10)
𝒉 −𝒉
𝟎𝟐 𝟎𝟏 𝑻 −𝑻𝟎𝟐 𝟎𝟏

Where, suffices 'is' and TT' denote 'isentropic' and 'total to total', meaning an efficiency
based on total temperature values. The exit air temperature T02 is higher than T02(is)

For isentropic compression, pressure and temperature are related by the expression
𝑷𝟎𝟐 𝑻𝟎𝟐(𝒊𝒔) 𝜸 𝐶𝑝
=( )𝜸−𝟏 where, γ = …………. (11)
𝑷𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟏 𝐶𝑣

Hence eqn may be rearranged as

𝜸−𝟏
(𝐏𝟎𝟐 /𝐏𝟎𝟏 ) 𝜸 −𝟏
ȠisTT = 𝑻𝟎𝟐
−𝟏
𝑻𝟎𝟏

At inlet to the compressor, air is accelerated from rest, into the compressor eye without
introducing inefficiencies, hence the inlet ambient temperature can be used (total and static
temperatures are equal). Thus a more appropriate definition of compressor efficiency is
𝜸−𝟏
(𝐏𝟎𝟐 /𝐏𝟎𝟏 ) 𝜸 −𝟏
ȠisTS = 𝑻𝟎𝟐
𝑻𝟎𝟏
−𝟏

This is the total-to-static isentropic efficiency and will usually be a few percentage
points lower than the total-to-total isentropic efficiency. Unfortunately some turbocharger
manufacturers quote total-to-total values, some without declaring the basis of their
measurement.

Manipulation of eqns (6), (8) and (11) gives the following relationships for compressor
power (W)

𝜸−𝟏
𝐦𝐂𝐩 𝐓𝟎𝟏 [(𝐏𝟎𝟐 /𝐏𝟎𝟏 ) 𝜸 −𝟏]
-W =
Ƞ𝐢𝐬𝐓𝐒

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 The negative sign results purely from the thermodynamic sign convention of work
being done by the system being considered positive, and work done on the system as negative.
Thus the power required to drive the compressor is a function of the mass flow rate (m), inlet
air temperature, (T01), pressure ratio (Po2/Po1), compressor efficiency (Ƞis) and specific heat
at constant pressure.

The isentropic efficiency of the turbine may be expressed as the actual power output
divided by that obtained from an ideal adiabatic (isentropic) turbine operating with the same
inlet pressure and temperature.
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
Ƞ(𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄) =
𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
This expression may be developed in a similar manner to the compressor to give
𝑻 𝑻
𝟏−𝑻𝟎𝟒 𝟏−𝑻𝟎𝟒
𝟎𝟑 𝟎𝟑
ȠisTT = 𝜸−𝟏 Thus, ȠisTS = 𝜸−𝟏
𝟏− (𝐏𝟎𝟐 /𝐏𝟎𝟏 ) 𝜸 𝟏− (𝐏𝟎𝟐 /𝐏𝟎𝟏 ) 𝜸

Kinetic energy leaving the turbine is wasted through the exhaust pipe, hence the total-
to-static efficiency is again most appropriate, although not always quoted by the turbocharger
manufacturer.
The power output of the turbine is given by:
𝜸−𝟏
𝐦𝐂𝐩 𝐓𝟎𝟑 [𝟏−(𝐏𝟒 /𝐏𝟎𝟑 ) 𝜸 ]
-W =
Ƞ𝐢𝐬𝐓𝐒
Thus the power developed by the turbine is a function of its inlet temperature (T03) mass
flow rate (m), expansion ratio (P4/P03), efficiency (ȠisTS) and specific heat capacity of the
exhaust gas (Cp).

Fig.10 axial flow turbine performance map Fig.11 Radial flow turbine performance map

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4.2 Analysis of Compressor flow rate

To determine the compressor flow rate there are several characteristics of the engine
that must be known. The cubic inches of displacement (CID), revolutions per minute for
turbocharging (RPM), and the engine volumetric efficiency (VE) must be known. CID and VE
are engine specifications. RPM depends on the vehicle and the scenario in which turbocharging
is being used. To calculate the airflow rate in cubic feet per minute (CFM), the following
equation is used,
𝑪𝑰𝑫 ∗ 𝑹𝑷𝑴 ∗𝑽𝑬
Airflow =
𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟔

Where, 3456 is a conversion factor from cubic inches to cubic feet and includes a ½
parameter needed for four-stroke engines which only exhaust every other revolution. This
airflow rate is based upon atmospheric pressure; it does not consider the boost pressure. The
goal is to increase boost pressure to a certain pressure say,18psi, so the airflow rate is needed
at 18psi. For this boost pressure, Pb, a pressure ratio (PR) is needed,

