GNS105 - Mordern Agriculture and Rural Development - Doc.doc 1

OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY
OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE
AGO – IWOYE
GNS105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development

GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development
List of Other Contributors to the Original Lecture Note Manuscripts
On behalf of the Directorate of General Studies (GNS), the commitment of the following
members of the teaching faculty in the College of Agricultural Sciences, Yewa Campus, Ayetoro
who have contributed immensely to the preparation of this study material, is highly appreciated.
They are:
Adegoke, A.T. - Lecturer/Engineer, Department of Crop Production
Adeokun, O.A. - Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology
Awotide, D.O - Reader, Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management
Durojaiye, A.F - Assistant Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
Fadipe, M.O - Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology
Ilori, A.R - Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology
Odusanya, O.A - Lecturer, Department of Crop Production
Ogungbesan, A.M - Reader, Department of Animal Production
Ojetayo, T.A - Assistant Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
Oladoja, M.A - Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology
Olubanjo, O.O - Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics & Farm Management
Olurin, K.B - Professor, Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Forestry Management
Oyetunji, O.T - Assistant Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
Sosanya, O.S - Reader, Department of Crop Production
Sule, S.O - Lecturer II, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
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General Introduction
You are welcome to this interesting course that will give you a practical view into the practice of
agriculture within the Nigerian context - GNS 105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development.
In addition to acquiring basic knowledge in one of the compulsory courses on your way to
achieving a degree under the open and distance learning of the Olabisi Onabanjo University, this
course will expose you to some of the essential practices required to run a successful, income-
generating agricultural venture to earn a living, and (or) to augment your means of livelihood as
a student.
The course - GNS 105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development – is a general two-unit
course to be registered and passed by all students of Olabisi Onabanjo University in a bid to
acquire the various degrees in their different field of study. The course is divided into eleven (11)
Study Sessions. This course guide gives an overview of what GNS105 is all about, the textbooks
and other needed materials, what you expect to know in each Session and how to work through
the course materials in a self-study and self-assessment manner.
Recommended Study Time
This course is a 2-Unit course divided into 11 study sessions. Students are advised to spend at
least 2 hours in studying the content of each study Unit.
What you are about to Learn in this Course?
As mentioned earlier on, the objective of this course is to introduce students to a practical
approach into the practice of agriculture within the Nigerian context.
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Course Aim
The main aim of this course is to introduce students to the rudiments of crop, livestock, fisheries
and forest resources production and management techniques.
Course Objectives
Each session has specific objectives. Learners are required to understand the objectives of each
session before proceeding to subsequent sessions. You should always revise the objectives of
each session to ensure that you have done what is required of you by the end of the session.
However, the overall objectives of this course are listed below. Upon the completion of this
course, learners should be able to:
1. Understand the general overview of agriculture in the Nigerian context

2. Discuss the formation, constitution and administration of the Nigerian rural areas
3. Identify common economic opportunities in the Nigerian Agricultural system
4. Discuss the common cultural practices and agricultural systems in Nigeria
5. Understand the scope, practices and operations in agricultural mechanisation
6. Explain the principles of livestock management and rearing of livestock for food and
income generation
7. Adopt and apply simple technology in aquaculture and small-scale fish production
8. Understand the basic principles of management techniques to agricultural practice
9. Comprehend the basic concepts in agricultural extension and information dissemination
among small-scale farmers
10. Apply the essential approaches to develop a framework for healthy living through the
science of food and nutrition
11.Identify the importance and usefulness of forestry products and simple techniques in the
management of wildlife and forest-based resources
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Working through this Course
In order to thoroughly understanding this course, learners will be required to read and understand
the content of this study material, and practice the suggested questions in the study material.
This course is designed to cover approximately fifteen (15) weeks of lectures. Learners are
required to get familiarised with the course content and relate as much as possible with their e-
tutors for further explanation of technical terms and sessions.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, the tutor-marked assignments
(TMAs) which makes up 30%, and second, the written examination which accounts for 70% of
the total score. Learners are expected to participate in these two aspects of the examination to be
able to earn a pass mark at the end of the semester. The tutor-marked assignments must be
submitted to the e-tutor for grading and assessment as and when due. The final written
examination will normally come up at the end of the semester after course lectures have been
taken.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
It is mandatory for learners to participate in all the TMAs in this course. All the TMAs must be
submitted to the e-tutor for grading, and the attention of the e-tutor must be called to it whenever
there are reasons for not completing any assignments within the stipulated time for the possibility
of extending the date for submission.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for GNS105 will last for a period of 2 hours and it accounts for 60% of the
total course grade. The examination will consist of questions similar to those that the students
have come across in the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs), In-text Questions (ITQs) and tutor
marked assignments. The questions will cover the entire aspects of the course taught. Usually,
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the examinations will comprise the aspect to be taken in the form of Pen-On-Paper (POP) and the
aspect which involves the Computer Based Testing (CBT) method.
Tutors and Tutorials
At the tail end of the semester and few weeks before the semester examination, learners may be
required to undergo a face-to-face tutorial period to support what was learnt on-line. Students
will be notified of the dates, time and location together with the name and phone number of their
tutors as soon as they are allocated to a tutorial group. The e-tutor will mark and comment on the
assignments submitted, keep a close watch on the level of students’ progress and on any
difficulties they might encounter, and also provide assistance to them during the course. Students
must submit their tutor-marked assignment (TMAs) to their tutor well before the due date. The
assignments will be marked by the tutor and returned to the student as soon as possible,
following the same manner in which they were submitted.
Students should not hesitate to contact their tutors by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if
they need help. Tutors could be contacted if:
 You do not understand any part of the lecture material
 You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise
 You have questions on, or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on
an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
Students should endeavour to attend the end-of-semester tutorial classes so as to raise any
unanswered questions that may require further clarifications with their tutors. To gain the
maximum benefit from the end-of-semester course tutorial classes, students must have prepared
their questions ready and make them handy to be actively discussed and tackled in the discussion
classes. Undoubtedly, students will learn a lot from participating actively in the discussion and
interactive sessions.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 7
Study Session 1: Overview of Nigerian Agriculture .................................................................... 27
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 27
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 ................................................................................... 27
1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria ............................................................. 28
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1 ................................................................................................ 31
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1 .................................................................................................. 31
1.2 Later efforts at Agricultural Development in Nigeria .................................................... 32
1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development ................................................................ 33
1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria ...................................................................... 35
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1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges .......................................... 36
Summary of Study Session 1 .................................................................................................... 39
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 ......................................................... 40
SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.1) ............................................................................... 40
Study Session 2: Sociology of Nigeria Rural Areas ................................................................. 42
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 42
2.1 Distinguishing Factors Responsible for Rural-Urban Differentiation .............................. 43
2.2 Rural Social Institutions in Nigeria ................................................................................ 48
2.2.1 Family Institution .................................................................................................... 48

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2.2.2 Marriage institution ................................................................................................. 50
2.2.3 Education as an Institution in Rural Nigeria ........................................................... 51
2.3 Religion and Belief Systems in Rural Nigeria ............................................................... 53
2.4 Rural Economic Institutions in Nigeria.......................................................................... 55
2.4.1 The Significance of Economic Institutions to Rural Dwellers ............................... 56
2.5 The Concept of Rural Development............................................................................... 57
2.5.1 Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria............................................................ 58
2.5.2 Significance of Rural Development Effort ............................................................. 58
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5.2 ............................................................................................. 59
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5.2 ............................................................................................... 59

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Study Session 3: Economic Opportunities in Agriculture ............................................................ 64
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 64
3.1 Crop Production ............................................................................................................. 65
3.1.1 Rice Production ....................................................................................................... 65
3.1.2 Mushrooms Production ........................................................................................... 66
3.2 Livestock Production...................................................................................................... 68
3.2.1 Pig Production ......................................................................................................... 68

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3.3 Fish Farming (or Aquaculture)....................................................................................... 69
3.4 Food Processing ............................................................................................................. 71
3.5 Forestry........................................................................................................................... 72
3.5.1 Teak Production ...................................................................................................... 72
Study Session 4: Cultural Practices, Agricultural and Farming Systems ........................... 80

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Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 80
4.1 Cultural Practices ........................................................................................................... 81
4.2 Agricultural Systems ...................................................................................................... 84
4.3 Farming Systems ............................................................................................................ 84
4.3.1 Arable Farming ....................................................................................................... 85
4.3.2 Mixed Farming........................................................................................................ 85
4.3.3 Livestock/Pastoral Farming .................................................................................... 85
4.4 Farming/Cropping Practices........................................................................................... 87
4.4.1 Shifting Cultivation...................................................................................................... 87
4.4.2 Continuous Cropping .............................................................................................. 88

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Study Session 5: Agricultural Mechanization............................................................................... 97
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 97
5.1 Constraints to Agricultural Mechanization in Nigeria ................................................... 98
5.2 Agricultural Processing .................................................................................................. 99
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.2 .............................................................................................. 100
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.2 ................................................................................................ 100
5.3 Farm Machinery and their Characteristics ................................................................... 100
5.3.1 General Requirements of a Functioning Farm Machine ....................................... 101

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5.3.2 Types of Farm Implements ....................................................................................... 101
5.3.3 Tractors ...................................................................................................................... 102
5.4 Soil Tillage and Tillage Machinery.............................................................................. 105
5.4.1 Tillage Methods .................................................................................................... 105
5.4.2 Types of Tillage systems ...................................................................................... 106
Summary of Study Session 5 .................................................................................................. 108
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5 ....................................................... 109
SAQ 5.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.1) ............................................................................. 109
Study Session 6: Livestock Management ................................................................................... 111
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 111
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6 ................................................................................. 111

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6.1 Livestock Management System ................................................................................... 112
6.1.1 Housing ................................................................................................................. 114
6.1.2 Animal nutrition .................................................................................................... 116
6.2 Principles of Livestock Management ........................................................................... 119
Study Session 7: Introductory Aquaculture and Small-Scale Fish Production .................. 126
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 126
7.1 Importance of Aquaculture to the National Economy ...................................................... 127

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7.2 Objectives of Aquaculture............................................................................................ 128
7.3 Fish Identification ....................................................................................................... 128
7.4 Aquaculture Systems in Nigeria's Fishery Sector ........................................................ 132
7.4.1 Factors to be considered in the establishment of an aquaculture enterprise ............. 133
7.4.2 Selection of fish species for culture ...................................................................... 133
7.5 Pond Construction Techniques..................................................................................... 134
7.6 Aquaculture Management Techniques ......................................................................... 136
7.6.1 Fish Nutrition ........................................................................................................ 137
7.6.2 Fish Breeding Techniques..................................................................................... 137
7.6.3 Pollution in Aquatic Environment ........................................................................ 138

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7.6.4 Disease Management in Aquaculture ................................................................... 138
7.6.5 Post-Harvest Value Addition ................................................................................ 139
7.6.6 Record Keeping .................................................................................................... 140
7.6.7 Fisheries Regulation and Administration................................................................... 140
Study Session 8: Farm Management........................................................................................... 146
8.1 Theory of Agricultural Production ............................................................................... 147
8.1 Agricultural Production ................................................................................................ 147

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8.1.1 Factors of Production ............................................................................................ 147
8.2 Characteristics of Agriculture that Affect Management Decisions ............................. 149
8.3 Some Basic Tools and Concepts in Management ........................................................ 152
8.3.1 Agricultural Finance ............................................................................................. 152
8.3.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns ......................................................................... 154
8.3.3 The Principle of Substitution ................................................................................ 155
8.3.4 Opportunity Costs ................................................................................................. 155
8.3.5 Absolute and Comparative Advantage ................................................................. 155
8.3.6 Farm Planning and Budgeting .............................................................................. 156
8.3.7 Valuation and Depreciation .................................................................................. 161
8.4 Management of Farm Businesses ................................................................................. 164

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Study Session 9: Agricultural Extension and Teaching Methods ........................................... 169
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 169
9.1 Objectives of Agricultural Extension Services ............................................................ 170
9.2 Main Principles of Extension ....................................................................................... 171
9.3 Problems of Agricultural Extension in Nigeria ............................................................ 174
9.4 Extension Teaching Methods ....................................................................................... 177
9.4.1 Individual Contact Methods .................................................................................. 177

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9.4.2 Group Contact Methods ........................................................................................ 181
9.5 Mass Media as an Extension Method........................................................................... 185
9.6 Teaching-Learning Interaction ..................................................................................... 188
Study Session 10: Introduction to Nutrition and Food Science .................................................. 194
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 10 ............................................................................... 194
10.1 Activities of Nutritionists, Food Scientists and Technologists................................. 195
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.1 ............................................................................................ 196

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In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.1 .............................................................................................. 196
10.2 Malnutrition .............................................................................................................. 197
10.3 Nature of Nutritional Problems ................................................................................ 199
10.4 Nutrients and their Importance ................................................................................. 200
Summary of Study Session 10 ................................................................................................ 208
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10 ..................................................... 209
SAQ 10.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 10.1) ......................................................................... 209
Study Session 11: Introduction to Forestry and Wildlife Management ...................................... 211
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 211

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Learning Outcomes for Study Session 11 ............................................................................... 211
11.1 Types of Vegetation in Nigeria ................................................................................ 212
11.2 Forest and its functions ............................................................................................. 213
11.3 Importance of Forestry and Wildlife Conservation .................................................. 215
11.4 Objectives of Wildlife Conservation in Nigeria ....................................................... 217
11.5 Destruction and Restoration of FOREST and its RESOURCES ............................. 219
11.5.1 Forest Destruction (Deforestation) ....................................................................... 219
11.5.2 Forest Restoration (Aforestation) ......................................................................... 219

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11.6 Forest Products/Produce ........................................................................................... 220
Summary of Study Session 11 ................................................................................................ 223
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 11 ..................................................... 224
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1 ..................................................... 227
SAQ 1.1............................................................................................................................... 227
SAQ 1.2............................................................................................................................... 227
SAQ 1.3............................................................................................................................... 227
SAQ 1.4............................................................................................................................... 227
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1.5 .............................................................. 228
Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 2 ......................... 229
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SAQ 2.1............................................................................................................................... 229
SAQ 2.2............................................................................................................................... 229
SAQ 2.3............................................................................................................................... 229
SAQ 2.4............................................................................................................................... 229
SAQ 2.5............................................................................................................................... 230
SAQ 3.1............................................................................................................................... 230
SAQ 3.2............................................................................................................................... 231
SAQ 3.3............................................................................................................................... 231
SAQ 3.4............................................................................................................................... 231
SAQ 4.1............................................................................................................................... 232
SAQ 4.2............................................................................................................................... 232
SAQ 4.3............................................................................................................................... 233
SAQ 4.4............................................................................................................................... 233
SAQ 5.1............................................................................................................................... 234
SAQ 5.2............................................................................................................................... 234

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SAQ 5.3............................................................................................................................... 235
SAQ 5.4............................................................................................................................... 236
SAQ 6.1............................................................................................................................... 236
SAQ 6.2............................................................................................................................... 236
SAQ 7.1............................................................................................................................... 237
SAQ 7.2............................................................................................................................... 237
SAQ 7.3............................................................................................................................... 237
SAQ 7.4............................................................................................................................... 238
SAQ 7.5............................................................................................................................... 239
SAQ 7.6............................................................................................................................... 239
SAQ 8.1............................................................................................................................... 240
SAQ 8.2............................................................................................................................... 240
SAQ 8.3............................................................................................................................... 241
SAQ 8.4............................................................................................................................... 242
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SAQ 9.1............................................................................................................................... 242
SAQ 9.2............................................................................................................................... 243
SAQ 9.3............................................................................................................................... 243
SAQ 9.4............................................................................................................................... 244
SAQ 9.5............................................................................................................................... 244
Notes on the Re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 10 ...................... 245
SAQ 10.1............................................................................................................................. 245
SAQ 10.2............................................................................................................................. 246
SAQ 10.3............................................................................................................................. 246
SAQ 10.4............................................................................................................................. 246
Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 11 ....................... 247
SAQ 11.1............................................................................................................................. 247
SAQ 11.2............................................................................................................................. 247
SAQ 11.3............................................................................................................................. 248
SAQ 11.4............................................................................................................................. 249
SAQ 11.5............................................................................................................................. 250
SAQ 11.6............................................................................................................................. 250
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Study Session 1: Overview of Nigerian Agriculture
Introduction
Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties covering many topical issues ranging from
crop/livestock production and agro-processing to marketing and home economics, nutrition and
dietetics. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, fibres and meat.
Divisions of agriculture
The main divisions of agriculture includes agronomy (production of crop plants); soil science
(soil and land management problems); horticulture (production of vegetables, flowers and
ornamentals crops); crop protection (study of pests, diseases and weeds control); plant
entomology and pathology (study of pests and disease-causing organisms); agricultural
economics (cost and returns from production, processing and distribution of agricultural
produce); agricultural extension and rural sociology (bridging the gap between the farming
communities and the researchers); animal science (livestock production and management); and
farm mechanization/agricultural engineering (use of machines or improved technologies to
increase and improve agricultural productivity).
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1
At the end of this session, you would have learnt the following subject matter:
1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria

1.2 Efforts at Agricultural development in Nigeria
1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development
1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria
1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria
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1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria
Agriculture has played a key role in the development of human civilisation. Until the industrial
revolution, the vast majority of the human population was engaged in agriculture. Technological
development and improved techniques have steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the
widespread diffusion of these technologies during a period of time is often called an agricultural
revolution. Since its development roughly 10,000 years ago, agriculture has expanded vastly in
geographical coverage and yields with new technologies and new improved crops integration.
Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilisers and pesticides were developed
long ago, but have made great strides in the past century. The history of agriculture has played a
major role in human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide
socio-economic change.
Wealth-building and militaristic specialisations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures are

commonplace in societies which practice agriculture. So, too are arts such as epic literature and
monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When farmers became capable of
producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in their society also became free
to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists have
long argued that the development of agriculture made civilisation possible.
The agricultural history of Nigeria is intertwined with its political history and this is discussed
broadly in the context of the varying constitutional frameworks, viz: Colonial, the Internal Self
Government and the Post-1960 periods, according to sectors.
Crop Production: The period of the colonial administration in Nigeria, 1861-1960, was
punctuated by rather ad hoc attention to agricultural development. During the era, considerable
emphasis was placed on research and extension services. The first notable activity of the era was
the establishment of a botanical research station in Lagos by Sir Claude McDonald in 1893. This
was followed by the acquisition of 10.4km of land in 1899 by the British Cotton Growing
Association (BCGA) at Ibadan for experimental work on cotton. The site location was named the
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Moor-Plantation Experimental Area. In 1912, a Department of Agriculture was established in

each of the then Southern and Northern Nigeria but the activities of the Department were
virtually suspended between 1913 and 1921 as a result of the First World War and its aftermath.
From the late 1930s to the mid-1940s, there were significant intensification and expansion of
research activities, and extension and training programmes of the Agricultural Developments.
Additional facilities for the training of junior staff in agriculture were provided as well as
scholarships for agricultural students at Yaba Higher College and Imperial College of Tropical
Agriculture in Trinidad. The intensification of hostilities during the Second World War (1939-
1945) led to the slowing down of activities and the call to Departments of Agriculture to play
increasing roles in the production of food for the army and civilians in the country and the
Empire.
Production of export crops like palm produce and rubber which could not be obtained from
Malaysia as a result of Japanese war activities in South-East Asia, and such food items as sugar,
wheat, milk, eggs, vegetables, Irish potatoes and rice whose importation was prevented by naval
blockade of the high seas increased. A special production section of the Department of
Agriculture was set up to deal with the situation. On the research side, attention was devoted
largely to the possibilities of evolving permanent systems of agriculture that were capable of
replacing rotational bush-fallowing systems prevalent in the country and realising the promises
of mixed farming in the North. During this period the WAIFOR (West African Institute for Oil
Palm Research) in Benin was started and the research on cocoa was intensified at Moor
Plantation, Owena near Ondo and at Onigambari near Ibadan.
Achievements of the period include the development of ‘Alien cotton’ in the South; rice
cultivation in Sokoto, Niger, Ilorin, Abeokuta and Ondo provinces; the introduction of wheat
cultivation in the core northern parts of the Northern provinces; the expansion of the production
of such export crops as cocoa, oil palm and groundnut; development of agricultural implements
as well as the designing of farm buildings; intensification of horticultural activities; the
development of a marketing section of the Department; the extension of the Produce Inspection
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Service to cover all principal export crops; investigations into the possibilities for organised land
settlement schemes; and investigations into the possibilities of irrigation in northern Nigeria.
The period of Internal Self Government, 1951-1960, began with the regionalisation of the
Departments of Agriculture in 1951, with a Director and an Inspector-General of Agriculture in
each region. By October 1954, the post of Inspector-General of Agriculture was abolished as a
result of the creation of Departments. The Federal Department of Agricultural Research was
retained since constitutional provisions placed agricultural research on the concurrent legislative
list, while extension work remained a regional responsibility. The findings of the Federal
Research Stations were to be transmitted through Regional ministries responsible for agriculture
and natural resources.
Livestock Production: This was dominated by nomadic pastoralism in Nigeria long before the
advent of the British Colonial Administration. The immediate interest of the colonial government
in livestock was with the health and hygiene of the domesticated cattle. Thus the Nigerian
Veterinary Department was established in 1914 with its headquarters at Zaria, Kaduna State. In
1924, a small veterinary laboratory was established in Vom, Jos for the production of rinderpest
serum. Increased field services raised the demands on the laboratory. Hence, the production of
vaccines and other biological products was added to the functions of the laboratory. The
recognition of the advantages of Vom as the centre for veterinary research and for vaccine
production, coupled with the major emphasis on the health aspects of livestock production, led to
the transfer of the headquarters of the Nigerian Veterinary Department from Zaria to Vom.
The role of educational advancement in agricultural development in Nigeria was given