𝑷𝒃 +𝟏𝟒.𝟕
PR =
𝟏𝟒.𝟕

To calculate the new flow rate at the given boost pressure of 18psi the flow rate is
calculated using the pressure ratio,

Corrected airflow rate = PR* Old airflow rate

Fig. 12 Compressor performance map

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4.3 Heat Exchanger Analysis

There are some initial conditions and assumptions to be made in order to obtain a
potential sizing of the heat exchanger. Heat exchanger calculations are used to determine the
outlet temperature of the heat exchanger, heat transfer required, and to determine if the heat
exchanger selected would be large enough to reject the heat.

We have, m = ρVA and q = m Cp (T1-T2)

where, m = mass flow rate, ρ = Density, A = area of the frontal area for a radiator

(And subscript “1” denotes an inlet and a subscript “2” denotes an outlet)

(𝐓𝟏 + 𝐓𝟐)
Average film temperature, Tf =
𝟐

*(Density is then found using tables based on the temperature. Also, using the average film
temperature, the specific heat Cp is found in the same data tables.)

Once a value for either the water or air heat transfer is known, the other can be
calculated using the eqn, qa = qb , Where the subscripts “a” and “w” denote values for air
and water respectively. Unknown temperatures can be solved for using this relation.

The effectiveness, € is dependent on the minimum flow rate and specific heat product
of the two fluids. This product of the mass flow rate and specific heat is the capacitance, C, of
the fluid. An uppercase “T” denotes the temperature of the warmer fluid and a lowercase “t”
denotes the temperature of the cooler fluid.

𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏
If, mc Cpc < mh Cph then € =
𝑻𝟏 −𝒕𝟏
𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐
mc Cpc > mh Cph then € =
𝑻𝟏 −𝒕𝟏

Where “c” denotes the colder liquid and “h” denotes the hotter liquid. The product
mCp the capacitance of the fluid. Notice that the effectiveness is dependent on three out of the
four inlet/outlet temperatures. This allowed for the calculation of the fourth needed
temperature. The effectivity was then used to calculate the heat transfer, q .

q = € * (mCp)min * (T1 - t1)

𝑼𝑨
*Number of transfer units, NTU =
(𝒎𝑪𝒑)𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient calculated from the heat transfer
coefficients (h) of both fluids, tube diameter, and the thermal resistivity (k) of the pipe material.
A is the heat transfer area including fins.

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 The Log Mean Temperature Difference is another method that was used to help solve
for the value of UA. It is given that,

q = UA * F * ΔTLMTD
F is a correction factor that can be found graphically. The charts are published and are based
on the equations for R (capacitance ratio) and S (temperature factor).

𝒎𝒄 𝑪𝒑𝒄 𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏
R= and S=
𝒎𝒉 𝑪𝒑𝒉 𝑻𝟏 −𝒕𝟏

(𝑻𝟏 −𝒕𝟐 )−(𝑻𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 )

Thus, ΔTLMTD = (𝑻 −𝒕 )
𝒍𝒏(𝑻𝟏 −𝒕𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟏

𝒒
Rearranging the NTU equations, UA can be solve for, UA =
𝑭 𝜟𝑻𝑳𝑴𝑻𝑫

U must be known in order to solve for A, which is needed in order to select an

appropriate heat exchanger. This method holds for both the intercooler and the radiator. The
temperatures and flow rates are different, but the process remains the same.

Fig.13 Heat exchanger performance map

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 (20)

CHAPTER 5 -CONCLUSION

The training/internship I got in IIT-Guwahati was of immense help for me and

I was fortunate to be guided by experienced faculties and students.
During my internship period I was mostly spending my time studying
analytically about a turbocharger system and I have completed this report on the basis of the
knowledge and information I have collected. This report basically provides almost everything
about a turbocharger in a very short and descriptive manner. This report will be very much
useful/helpful to any kind of experimental purposes or testing.
All in all the training/internship at IIT-Guwahati was a lifetime experience
which lend me the opportunity to get an on hand experience and a good knowledge of
turbocharger system and process.

FINAL COMMENTS-
The training was overall very informative and I had a very great experience and
knowledge in the facilities and opportunities available here in IIT-Guwahati, one of the India’s
greatest academic institutions.
At last I want to convey my thanks and gratitude to the Training/Internship
guide, Supervisor and the Administrative authority of the IIT-Guwahati.

- THANK YOU -

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