prominence at an earlier stage. The acquisition of elementary education by farmers in the three
Regions was appreciated and it was suggested that the introduction of new areas of interest into
the farming systems, such as the production of livestock in the Southern provinces of Nigeria,
would attract more youths into the agriculture sector. A scheme was started in Katsina province
for teaching sons of farmers the best husbandry methods. Instructions were essentially practical
in nature and were centred on mixed farming. Similarly, the study of management of livestock
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was introduced into the Agricultural School at Ibadan, where the Education and Agricultural
Departments cooperated to train both teachers responsible for the management of the school
farms and the agricultural assistants for the Department of Agriculture.
A Veterinary School was established at Vom in the early 1940s to train Nigerians for animal
health work. A Livestock Investigation Centre (LIC) was also set up as an auxiliary organ to the
school and laboratory. Later, an egg production unit was created to supply fertile eggs for virus
research, vaccine for both the Veterinary and Medical Departments and Poultry for research
work and vaccine testing. The Nigerian Veterinary Department played a very prominent role in
the early history of livestock development in Nigeria. The serious nature of trypanosomiasis
(sleeping sickness) in man and (‘nagana’ disease) in cattle was also of great concern to the
Colonial Administration in the West African territories, and the need to control this disease led to
the establishment of a West African Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (WAITR) in 1947.
The main laboratory used for the study of the animal disease was sited in Vom in Jos, Plateau
State, being an ideal location since the disease vector was absent in the area.
The Western Nigeria Development Corporation (WNDC) established the Upper Ogun Ranch for
the commercial production and distribution of cattle. In the Eastern Region, South Devon cattle
were introduced at the Obudu Ranch; Friesian bulls were imported to the farm at Agege, Lagos;
the Teaching and Research Farm, University of Ibadan obtained foundation stock of cattle from
Shika. Extensive facilities were also established for research in poultry and piggery. The
administrative machinery for agricultural development and coordination was also modified.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1
List the two main aspects of agricultural production
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1
i. Crop production
ii. Livestock production
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1.2 Later efforts at Agricultural Development in Nigeria
The post-1960 era was one of the periods of extensive planning and regional competition in
agriculture. Concentration of attention on commodity exports, the utilisation of taxation policy
by the Marketing Boards as an instrument of development finance, and the belief that food
production activities could be undertaken through private initiatives without much governmental
intervention, became the official farm policy. Under regional independence, the agricultural
history of the nation entered a new phase which was the modification of traditional practices in
view of the incapacity of food production to meet the needs of the ever rising population and the
inability of the producers to re-invest in land.
The 1962-1968 Development Plan was Nigeria’s first national plan. Among several objectives, it
emphasised the introduction of more modern agricultural methods through farm settlements (e.g.
hydraulic hand presses for oil processing and a greatly expanded agricultural extension service.
Some of the specialized development schemes initiated or implemented during this period
included: (i) Farm Settlement Schemes (ii) National Accelerated Food Production Programme
(NAFPP) launched in 1972. There were also a number of agricultural development intervention
experiments, notably (i) Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) launched in 1976 (ii) River Basin and
Rural Development Authorities established in 1976 (iii) Green Revolution Programme
inaugurated in 1980 and (iv) The World Bank-funded Agricultural Development Projects
(ADPs).
While each of the above programmes sought to improve food production, the ADPs represented
the first practical demonstration of the integrated approach to agricultural developmrnt in
Nigeria. The experiment which started as a pilot project with World Bank funding began at
Funtua, Gusau and Gombe in 1974, moved to Ayangba and Lafia in 1977, Bida in 1979, Ilorin in
1980, Ekiti-Akoko in 1981 and Saki (Oyo-North) in 1982 as agricultural development projects.
Following the successful negotiations for multi-state agricultural development projects with the
World Bank, each State of the country and the Federal Capital, Abuja, now has one ADP. The
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years since the early 1960s have also witnessed the establishment of several agricultural research
institutes and their extension research liaison services. Some of the major institutions are:
1. Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, established in 1963
2. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) at Ibadan
3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation,
Ibadan.
4. The National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi
5. The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA).
List the agricultural research institutes and their extension research liaison services established as
part of the earlier efforts in agricultural development in Nigeria.

3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation,
Ibadan.
1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development
Agriculture has always been the main stay of the Nigerian economy. Some of the roles of
agriculture are discussed below:
1. Source of food: Food is sine qua non to human existence and it can be of plant or animal
origin. Agriculture provides food in the form of cereals, roots and tubers, fruits and
vegetables, meat, eggs, and milk etc for consumption in a fresh (natural) or processed
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form. A country that is self sufficient in food production will not need to import food and
thus have resources for further development.
2. Source of raw materials to industries: Agriculture supplies input in the form of raw
materials to most industries and thus plays a tremendous role in a country’s industrial
development. The paper, confectionaries, beverages, textiles, tyres and household-use
industries all depend on agricultural produce like pulp wood, cereal grains, cocoa, coffee,
cotton, para-rubber, palm oil etc
3. Source of national income: Prior to the discovery of petroleum in Nigeria at Oloibiri in
1957, a lot of developmental and social infrastructure owe their origin and existence to
agriculture. The then University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) and the
famous Cocoa House building in Ibadan are classical examples of the good use of
Agricultural proceeds.
4. Employment generation: Agriculture provides direct employment for farmers and indirect
employment for drivers, middlemen, processors, food vendors, etc. in Nigeria.
Agriculture and other agro-allied industries provide employment opportunities for about
60-70% of the populace.
5. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade: Agricultural
produce, when exported, fetch foreign currency for the country which is used in the
growth of the economy and the nation. Nigeria exports agricultural produce such as
cassava, cocoa, coffee, timber, rubber, oil palm, tea, hides and skins etc.
6. A tool for development: Agriculture plays a great role in the transformation of rural
areas. Influx of traders to agric producing areas helps to attract infrastructure such as
good roads, pipe borne water, schools, hospitals etc to such areas.
What are the roles of agriculture in the development of a nation?

i. Source of food for human and livestock consumption
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ii. Source of raw materials to industries

iii. Source of national income
iv. Employment generation
v. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade
vi. A tool for national development
1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria
In spite of its tremendous contributions to national development both now and in the past,
agricultural development is besieged with many challenges some of which are outlined
below:
1. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints
2. Lack of modern implements and machinery
3. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilisers, pesticides, etc.
4. Poor credit facilities and financing
5. Incidence of pests and diseases
6. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities
7. Inadequate processing and storage facilities
8. Inadequacy of extension services
9. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly
perishable
10. Instability of price policies
11. Inconsistencies in government policies on agriculture.

i. List the major challenges encountered in the area of agricultural development in Nigeria

i. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints
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ii. Lack of modern implements and machinery

iii. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilisers, pesticides, etc.
iv. Poor credit facilities and financing
v. Incidence of pests and diseases
vi. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities
vii. Inadequate processing and storage facilities
viii. Inadequacy of extension services
ix. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly
perishable
x. Instability of price policies
xi. Inconsistencies in government policies on agriculture.
1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges
1. The Land Use Act of 1978 should be enforced and properly executed to enable genuine
farmers have access to farmland
2. Local fabrication of farm implements as well as establishment of tractors and equipment
hiring units and centres should be encouraged by government to boost agricultural
production.
3. Government should continue her subsidy programmes on all agricultural inputs (crop and
livestock) and ensure that these inputs get to the real farmers and not business men who will
re-sell to farmers at high prices.
4. Banks should be encouraged to make loans available to farmers at a reduced interest rate.
5. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form cooperative societies.
6. Research into pests and diseases that affect agricultural crops and livestock products should
be given a boost. Government should strengthen pest and disease control units of the Federal
and State Ministries of Agriculture. Agrochemicals should also be subsidised.
7. The construction and maintenance of roads particularly rural roads should be on regular
basis. Users of infrastructures provided by government should see themselves as stakeholders
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and be concerned about how such infrastructures are used and maintained.
8. Due to the perishable and seasonal nature of agricultural produce, the construction of storage
silos in production areas is advocated. The provision of processing facilities such as mills and
graters will also boost production.
9. Regular training on advances in agricultural processing should be organized for farmers.
Government, at various levels, can encourage farmers by buying off agricultural produce
during harvest or surplus, organising storage and selling to the end users during scarcity.
10. Government should, as a matter of urgency see to the employment of qualified and adequate
number of extension officers to serve as link between farmers and researchers.
11. The marketing of agricultural goods should be properly structured such that the farmers are
no longer ‘ripped off’ by middlemen. Government should establish Agricultural Pricing and
Marketing Boards.
12. Government should ensure that all agricultural policies are well conceived and implemented
without somersault. The encouragement of private sector participation will further aid the
development of the agricultural sector.
i. Itemise some of the suggested solutions towards overcoming the challenges of

agricultural development efforts in Nigeria
i. Enforcement of the Land Use Act of 1978 and if properly executed it will enable genuine
farmers access to farmland.
ii. Local fabrication of farm implements and establishment of tractor and equipment hiring
units and centers
iii. Government subsidy programmes on agricultural inputs iputs)
iv. Provision of banks loans
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v. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form cooperative

societies
vi. Research into pests and diseases of agricultural produce and livestock should be
encouraged
vii. The construction and maintenance of rural roads on regular basis.
viii. Construction of storage silos in production areas to keep perishable and seasonal
produce
ix. Regular training of farmers in processing encouragement of farmers by buying off
agricultural produce during harvest or surplus, organizing storage and selingl to the end
users during scarcity.
x. Employment of qualified and adequate number of extension officers to serve as link
between farmers and researchers.
xi. Establishment of Agricultural Pricing and Marketing Boards in the marketing of
agricultural goods to get rid of middlemen.
xii. Proper monitoring/implementation of agricultural policies.
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Summary of Study Session 1
1. Agriculture is the cultivation of land (including water and forest resources) to produce
food for man and his livestock.
2. The study of Agriculture is vast and multi-disciplinary, with each aspect of it specifically
dealing with a wide range of activities which encompasses management of resources.
3. Agriculture is basically sub-divided into many branches, which include agronomy, soil
science, horticulture, crop protection (subdivisions of entomology, pathology, weed
science etc), farm mechanisation, plant/animal breeding and genetics, farming systems,
plant/animal nutrition, food technology, agricultural economics, agricultural extension
and rural sociology.
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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1
Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the re-
assembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking through the
material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the learning outcomes for the
session. You can then re-check your answers with the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions
(SAQs) at the end of the Module.
SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.1)
What are the two main aspects of agricultural production that you know?
Enumerate the agricultural research institutes and their extension research liaison services
established to foster rapid transformation of the industry in the wake of efforts geared towards
agricultural development efforts in Nigeria.
Itemise the various roles that agriculture plays in the development of Nigeria as a nation.
List the major challenges confronting the process of agricultural development in Nigeria
Highlight concisely, the solutions canvassed for resolving the problems of agricultural
development in Nigeria.
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References
Adeyeye, S.A. (2002). Fundamental Principles of Agricultural Science. Megatrend

Printers. 318pp
Bolens, L. (1997). ‘Agricultural’ in Encyclopaedia of the history of Science technology

and Medicine in Non-Western Culture’. Editor: Helaine Selin: Kluwer Academic
Publishers. Dordrecht/Boston/London. Pp20-22.
Collinson. M. (editor): A History of Farming System Research, CABI Publishing, 2000.

ISBN 0-85199-405-9.
Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004). Changes in USDA Food Composition
Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition,
Vol.23. No.6. 669-682.
FAO, 2000, Agriculture: Towards 2015/30. The Technical Interim Report, Global
Perspective Studies Unit, Rome.
Iwena, O.A. (2002). Essentials of Agricultural Science. Tonads Publishers Limited.

293pp. The American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2002 by Company.
United States Agency for International Development,2000. Sustainable Agriculture and

Diversified Economic Growth, USAID/Nigeria Concept Paper (SO6).
Wells Spencer, 2003. The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691- 11532-X.
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Study Session 2: Sociology of Nigeria Rural Areas
Introduction
Sociology is the scientific study of human life, rural society and social behavior, focusing on
processes, patterns of organisation and conduct which are recurrent in society. The word rural
also refers to areas with low population density, small size, and relative isolation, where the
major economic activity is largely agricultural production. Rural settlements have between 100
and 200 households (Mundi 2006), and it refers to remote areas or places far away from the seat
of government and having very few or no infrastructural facilities. The major concern of rural
sociologists is with farmers, with agricultural occupations, and with problems of the farm people,
their ways of making a living and other occupations influencing their lives. Communities cannot
be categorized into two types but should be seen to represent various modernisation stages on a
linear scale. For example, while towns like Lagos and Ibadan may portray maximum urban
characteristics, some communities are typically rural, and between the two extremes are found
communities at different stages of modernisation.
Rural ——————————→—————————Urban
Fig. 1: The Rural-Urban Continuum
At the end of this session, you would have learnt the following:
2.1 Factors responsible for rural-urban differences

2.2 Rural social institutions in Nigeria
2.3 Family institution and their functions
2.4 Education as an institution in rural Nigeria
2.5 Religion and belief systems in rural Nigeria
2.6 Rural economic institutions in Nigeria and the concept of rural development.
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2.1 Distinguishing Factors Responsible for Rural-Urban Differentiation
The factors below are responsible for the general differences between rural and urban areas:
1. Size: Rural communities are usually smaller than urban communities. Size is particularly
referred to as areas actually inhabited rather than the total area of land available for use.
2. Population Density and Composition: As rural areas have larger expanse of land with
relatively small population, the population density (i.e. the number of people per unit area
of land) is rather low. This is in contrast to urban areas where a larger number of people
occupy relatively small unit areas.
3. Occupation: Occupation in rural areas in Nigeria comprises majorly agricultural

enterprises such as crops and livestock production. Some rural people are engaged in
non-agricultural enterprises such as petty trading, arts, craft, and weaving, pottery and
primary industries; only a few take these as sole occupations. Instead they tend to
combine these with farming, and a large number of these rural dwellers are full-time
farmers.
4. Social Integration: This refers to a patterned relationship of one person with another
through expressions of ideas, thoughts and actions aimed at achieving concrete goals.
Social contacts are lesser in quantity, quality and variety in rural areas.
5. In rural areas, interaction takes place at water sites, on market days, in religious worship
areas, cultural activities such as marriage and naming ceremonies, etc.. The quality and
type of interaction among the urban dwellers is much more than that of rural dwellers.
However, both the urban and rural dwellers are interdependent in the area of farm
produce buying at the farm gate and traditional services.
6. Social Stratification: This has to do with the manner in which the society ranks its
members into various social classes or hierarchy on the basis of wealth, birth, status, etc.
The differences between the social classes in urban areas and rural areas are:
i) Social classes are fewer in rural areas than in the urban areas
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ii) Social classes are closer in the rural areas than they are in the urban areas
iii) There is more rigidity in caste and class principles or close systems in rural areas
than in the urban areas.
7. Social Differentiation: The rural area is made up of many relatively independent

families, communities and neighbourhoods. The rural dwellers deal with people of
identifiable traits such as other farmers of the same religious groups, cultural, social and
economic level.
8. Social mobility: This is the movement of an individual from one social class or group to
another. Social mobility is rather slow in rural areas. People may move vertically from a
lower class to a higher class or from a higher class to a lower class as a result of specific
achievements through success in economic pursuits, education, political change, or job
creation. Improvement in social infrastructure is bound to be more in the urban areas than
in the rural areas. This is evident with the introduction of Universal Primary Education
(UPE) in Nigeria in 1976 and free education in the South Western Nigeria. Most rural
children with some acquired level of formal education migrated to the urban areas in
search of better job opportunities.
9. Social Control: The behaviour of individuals in the rural areas tends to be guided more
by the internalisation of societal norms and values. Informal means such as avoidance
and gossips are used or applied to effect control on violation while instant justice is
determined in cases of the violation of mores. Urban areas tend to depend more on formal
institutions such as the police, traffic wardens, among others, for the maintenance of law
and order.
10. Shortage or absence of social amenities and services: The rural areas are characterised
by poor communication facilities, bad roads, inadequate medical services and hospitals,
dilapidated school building and deficient educational facilities, absence of tap water but
presence of locally constructed wells and natural water supply from streams and rivers.
Transportation is generally by foot and canoe or by bicycle, motorcycle or bus for those
that are prosperous.
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In spite of the lack of technology and poor physical infrastructure, the rural Nigerian
societies produce and supply food and raw materials to their urban counterparts.
11. Rural land acquisition and tenure systems: Generally, in rural Nigeria, land is
traditionally vested in the linage or community. As indicated by Otite and Akali (1990),
in places such as Bini where land is vested in the community, the Oba theoretically owns
and controls the use of land on behalf of his people. In some ethnic groups such as the
Yoruba and Urhobo, control of land is vested in the lineage and managed by elders and
leaders. In this, three main categories of land could be identified; these include land for
building and settlement; farm land for agriculture and grazing: and community land for
sacred places or shrines, markets and assemblies.
12. There are increasing new trends in the land ownership structure in the rural areas of
Nigeria. This new trend is the individual ownership of land through purchase from family
or community owners. This development has led to land speculation in rural areas in
Nigeria. Hence, two main categories of land ownership now common in most rural areas
in Nigeria are ownership by indigenous groups (land jointly belonging to the same
lineage and community) and ownership by individuals (land acquired by individuals by
purchase).
It is noteworthy that as a result of efforts and interventions on the part of governance on
the development of rural areas in last decades, the rural areas are becoming gradually
transformed. The summary of such interventions is provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Rural Development Programmes in Nigeria

Programme Year of Target Group Nature of Intervention
Establishment
National Accelerated 1972 Rural farmers Development of improved
Food Production crop varieties
Programme (NAFPP)
Operation Feed and 1975 Rural and Urban Boost in food production to
Nation (OFN) residents improve the living standard
of the masses, especially the
rural farmers.
The Green Revolution 1980 Rural farmers Improvement in the living
standards of rural farmers.
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Directorate of Food, 1986 Rural areas Provision of feeder roads,

Roads and Rural rural water supply and
Infrastructure (DFRRI) electrification
National Directorate of 1986 Unemployed youths Training, finance and
Employment (NDE) guidance
Better life for Rural 1987 Rural women Provision of self-help
Women (BLRW) projects, rural development
and skills acquisition
programmes, and health care
delivery
Peoples Bank of Nigeria 1987 The underprivileged in Promoting savings and the
(PBN) rural and urban areas use of micro-credit facilities
Community Banks (CB) 1990 Rural residents, and Provision of banking
urban micro enterprises facilities
Family Support 1994 Families in rural areas Provision of facilities for
Programme health care delivery, child
welfare and youth
development
Family Economic 1997 Rural areas and urban Establishment of credit
Advancement micro enterprises facilities to support cottage
Programme (FEAP) industries
Poverty Alleviation 2000 Rural, sub-urban and Eradication of the problem
Programme (PAP) urban communities of unemployment, especially
among youths in Nigeria.
National Poverty 2001 Rural and urban Eradication of poverty in the
Eradication Programme communities nation through the Capacity
(NAPEP) Acquisition Programme
(CAP) and the Mandatory
Attachment Programme
(MAP)
Agricultural 2012 Farmers Promotion of agribusiness
Transformation Agenda and private-sector
(ATA) investment in agriculture,
reduction in post-harvest
losses, addition of value to
local agricultural produce,
development of rural
infrastructure and
enhancement of farmers’
access to financial services
and market
Anchor Borrowers' 2015 Linkage between anchor Provision of farm inputs in
Programme (ABP) companies and small- cash and kind (for farm
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holder farmers labour) to small-holder

farmers to boost the
production of these
commodities
Presidential Fertilizer 2016 Farmers, fertiliser Promotion of local
Initiative (PFI) producers and suppliers production of NPK fertiliser
in Nigeria by resuscitating moribund
fertiliser plants, and reviving
the local blending fertiliser
industry
The Livelihood 2016 Rural and suburban Improvement in the means
Improvement Family communities of livelihood of rural
Enterprise (LIFE) dwellers to help them to live
a decent live
Rural Access and 2019 Rural areas Employment generation
Agricultural Marketing improvement in the
Project competitiveness of
commodity value chains, and
(RAAMP) increase in the income of the
commodity value-chain
actors through improved
rural road infrastructure,
agricultural processing and
marketing systems
List the factors that are responsible for the general differences between rural and urban areas.
a. Size:
b. Population density and composition
c. Occupation
d. Social integration
e. Social stratification
f. Social differentiation
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g. Social mobility
h. Social control
i. Shortage or absence of social amenities and services
j. Rural land acquisition and tenure systems
2.2 Rural Social Institutions in Nigeria
Like any social institution, rural social institutions are the structure and apparatus guiding rural
life in Nigeria in educational, religious, economic and political issues. These institutions create
some form of relationship which constitutes the major channels through which rural societies
operate, coordinate and execute, and tend to meet certain basic needs of the rural dwellers. These
institutions include social relationship that embodies certain common values and procedures
essential for mutual coexistence of individuals within the society.
It is noteworthy to underscore that the norms within societies may change overtime in response
to social needs and aspirations. Social institutions also interrelate incredibly in their functions
and adequately serve the interest of individuals in all aspects of life and no single institution can
stand independently without due regard for others.
The major rural institutions in Nigeria include the family institution, rural school systems,
religious institution, political institution, and rural economic institution.
2.2.1 Family Institution
The family is defined as a kinship group linked by blood, marriage and adoption, and occupying
a common household. A household is not the same as the family. It refers to all persons
occupying the same house. These include relatives as well as guests.
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The family as a social group is made up of a man, his wife or wives and children living under a
common roof, interacting with, and influencing the behaviour of one another in a more intimate
manner than they do with others who do not belong to it.
As a social institution the family exhibits a common set of values and norms. An example is
incest which is considered a taboo. It forbids sexual intercourse with blood relations thereby
necessitating marriage outside the immediate family. It involves a network of roles or social
relationship such as the wife playing the role of a mother and a home keeper.
The rural family is characterised by many features such as the degree to which members of the
family show solidarity in the process of performing the various roles in the family institution,
production and consumption of goods and services, continuity, size, child bearing and rearing,
socialisation, participation in decision making in the family, marital expectations and evaluation.
2.2.1.1 Functions of the Family
The family performs many societal functions to ensure the welfare and progress of its members.
The functions include:
 Procreation: Bearing biological offsprings
 Care and rearing of the young offsprings particularly at infancy and years of dependence
 Education of the children
 Protection from enemies, danger and psychological isolation, provision of love and
affection to reduce tension and frustration
 Care of the aged and disabled family members
 Production and consumption of goods and services
 Moral and financial support to family members in time of joy and trouble
 Social, psychological and material support in time of bereavement, disaster or other
forms or adversities
 Socialization: The family equips the individual with the knowledge which he/she will
need in order to play his/her roles in the society.
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Types of Family
i. Nuclear Family: This consists of a man, his wife and children. Marital bond is relevant
rather than blood relation.
ii. Extended Family: This is usually made up of a series of nuclear families.
2.2.2 Marriage institution

i. Exogamy: This is the kind of marriage done outside one’s group or blood relations. This
is allowed and most common in any group within the Nigerian rural setting.
ii. Endogamy: This kind of marriage is done within some specified groups. This occurs in
some ethnic groups such as the Hausa and Fulani. Where this occurs, there are
variations and specifications. For instance, there is much preference for marriages
between cross and parallel cousins among the Hausa and Fulani, while among the
Kedar people of Zaria Emirate, marriages are allowed only for cousins of the fourth
generation.
iii. Monogamy: This is the kind of marriage involving only one man and one woman are
involved, the marriage is described as monogamy.
iv. Polygamy: Where more than two people are involved in a marriage, such a marriage is
known as polygamy. Polygamy can assume different forms. One of them is the case
in which one man married to two or more women. This is called polygamy. This is
mostly common among traditional villagers and Muslims in Nigeria.
The second form of polygamy is one involving one woman and two or more men.
This is known as polyandry and it is not a normal practice in any part of the rural
areas in Nigeria. However, it has been identified among very few tribes in the world.
v. Levirate marriage: This is a type of marriage which involves the inheritance of a widow
by the deceased husband’s male relations. This form of marriage is based on the
reasoning that a wife is part of the possessions of the husband which are passed down
the extended family line on his demise. Levirate marriage is a secondary form of
marriage and it entails no elaborate ceremony. Bamgbose (2002) reported that it is
considered a custom among the Yoruba, Igbo, and the Hausa-Fulani and continues to
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be practised in rural communities. Increased urbanisation and education are thought

to have discouraged this practice.
Culturally, most Nigerian rural groups practice patri-lineal descent, have patriarchal authority,
have patri-local rule of residence, and are generally patri-centric in outlook.
i. Patri-lineal Descent: This is a situation in which the family descent is traced through the
father. This system is most common in Nigerian rural areas. In this system, children bear
the name of their fathers and regard themselves as members of their father’s extended
family.
ii. Patri-local Residence: This is a rule of residence where the wife must move from her
family of orientation to join her husband in his own family of orientation. This is most
common in rural areas in Nigeria.
iii. Patriarchal or Patri-centric Authority: This occurs where tradition, culture, and social
circumstances have vested authority and dominance in the family in the man. The
authority entails family decision making on important issues, allocation of farm plots, etc.
This is common in all rural areas of Nigeria.
Other common systems of marriage in the rural areas in Nigeria include matri-lineal descent,
matri-local residence, matriarchal or matri-centric authority, neo-local residence.
2.2.3 Education as an Institution in Rural Nigeria
Education is the process of transmitting and acquiring the socially approved cultural heritage of
any society from one generation to another. It is also the process by which new knowledge is
spread among members of a society. The process of socialisation or culture learning usually
starts informally in the family and then formally in schools. Education in the formal sense has
come to mean systematic training by specialists within the formal organisation of the school.
Education serves to train people for specialised role of adults and bring about social change
through modification of cultural heritage and development of new knowledge, skills, arts and
artifacts.
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Types of Education in Rural Nigeria
There are various forms of educational facilities in rural Nigeria. These include:
1. Extension Education: This is an informal out-of-school education given to rural families
by experts in agriculture, home economics, health, small-scale industries among others.
The aim is to improve the competence and skills of the recipients. The experts involved
are called extension agents. Their functions are to change the attitude of the rural people
towards acceptance of innovation, and to impact skills and knowledge required to apply
modern technology to their agricultural practices.
2. Adult Education: This is a literacy educational programme organised for adults who had
no opportunity to acquire formal education at their earlier age. The aim is to teach rural
people how to read and write.
3. Formal education: This is the type of education offered at the primary and secondary
school levels to rural children and adolescents. At the primary school level, two main
types of education can be identified in Nigeria. These are the western type of education
and the Koranic type of education.
Western Type of Primary Education: Since Nigeria was once under the influence of
the western world, almost all rural areas in Nigeria have the western type of primary
education. This is also as a result of the Federal Government Universal Free Primary
Education Scheme of 1976 and the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme of
2000.
Koranic Type of Primary Education: Koranic schools are prevalent in the Northern
part of Nigeria and in areas of the South. The school takes place in the mosques, in the
private homes of the teachers or in an open space under tree sheds. The teaching consists
of learning Arabic alphabets, reading and writing Arabic, and memorising verses of the
Koran.
The Western Type of Secondary School Education: This is the intermediate step on
the educational pyramid in Nigeria. Secondary schools are located more in the rural areas
in Southern Nigeria than in the rural areas in the North. However, there are more
secondary schools in the urban areas than these are in the rural areas in Nigeria.
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4. Nomadic Education: This system of education was introduced in Nigeria to afford the
children of Fulani-herders in the North and Riverine areas, dwelling in the South, the
opportunity and facilities to have some basic literacy and functional education.
List the different types of social institutions in Nigeria.
i. Family institution
ii. Marriage institution
iii. Educational institution
2.3 Religion and Belief Systems in Rural Nigeria
Like in many parts of the developing world, religion is an important aspect of the social life of
Nigerians in both rural and urban areas.
Religion is defined as consisting of institutionalized systems of beliefs, values and symbolic

practices which provide groups of men with solutions to their question of ultimate meaning of
death, difficulties, and suffering. In rural Nigeria, the functions of religion include:
i. The explanation of the unknown and irregular physical occurrences such as flood,
lightening, earthquake etc.
ii. The promotion of group solidarity as religion is a cultural possession
iii. Strengthening of moral order and promotion of social control
iv. Support for other social organization and institution such as schools, hospitals, etc.
v. Celebration of human achievement
vi. The justification of human existence by stating the nature and role of man in terms of
super-natural design
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Religious beliefs and practice in Nigeria can be divided into indigenous or traditional religious
belief and the foreign religious beliefs and practices. Foreign beliefs can further be classified as
Christianity and Islam. Religion institution in rural Nigeria is served by organization and
association.
1. Christianity: Christianity was introduced during the period of colonialism, first into the
southern part of the country. Today it has spread to many other parts of the country.
However, there is a larger concentration of Christians in the south than in the northern
states. Church organization has played important roles in the lives of rural Nigerians. For
instance, while most government health facilities and schools are often located in the
urban areas, most church and mission facilities and schools are often sited in rural areas
to serve the rural people.
2. Islam: The rural Muslims have small buildings utilised as mosques. Muslims are
supposed to pray five times daily. Devoted Muslims obey this regularly. Muslims pray in
central mosques on Fridays. Islamic organization has played vital roles in the lives of
rural Nigerians. Like Christianity, there are some Islamic mission facilities and schools
sited in rural areas to serve the rural people.
3. Traditional: Apart from Christianity and Islam, the rural inhabitants of the various states
in Nigeria still place much premium on the continued worship of traditional religions.
They tend to have strong faith in magical belief. Hence, the strong belief that an
individual possesses magical power that can stop or cause rain to fall. Generally, a rural
Nigeria person is a strong believer in the supernatural. The ability of traditionalist to
perform spiritual healing of physical diseases, to forestall witchcraft, and foretell the
future. The rural dweller also strongly believes that man is capable of manipulating the
spirits through constant propitiatory sacrifices. Thus, sacrifices are offered to the gods
before land clearing and planting of crops and during harvest.
With increase in formal education, the influence of the traditional gods on the people has
waned. This is due to the fact that many educated children of the adherents are no more
willing to worship such gods.
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Identify the major religions and belief systems in Nigeria.
i. Christianity
ii. Islam
iii. Traditional belief system
2.4 Rural Economic Institutions in Nigeria
The economic institution in any culture is often concerned with the arrangement of relationships
between people for the sustained production, distribution and consumption of goods and services
within that culture or between it and another culture (Mbiti, 2003). As discussed earlier, the
family is the basic economic unit in any society.
The greater proportion of economic activities in the rural areas depends directly and indirectly on
the exploitation of the land in those areas. The major occupations of rural dwellers are farming,
animal husbandry, fishing, hunting, food processing and some cottage industries. However, it
should be noted that occupations in the rural areas are not only farm-oriented.
Rural dwellers also engage in secondary occupation such as saw milling, pottery, weaving,
carpentry, blacksmithing, dress making, knitting, trading, leather works, dyeing, practice of
native medicine, house construction, transport operation, etc. Agricultural activities have
outshined these occupations when compared with those in the urban areas.
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2.4.1 The Significance of Economic Institutions to Rural Dwellers
The economic institution is one of the most significant dimensions of rural life. The institution
meets the needs of the rural farmers in different ways through the provision of credit fcilities,
land, labour, purchase of equipment and supplies, and marketing of farm produce.
These needs are provided in rural communities where family farms predominate. In this
situation, the initiatives of individual and family farmers are mobilised to look for these facilities
and utilize them for their farm development.
The economic services mentioned above are often performed in rural areas through established
rural organisations such as:
1. Cooperative societies: Economic services are performed through the cooperative efforts
of the rural farmers;
2. Government or privately established institutions serving the rural area like rural banks,
and government parastatals; organizations such as agro-service centers where farming
inputs such as improved seeds, fertilisers, chemicals, tractor services are made available
to farmers at subsidised rates, and the marketing boards which are established by the
government to mobilise and market agricultural products;
3. Individual farmers who look for these services from other individuals and groups.
Agriculture in Nigeria can be classified as subsistence and commercial. Agricultural production

in rural areas of Nigeria is largely subsistence in nature with the following characteristics:
1. Agricultural areas are relatively isolated from the economic influence of the outside
world. This may limit access to innovation and scientific knowledge, with the dwellers
being satisfied with producing at subsistence level for all members of the group rather
than commercially.
2. The land in the area belongs to the community and is allotted to individuals according to
their immediate needs. These farms are small in size and are usually scattered.
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3. The farmers know very little about sustainable land management, and also follow
traditional methods of farming, using simple tools.
Itemise some of the established rural organizations that provide economic services in the rural
areas of Nigeria.
i. Cooperative societies: Economic services are performed through the cooperative efforts
ii. Government or privately established institutions serving the rural area
iii. Individual farmers who look for services among individuals and groups
2.5 The Concept of Rural Development
The concept of rural development in Nigeria lacks a common definition as different scholars
attempt to view it from different perspectives. Obinne (1991) perceived rural development as
creating and widening opportunities for individuals in the rural areas to realise their full
potentials through education, and share in taking decisions and actions which affect their lives.
Others view rural development as means for the provision of basic amenities, infrastructure,
improved agricultural productivity and extension services and employment generation for rural
dwellers. Another scholar defined rural development as the far-reaching transformation of the
social and economic structures, institutions, relationships and processes in any rural area.
There is erroneous misconception that rural development is the same as agricultural

development. However, Anriquez and Stamoulis (2007) posited that while agricultural
development aims at improving the welfare of populations through sustained improvements in
the productivity of the agricultural sector, rural development aims at the improvement of welfare
Page 57 of 251
of rural populations through the sustained growth of the rural economy, which includes
agriculture, but which may not be its only component and also not necessarily the most dynamic.
2.5.1 Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria

1. Lack of commitment to rural development efforts
2. Policy-associated problems
3. Lack of systemic and coordinated implementation of programmes resulting in duplication
and dilution of efforts
4. Lack of community involvement/empowerment
5. High level of corruption
List the problems of rural development in Nigeria.

i. Lack of commitment to rural development efforts
ii. Policy associated problems
iii. Lack of systemic and coordinated implementation of programmes resulting in duplication
iv. Lack of community involvement/empowerment
v. High level of corruption
2.5.2 Significance of Rural Development Effort
It is desirable to factor the development of the rural areas into a nation’s development plan
because of the following;
1. No country is completely urbanised and relative majority of people live in the rural areas.
If concerted efforts are directed towards the development of rural areas, such areas will
become transformed and make the rural dwellers become better people in the society.
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2. Rural areas form the most important sector of the economy because majority of the
available land, labour, and capital are domiciled in these rural areas. Therefore, the
general nature of a country’s development is dependent on rural areas.
3. Lack of development activities characterizing the rural areas has created a great
difference in the level of development between the urban and rural areas thereby making
rural-urban migration more noticeable. With committed and planned development
programmes in the rural areas, the trend can be reduced or prevented.
4. The higher the level of advancement of the rural peoples through the development of
their areas, the greater the employment opportunities and the easier they can effectively
affect the quality of life of the rural populace.
5. With concerted efforts on rural development, the problem of poor access to social and
economic infrastructure and services such as access to safe drinking water supply and
sanitation will be solved.
6. Higher rate of infant mortality, malnutrition, disease prevalence and food insecurity
would be reduced and enhanced.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5.2
List the significance of rural development efforts in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5.2

i. Rural areas form the most important sector of the economy because majority of the
available land, labour and capital are domiciled in the rural areas.
ii. Lack of development activities in the rural areas have led to rural-urban migration
iii. The higher the level of advancement of the rural people through the development of their
areas, the greater the employment opportunities
iv. With concerted efforts on rural development, the problem of poor access to social and
economic infrastructure and services are often solved.
v. The problem of infant mortality, malnutrition, disease prevalence and food insecurity are
reduced via rural area development.
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Conclusion
This chapter succinctly examined Nigeria’s rural areas with respect to characterisation of rural
areas, rural urban differentiation, rural development programmes in Nigeria, rural social
institutions, and the concept of rural development. It was emphasised that improving rural areas
is a pathway to enhancing the livelihood of the rural dwellers and consequently improving the
household food security and economic development of the country. It was noted that social
institutions like the family, schools, and economy are the structures and apparatuses guiding
rural life in Nigeria, and they constitute the major channels through which rural societies operate,
coordinate, execute and meet certain basic needs of the rural dwellers. This chapter
acknowledges the fact that although farming is the major economic activity of the rural dwellers,
there are other secondary and complementary economic activities in the rural areas. Furthermore,
this chapter highlights the importance of the family, educational and economic institutions to
rural dwellers and the rural economy. Finally, the difference between rural development and
agricultural development was highlighted, and subsequently, the problems of rural development
as well as the importance of rural development efforts were also established. Thus,
understanding the social dynamics of the rural areas of Nigeria and putting concerted efforts
towards rural development will equally improve and enhance the nation’s development.
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1. Rural sociology deals concisely with the study of the rural society, social processes, basic
social systems, society organisation, institutions and group dynamics.
2. The main factor that distinguishes the rural areas from the urban areas is occupational
differences in which case the Nigerian rural settings comprise mainly agricultural
enterprises while the urban settings are more of industrialised enterprises.
3. The process of socialisation or culture learning usually commences informally at the
family level and becomes concluded via formally education.
4. Religion is an important aspect of the social life of Nigerians in both rural and urban
areas.
5. The agricultural sector is a major economic institution in Nigeria, which can either be
classified as subsistence and commercial.
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material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the learning outcomes for this
Itemise the factors that are responsible for the general differences between rural and urban areas.
List the different types of social institutions in Nigeria.
Identify the major religion and belief systems in Nigeria.
Itemise some of the established rural organizations that provide economic services in the rural
areas of Nigeria.
(a). List the problems of rural development in Nigeria.
(b). List the importance of rural development efforts in Nigeria.
Page 62 of 251
References
Anríquez, A. and Stamoulis, K. (2007) “Rural Development and Poverty Reduction: Is

Agriculture Still the Key?” ESA Working Paper No. 07-02, The Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nation.
Bamgbose, O. (2002). "Customary Law Practices and Violence against Women: The Position
Under the Nigerian Legal System." Paper presented at 8th International Interdisciplinary
Congress on Women hosted by Department of Women and Gender Studies, University of
Makerere. Retrieved March 14, 2020 from
https://www.refworld.org/docid/45f1478811.html
Ekong, E. (1988). An Introduction to Rural Sociology. Ibadan: Jumak Publishers Ltd. 241–242.
Igbokwe, E. M. (2001). “Integrating Rural Knowledge Systems in Agricultural Resources and

Development”. Journal Research 1:69-71.
Mbiti, M. O. (2003). A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology. Minnapolis: University of

Minnesota Press 3: 541-544.
Mundi, N. E. (2006). “Analysis of Poverty Alleviation, Strategies of Rural Women in Kogi State,
Nigeria”.
Obinne, C. P. (1991). “Culture of Poverty: Implication on Nigeria’s Socio-Economic

Transformation”, Journal of Extension System Vol 7
Otite, O. (1990). Ethnic pluralism and ethnicity in Nigeria, Ibadan, shanesonc Ltd
Page 63 of 251
Study Session 3: Economic Opportunities in Agriculture
Introduction
Several economic or income earning opportunities exist in Nigeria‘s agricultural sector broadly
defined to include crops and livestock production, fishery and forestry. Individuals and
prospective entrepreneurs only need to recognise and exploit existing opportunity, thereby
resulting in their socio-economic transformation, and ultimately national economic growth.
Existing economic opportunities in agriculture cover the full range of the agribusiness
framework - from the inputs supply sector through the direct production of crops and/or
livestock, and finally to the products transformation and output sector. From the agribusiness
perspectives, economic opportunities in agriculture can be categorised into three categories: farm
inputs supply and service (provide seeds, feed, fertiliser, chemicals, machinery, and fuel); direct
production (of crops and animal products); and farm products transformation and merchandising
(processing and marketing of agricultural commodities).
Agricultural production, processing and marketing of agricultural commodity offer ample scope
for increased employment locally, and can serve as veritable sources for earning primary and
supplementary incomes in Nigeria.
At the end of this session, you would have learnt basic information about:
3.1 Principles of crop production

3.2 Principles of livestock production
3.3 Principles of fish farming (or Aquaculture)
3.4 Principles of food processing
3.5 Principles of forest products growing and processing
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3.1 Crop Production
3.1.1 Rice Production
Rice is an important staple crop and a major food commodity in Nigeria. As such, its production
offers immense opportunities for prospective commercial producers in virtually all agro-
ecologies (i.e. upland and lowland) in the country (Oluleye et al., 2002). With the growing
human populations, Nigeria has become pre-occupied, particularly lately, with the dire necessity
to address and reverse the import dependency of the country in satisfying local demand. In this
regard, increased institutional support has been targeted at establishing, and amply capacitating
rice research and development centres, training of rice specialists, introduction of improved farm
inputs and conventional farming system, among other measures.
Nonetheless, widening gaps have persisted in domestic rice production when compared to local
demand, with only about 8.l percent of the total rice (i.e. 1,921,300 metric tonnes) consumed by
Nigerians produced by the local rice farmers in 2001 (FAQ 2004). In 2001 alone, about US$
326.8 million was committed to rice imports so as to augment the anticipated shortfall in local
rice production for the fiscal year.
Low and declining productivity (or yield per hectare) has been the bane of the rice sub-sector in
Nigeria. This is obviously due to production constraints, including the limitation in access to
conventional inputs such as fertiliser supply to periodically replenish the fast-depleting soils.
With sufficient applications of chemical fertilisers and/or organic manures in intensive
cultivation practice, commercial output and profit margins for sole and mixed enterprise
operations (or cultivation) should improve significantly among local producers.
This is more so, since recent empirical study has further revealed that every Naira expended on
sole rice or the rice-cassava intercrop will yield N2.58 and N2.44, respectively (Table l).
Besides, net margins can form 59.05 percent and 61.31 percent of the total income realised for
the rice-cassava intercrop and sole rice cultivation, respectively.
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3.1.2 Mushrooms Production
Organic farming is the recycling of farm-produced organic materials including crop residues,
off-farm organic wastes, and the application of a variety of non-chemical methods for the control
of pest, diseases and weeds. The production system excludes the use of synthetically
compounded fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, and growth regulators, among other (Anon, 1996).
Table 1: Indicators of Promising Economic Opportunities in Ogun State Agriculture

Source of Occupation Production Benefit-Cost Net margin as Ranking based on
information system Ratio a % of total net margin-total
revenue revenue % ratio
Oyebanjo et al. Paddy rice Sole rice 2.58 61.31 3
(2006) production,
2002 season Rice-Cassava 2.44 59.05 4
intercrop
Olubanjo et al. Mushrooms Agaricus spp. 1.30 23.25 7
(forthcoming) production
Pleurotus spp. 2.14 53.32 5
Olubanjo et al. Pig production Semi- 7.15 86.06 1
(2005) intensive, 2002
season
Olubanjo and Fish farming, Dug-out pond 1.50 33.45 6
Olaitan (2007) 2001 season
Concrete pond 2.80 64.27 2
Source: See the reference section for details of cited empirical reports
Mushrooms production typifies to a reasonable extent, the organic (agricultural) production

system, Mushrooms are edible, flesh fruiting bodies of certain fungi, which may be gathered or
plucked directly from the field, or grown under commercial cultivation. Cultivated mushrooms
are usually grown on compost in the dark, in climate controlled rooms.
Although mushrooms cultivation require a huge initial capital outlay, with increased production
efficiency and the promise of lucrative markets locally and overseas, it can generate incomes in
multi-fold dimensions. Its commercial cultivation has lately become imperative in view of the
un-sustainability of wild collections. This is due to the growing urbanisation, uncontrolled
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transhumance and sedentary collection activities, and worm and diseases infestation (Addey,
1995; McLain and Jones, 1997; and Oyetayo and Akindahunsi, 2004).
Mushrooms today, on account of their special flavours, nutritional and medicinal values, offer
Nigeria an efficient way of combating malnutrition, improving employment and boosting foreign
exchange earnings. Specific merits of mushrooms over other food sources include; one, in the
dried form, mushrooms have higher protein content than any other vegetables. This is in addition
to the high concentration of essential vitamins and minerals. They are of immense value to
health, since they can lower blood cholesterol. Two, they can be grown on a variety of wastes
from agriculture or industry including straw, sawdust, coconut coir, maize cobs, cotton waste and
banana leaves. Three, with improved grasp of the production technology, mushrooms cultivation
requires relatively simple techniques and equipment. Four, small land area is needed for
mushrooms cultivation. Five, water and sunlight demand is quite minimal. Six, cultivation can be
on hobby or full-time occupation basis (Addey, 1995).
Presently, several private businesses and individuals are already commercial producers of the
edible mushrooms in Nigeria. Two private organisations currently in the fore-front of edible
mushrooms cultivation locally are the Obasanjo Farm Nigeria Limited (Ota, Qgun State), which
cultivates the Agaricus specie, and the Wambis Organisation (Ojodu, Lagos), which cultures the
Pleurotus pulmanarus specie. If production activities are well interwoven, from one production
cycle to another, more or several cycles of mushrooms production can be achieved in a year,
using two or more growing house. The estimated average yield of the Agaricus spp. is l,000kg
per production cycle per growing house while that of the Pleurotus spp. is 360kg per production
cycle per growing house. One kilogramme of both species can sell between N500.00 and
N600.00, and producers can grow about five times per year, assuming a two to three-months
production span. Empirically, it has even been estimated that one Naira investment in
mushrooms production can yield N1.30 and N2.l4, respectively, for the Agaricus spp. and the
Pleurotus spp. (Table l). It was also found out that production profit constituted 23.25percent and
53.32percent, respectively for the Agaricus spp. and the Pleurotus spp.
Page 67 of 251
List any two economic crops that can be profitably produced in the tropics of Nigeria.
i. Paddy rice
ii. Mushroom
3.2 Livestock Production
3.2.1 Pig Production
Among the domesticated animals found in the tropical and temperate regions where there is no
religious or social taboos preventing their rearing are pigs. Over the ages, their domestication and
commercial production have continued to serve very significant roles in the evolution of the
urban society, and in the promotion of the attainment of economic growth in Africa and Nigeria.
This should be expected, given their rapid multiplication rate, which is due in part to their high
fecundity and the high growth potentials of the reared species. This is in addition to the growing
demand for meat and protein sources locally and globally.
Commercial pig production has not yet developed just as commercial ruminants and poultry
production in Nigeria. This can be attributed to the low acceptance of pork as a meat source.
Besides, some religious injunctions, unfavourable social beliefs and norms, among other factors,
have curtailed full commercial and widespread production of pigs locally (Agunbiade et al.,
2001).
However, with the continually declining per caput protein consumption in Nigeria, widespread
commercial pig production has become quite imperative. Besides, other occupations could be
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pursued with pig farming, where commercial pig production can serve as a primary or
secondary/supplemental source of income for prospective farmers. Average returns to investment
outlays are typically large in pig farming. Specifically, empirical evidence has shown that one
Naira outlay on a 60 herd, semi-intensive pig production system can yield N7.15 return (Table l).
The net margin (or profit) realised form 86.02percent of the total farm revenue.
More income, and hence greater profit, can be realised by using unconventional, low-price or
freely-sourced feedstuffs, such as the brewery wastes, cassava and plantain peels, and vegetables
to feed pigs in their pens on commercial farms. It is noteworthy however, that such a traditional,
cost-saving practice may severely limit the overall production performance as well as the total
attainable profit level on commercial farms. Where feeds, water, labour and capital inputs,
extension and veterinary support, and sound management abound, and are properly harnessed
and provided timely, relatively large operational efficiency can be achieved in commercial pig
farming locally.
i. List any one livestock that can be profitably raised in the tropics of Nigeria
ii. Mention one characteristic of pig that makes it economically efficient for rearing.

i. Pig
ii. Its fecundity and ability to feed on cheap and common foodstuffs.
3.3 Fish Farming (or Aquaculture)
Prospective entrepreneurs in agriculture may choose to harness water and land resources, and
traditional/conventional production technologies for commercial production. This follows since
fish is a major food and animal protein source with immense medicinal and nutritional values.
Fish farming, as an occupation, can generate employment and provide primary and supplemental
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incomes and hence, contribute to the economic and social well-being of the poor and average
income citizens in Nigeria. Fish farming, as an occupation, can generate employment both
directly and indirectly. Besides generating direct income and gainful employment for all
categories of people, fish farming contributes indirectly in terms of the people employed in the
manufacture of fishing gear and other inputs, and in other allied businesses including the canning
factories, among others. Despite, Nigeria‘s sizeable potential for commercial fish farming,
aquaculture has not been fully exploited among the citizens. Besides the availability of ready
markets locally and overseas, report has it that Nigerian waters can produce annually, thousands
metric tonnes of fish and fish products. A total of 1,751,509Ha of perennial swamps and brackish
water are considered suitable for aquaculture in Nigeria (Ajana, l995)
Commercial fish farming involves proper harnessing of water and diverse production
technologies in the breeding and rearing of commercialised quantities of fish species in water
enclosures with the purpose of meeting shortfalls in the market supplies, and to attain optimum
profit. Aside from providing the country an avenue for lowering the dietary (protein) deficiencies
among Nigerians, aquaculture can serve additionally in reducing wastes by convening organic
wastes such as sewage, piggery and poultry waste, cow dung, and other organic industrial by-
products into useful protein, albeit efficiently
Presently, the Federal Department of Fisheries (FDF, 1999) estimated aquaculture’s contribution
to total annual fish production in Nigeria as at 1999 to be a meagre 2.5percent. The situation
must have worsened given the geometrically rising human population in Nigeria. Moreover,
virtually all natural fish stocks worldwide have lately become over-exploited. However, demand
has continued to rise with the growing global human population. Aquaculture thus has a very
wide scope for commercial exploitation by prospective commercial producers in Nigeria.
Empirical work has even revealed that every Naira expended on the Clarias spp. and Heterotis
spp. pond culture will yield N1.50 for the dug-out pond system and N2.80 for the concrete pond
system (Table 1). Also, it has been estimated that the net margin constituted 33.45percent and
Page 70 of 251
64.27percent, respectively of the total revenue for the dug-out and concrete pond systems in the
Ijebu North Local Government Area, Ogun State, for instance.
Why is aquaculture important to the Nigerian households?
i. It serves as a source of protein.

ii. It serves as a source of income.
iii. It is used as an ornamental animal.
3.4 Food Processing
Processing of raw agricultural produce including food and cash crops is a veritable avenue for
adding value in the sector. The value added or created in an agricultural commodity refers to the
amount of extra or incremental worth created by transforming raw, primary or intermediate
products into more finished products (Olubanjo, 2001). Implementation of simple to complex
transformation processes (i.e. processing, fermentation and drying) in basic food and cash crops
can increase the range of products available for trade locally and overseas. Such transformations
can also enhance the storability of perishable crops and livestock, the marketability of goods
traded, and can ultimately raise the incomes of local traders.
Commercial food processing is normally done so as to make raw agricultural commodities to be

more palatable, more nutritious, more varied, and more stable for storage purposes. It can also
enable local processors to prosper in the near and distant markets, thereby improving processors’
incomes as well as creating employment.
A fundamental activity in traditional and modern food processing practices is fermentation. As a

commercial venture, fermentation processes can be implemented for very many agricultural
Page 71 of 251
commodities. Several food products that have been produced from fermentation include pap,
garri, fufu, iru, locust bean (ogiri), beer, wine, spirit, bread and cheese, among others. The
fermentation procedure and equipment need is usually very simple and cheap. In this regard,
cassava as a food crop has been used extensively in producing locally a wide array of
commodities including garri, fufu, composite breed and animal feedstuffs. Other products that
have resulted from local cottage processing activities in Nigeria are cassava flour, palm-oil and
local soap, among others. However, Olubanjo et al. (1995) have found out that the amount of
value created or added to local palm-oil processing was three times as large as those of local
garri processing and local soap making, and about eight times as large as that of traditional
cassava-flour milling at the cottage level in Ogun State, Nigeria.
Why is food processing so important to the Nigerian households?

i. It serves as a source of income to the households.
ii. It helps to preserve raw foods.
iii. It makes food available throughout the year, even during the off-seasons.
3.5 Forestry
3.5.1 Teak Production
Private teak (Tectona grandis L.F) farming or forestry can play a very significant role in meeting
the demand for timber locally and globally. However, in spite of the obvious, lucrative market,
little investment has been committed to private forestry in Nigeria.
Teak, which is endemic to the tropical region of Asia, is now widely planted as part of the re-
forestation and desert encroachment control programmes in Nigeria (Sanwo et al., 2006). A total
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of 27,740Ha or about 10percent of the land area in Ogun State, for instance, has been converted
to forest reserves (FORMECU, 1990). Chief among the species grown is Gmelina (Gmelina
arborea Probx), which is closely followed by teak in terms of the total area planted. These timber
species are meant to provide timber to feed the pulp and paper factory at Iwopin, Ogun State.
Due to the vast rain-forest vegetation in Ogun State, and several other coastline states in Nigeria,
there is ample potential for commercial timber forestry locally. Although, private forestry is a
long-term, low-investment venture (Olawoye, 1975), it promises sizeable returns if properly
established and managed. The introduction and establishment of fast-growing species such as
teak and Gmelia can offer even greater prospects for private entrepreneurs in Nigeria. Over a
fifteen-year production cycle, a teak plantation can yield internal rate of return of 28.3percent
(Sanwo et al., 2006). This rate can be compared with the 17-25percent fund borrowing rate,
which suggests a conservative but positive profit margin for producers.
The growing spate of deforestation and the slow replacement/regeneration rates of most forest
species give a further promise of a growing demand and future or projected favourable prices for
timber species in Nigeria and globally. This is more so, since teak plantation have an all-round
utility value, and can yield consistent financial return from as early as the end of the third year to
the fifth year of its growth, when it can be harvested for various uses including leaves for
wrapping, stems for yam staking, and poles for electricity transmission, among others.
Why is forest and forest products important to the Nigerian households?
i. They are important sources of income to the rural households.

ii. They are sources of foreign earnings.
iii. The study of forestry helps to preserve natural resources (trees and wildlife).
Page 73 of 251
Conclusion
This paper has examined the income earning prospects of various production activities in the
Ogun State, and by extension, the Nigerian agricultural economy. Wide-varying empirical
evidences tend to confirm the sizeable value-adding scope in cottage and direct commercial crop
and livestock production, fish farming, teak forestry and food processing. However, more
accruable benefits and quicker returns were more noticeable for commercial pig and fish
farming. Prospective agricultural entrepreneurs in Ogun State and Nigeria may wish to direct or
harness scarce resources in these promising agricultural ventures.
Page 74 of 251
1. Economic opportunities exist in all aspects of the agricultural agribusiness framework,

ranging from the inputs supply sector, to the production of crops and livestock, and to the
processing and final output sector, until the consumer is satisfied.
2. Profitable farm enterprises can be of the inputs supply and service type; the direct farm
output production type; or the farm produce transformation and merchandising type.
3. The Nigeria agriculture sector is predominantly comprised of private, peasant,
subsistent/small-scale investment with the objective of providing food for the households
with little or nothing remaining for the industrial markets.
Page 75 of 251
Mention some of the economic crops and livestock that can be profitably produced in the tropics
of Nigeria.
Mention the characteristics of pigs that make it economically efficient for rearing.
Itemise the attributes of aquaculture that make it to thrive as an economic agricultural venture in
the present day Nigerian households.
What are ‘forest and forest products’ commodities? Why are they very important to the Nigerian
economy?
Page 76 of 251
References
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World Agricu1ture 1994. The international Review of Agribusiness in Developing

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Anon (1996). Organic farming: Sustainable agriculture put into practice. Germany: International
Federation of Organic Agricultural movements (IFOAM).
Agunbiade, J A, Akeula, I.O and Awojobi, H.A (2001). An assessment of pig production
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Ajana, A.M (1995). A diagnostic survey of the status of agriculture in Ogun State. A project
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Federal Department of Fisheries, FDF (1999). Fisheries statistics of Nigeria. 4th edition FDF,
Lagos. pp. 39-40.
FORMECU (1990). Forest Planttation of Nigeria. Publication, Fed. Dept. of Forestry, Ibadan,
Nigeria.
McLain, R. and E. Jones (1997). Challenging ‘Community’ definitions in sustainable natural

resource management: The case of wild mushroom harvesting in the USA. Gatekeeper Series
No.68. Sustainable Agriculture Programme, London. International Institute for Environment and
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Mucller, P. (2007). Exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities: The impact of entrepreneurship on
growth. Small Business Economics, 28:355-362.
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Olaleye, A.O, Ogunkunle, A.O, Sahrawat, K.L, Osiname, O.A and Ayanlaja, S.A (2002).
Sustainability evaluation of selected wetland soils in Nigeria for rainfed rice cultivation.
Tropicultura, 20:97-103.
Olawoye, O.O (1975). Private Forest Planning in Nigeria. Bulletin 7, Department of Forest
Resource Planning, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. pp. 15-16, 24pp.
Olayide, S.O and Heady, E.O (1982). Introduction to Agricultural Production Economics.
Ibadan University Press. Ibadan.
Olubanjo, O.O (2001). Local Community Trade. (Section G; 126-135). In: Adesanya, A. and
Ogunyemi, Biodun (eds.). Resource Manual on Functional Literacy for Women. Forum
for African Women Educationalists, Nairobi and Social Science Council of Nigeria,
Abuja (September).
Olubanjo, O.O., Ogungbe, O. and Raufu, W.A (1995). Household Industries and Efficient
Utilisation of Rural Labour for Rural Development: The case of Ogun State, Nigeria. The
Nigerian Journal of Rural and Community Development, 5(1&2): 62-72.
Olubanjo, O.O., Famurewa, M.O and Olayode, G.O (2005). Operational Practices,
Productivity and Problems in Live Pig Production: A case Study of Commurcial Farms in
Ijebu Division, Ogun State, Nigeria (pp. 73-83). In: Okuneye, P.A and K.Adebayo (eds.)
Promoting Private Sector Participation in Nigerian Agriculture. Proceeding of the 18 th
FAMAN Conference held at the University of Calabar.
Olubanjo, O.O., Akinleye, S.O and Ifebanjo, G.J (2008). “Organic Farming in
Nigeria”: The case of Commercial Mushroom Production in Lagos and Ogun States.
(Agricultural Sciences Research Journal). Accepted 2007.
Olubanjo, O.O. and Olaitan, O.N (2007). Economics of Harnessing Water and Production
Technologies for Commercial Fish Farming in Ijebu North Local Government Area,
Ogun State, Nigeria. (pp. 212-217). In: Aihonsu, J.O.Y, O.O Olubanjo, Akinleye, S.O
and Okuneye, P.A. (eds.) Infrastructure and Water Management in Ngeria’s Agricultural
and Rural Development Systems. Proceeding of the 21st Annual National Farm
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Management Association of Nigeria (FAMAN) Conference held from 3 rd to 6th

September at the Olabisi Onabanjo University, Yewa Campus, Ayetoro.
Oyebanjo, O., Shittu, A.M and O.O Olubanjo (2006). Resource-Use Efficiency in Rice-based
Farms in Obafemi-Owode LGA, Ogun State, Nigeria. Asset: An International Journal

(Series A), 6(1): 189-200.
Oyetayo, F.L and A.A Akindahunsi (2004). Nutrient distribution in wild and cultivated edible
mushroom, Pleurotus sajor-caju. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 2(2):

166-168.
Sanwo, S.K, Olubanjo, O.O., Aihonsu, J.O.Y., Akinleye, S.O and Gboteku, F.A.O (2006).
Economic Viability of Teak (Tectona grandis L.f) Planting Venture in Ogun State,
Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Forestry, 36(2):11-16.
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Study Session 4: Cultural Practices, Agricultural and Farming

Systems
Introduction
Modern agriculture requires knowledge and skills to enable farmers develop required
qualities and favourable attitude that will enhance benefitting from research and technology.
It is quite obvious that the standard of living of an African farmer is averagely improving.
However, it is still at the subsistence level.
Modern Agriculture encompasses improved techniques in cultivation, harvesting, processing,

storage and handlings and farm mechanisation.
This Chapter will focus on cultural practices and agricultural systems in use.
At the end of this session, you would have acquired basic understanding about cultural practices,
agricultural and farming systems:
4.1 Cultural practice

4.2 Agricultural Systems
4.3 Farming Systems
4.4 Farming/Cropping Practices
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4.1 Cultural Practices
These are all the activities carried out on the farm before, during and after the planting of
crop seeds, seedlings or root stocks. Hence they are categorised into pre-planting/pre-sowing
operational practices; planting operational practices and post-planting/post-sowing
operational practices. They include site selection, land clearing, burning, stumping, farm lay-
out and tillage (ploughing, harrowing and ridging).
Pre-Planting Operations
i. Choice of site/Site selection: This is guided by
a. Topography (Nature of land): This is whether the land is hilly, sloped or flat. A fairly
flat land should be chosen to reduce the cost of land preparation and erosion control
problem.
b. Soil type: This is whether the soil is clayey, gravelly, sandy or loamy etc. This is very
important because the soil is the medium for plant growth and poor or unfertile soil
will produce poor yield.
c. Availability of farm inputs (labour and planting materials): The issues of transporting
farm produce for sale as well as the availability of planting materials and labour
should guide the choice of site for agricultural production.
ii. Land Clearing: The nature of the vegetation determines the equipment or tools to be
used. The farm site can be cleared by means of hand tools such as the use of cutlass,
axe etc or mechanical equipment such as bulldozer. In the forest zones, cutlass may
be required to cut down the underbrush while the bigger trees are either pruned or cut
down with a cutlass or an axe. Some trees may equally be left to provide shade.
Limited clearing is needed in the savannah.
iii. Burning: Materials cut down are generally cleared in the tropics by burning which
produces ash. Ash contains lime and potassium which make the soil alkaline and this
leads to increased nitrification and availability of cations.
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iv. Stumping: This is the removal of tree stumps and roots from the soil or farm land area. It
is a labour intensive operation usually practised in school farms, corporate farms and
government farms but always avoided in small scale private farms.
v. Farm Layout: This is the act of dividing the farm land into sections. It can also be
referred to as plotting. It relies on the report of the soil survey which shows the
topography, soil types, fertility status, soil and water conservation method to be used
on the land. The location of the farm stead is also indicated. The 3-4-5 method is used
to lay out the farm land into rectangular plots, blocks or fields. The most fertile areas
are used for crops and pastures while non fertile areas are used for farm stead
development.
vi. Tillage/Tilling: The land operations follow immediately after the land is cleared,
stumped and laid out. It involves opening up of the soil for seed planting and this can
be done with simple farm tools like hoes or the Indian hoe in a small-scale farm, or
mechanically by using tractor-driven mould board plough or disc harrow in large-
scale farms.
a. Ploughing: This is the turning of the soil upside down; the plough cuts and inverts
large lump of soil. It can be done with a hoe, a spade or a tractor-driven disc
plough.
b. Harrowing: This is the pulverisation of the soil i.e. the further breakdown of the
large lumps of soil cut by the plough into smaller pieces. After harrowing, it may
be possible to grow crops that do not require seed beds or ridges.
c. Ridging: This is the last stage in land preparation for planting of seeds or
seedlings. Ridging is done across the slope to prevent soil being washed away by
erosion. It can be done using hoes or tractor-driven disc ridgers or mould board
ridgers. Animals can be used to drag ridger for ridge making.
Planting Operations: These are activities carried out by the farmer after land
preparation. They are what the farmer should do or ought to be aware of while the seeds,
seedlings, planting materials are being put into the soil.
i. Planting date
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ii. Spacing/Planting distances

iii. Seed rate
iv. Planting depth
v. Mulching/Capping
vi. Nursery establishment
vii. Transplanting.
Post-Planting Operations: These are activities carried out on the farm after planting has
been done. These include:
i. Thinning
ii. Supplying
iii. Mulching
iv. Manure/Fertiliser application
v. Watering/Irrigation
vi. Weeding/Weed control
vii. Pest/Disease control
viii. Harvesting
ix. Farm level processing
x. Storage.
Name any two of the activities carried out as part of the pre-planting-operations cultural practices
in crop production?

i. Choice of site/Site selection
ii. Land clearing
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4.2 Agricultural Systems
These are the ways or methods by which a group of people or a particular society, according to
its customs and beliefs, carry out agricultural production (crops, livestock, fishery, snailery,
agro-forestry, etc.) in order to supply human needs and improve their living standards. Generally,
in Africa, farming systems and agricultural practices are inseparable as they are characterised by
small farm size, scattered farm holdings, low technical knowledge and skills, the use of crude
implements/tools, dependence on the family unit as labour force, low yield and consequently low
economic returns for the farmer.
Determining factors on the adoption of a particular system include customs, social and economic
class, total land area available for farming, farmers’ personal crop interest, size of their families,
land tenure systems and the environment.
Define the term ‘agricultural systems’?
They are the methods by which a group of people carry out agricultural production (crops,
livestock, fishery, snailery, agro-forestry, etc.), according to its customs and beliefs, in order to
supply human needs and improve their living standards.
4.3 Farming Systems
Many types of farming systems exist all over the world, some of the main systems include:
1. Arable farming
2. Mixed farming
3. Livestock/Pastoral farming
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4.3.1 Arable Farming
This is a system of food crop production such as cereals, legumes, root and tubers. This system is
usually practised in places with quite a large proportion of suitable land for farming and where
rainfall is sufficient to support crop growth. In West Africa, there are more arable farmers than
there are livestock farmers. Arable farming also involves the production of grasses for animals
and can be practised in areas of low rainfall provided it is supported with irrigation.
4.3.2 Mixed Farming
This is the integration of both crop and animal production into the same farm area. It is a system
that guarantees the farmer a regular income throughout the year as the farmer can operate very
economically (i.e. feeding the animals - cattle, pigs, chicken with farm crops/products, especially
at times when such crops are attracting low prices in the market) and the animals in turn convert
these plant products to high quality animal proteins needed by man (meat, milk and eggs). More
importantly, the faeces and urine of the animals can be used as rich fertilisers or farmyard
manure for the crop to produce more (higher yield). Mixed farming is practised more extensively
in the northern region of the country. It also offers job opportunities for many people and
provides efficient utilisation of farm labour as it permits division of labour on the farm.
4.3.3 Livestock/Pastoral Farming
This system is concerned with the production of animals in which farmers keep grazing livestock
like cattle, sheep or goats alone and also includes raising animals such as poultry birds, pigs,
rabbits etc. In this practice, forage and pastures are grown primarily for animals which may be
allowed to graze freely on them or the forage may be cut and processed into hay or silage before
being fed to the animals. The pasture is either sown with grasses or legumes or a mixture of
grasses and legumes. The natural grass lands in the savannah areas support this system.
Pastoral farming is essentially about cattle rearing. There are three types of Pastoral farming.
These are:
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i. Nomadicfarming
ii. Ley farming
iii. Ranching
Nomadic farming: This is the movement of animals from one place to another by the farmer
in search of food. This practice is common with the Fulani cattle rearers/herdsmen. The
system is adapted for the vast dry regions where rainfall is insufficient to produce crops but
just enough to produce natural pasture such as the savannah grasslands. The cattle rearer
known as the ‘Nomad’ moves from one locality to another to take advantage of occasional
rain and the grasses that spring up in its wake. During the dry season, the animals are moved
along river areas where the grasses are green, and towards the southern parts of the country.
Ley farming: It is the system of combining pasture with crop production in alternation. It is
always practised where the pasture is of good nutritional and morphological qualities that
will fit into a crop rotational system. Hence, it is sometimes referred to as ‘rotation pasture’.
The system requires that the farmer possesses the technical know-how both in land and
livestock management to operate the system successfully. After an arable crop (e.g. cereal) is
harvested, the farm land is put to pasture (mixture of grasses and legumes) and grazed by
livestock for one or more seasons before it is again put to the cultivation of crops. The system
requires fenced fields supplied with watering points for the livestock.
Ranching: This is a system of intensive livestock production which is an improved

development of the nomadic type of farming. Here, the animals are kept on a large but
enclosed expanse of land which may be under natural vegetation or planted with pasture. The
animals are allowed to roam and graze freely on the ranch; supplements can be given to the
animals for additional vitamins and minerals.
Other agricultural systems being adopted in recent time are fish farming, snail farming and
terrace farming (found in hilly areas of the Benue, Plateau, and North Eastern States).
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List the activities that form part of ‘agricultural farming systems’?

i. Arable farming
ii. Mixed farming
iii. Livestock/Pastoral farming
4.4 Farming/Cropping Practices
These are actions dictated by existing environment, land availability, soil fertility, social and
economic status put into practice to actualise the goals of the farmer over time and have thus
been accepted largely as agricultural farming systems. They include:
1. Shifting cultivation
2. Continuous cropping under which we have mono-cropping, mixed-cropping, inter-
cropping, inter-planting and monoculture.
3. Crop rotation.
4.4.1 Shifting Cultivation
This is an old practice classified as hoe and cutlass farming. It is always practised in
localities/regions/areas where the population is sparse and there is plenty of land which can
be left to fallow for many years. Shifting cultivation is the practice of putting a piece of farm
land to crop production for one to three seasons after which the land is left to rest for some
years (5-10years). During this time, the soil fertility is restored through decayed leaves and
plant parts. The practice is determined by the ratio between the length of the time the soil will
sustain cultivation with satisfactory results and the period required for restoration of the soil
fertility.
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Advantages
i. It helps to check the spread of diseases and insect pests.
ii. It helps to restore soil fertility.
Disadvantages
i. It requires a lot of land which may not be available to the farmer as a result of population
pressure on land.
ii. A lot of money, time and energy are wasted in clearing a new land at intervals.
iii. The practice makes it impossible to keep pace with the increasing population and
subsequent increase in food requirements.
4.4.2 Continuous Cropping
It is usually practised in densely-populated areas where there is scarcity of land. It involves

putting a piece of farmland to cultivation year-in, year-out without a rest period. The crops
planted may either be annual or perennial.
Advantages
i. It can be well organised in a crop rotation systems
ii. It encourages the use of fertilizers or inorganic manure to improve the soil fertility.
Disadvantages
i. It often leads to depletion of soil fertility.
ii. It can also cause soil erosion.
iii. Low productivity sets in after sometimes due to over-use of the farmland.
4.4.2.1 Mono-cropping
It is a practice whereby only one crop type is grown on a piece of farm land for a growing
season and another type grown the following season. It can also be referred to as ‘sole
cropping’.
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Advantages
i. The farmer can become an expert in the production of that one crop type although it is a
risky practice.
ii. It is easy to practise farm mechanisation as it encourages large scale production.
Disadvantages
i. It encourages outbreak of pests and diseases.
ii. Farmers will be exposed to the danger of poor harvest in case of adverse climatic
conditions as well as low soil fertility.
4.4.2.2 Monoculture
It is the growing of the same crop type on the same piece of land from year to year. It may
apply both to either annual crops (yams, cassava, maize, etc.) or perennial crops (cocoa,
rubber, oil palm, etc.).
Advantages
i. Rice and sugar cane as well as tree crops are successfully grown in monoculture in many
parts of the tropics.
ii. It encourages specialisation in certain crops that could lead to better production both in
quality and quantity.
iii. The farmer is encouraged to purchase the complete set of implement necessary for a
single farm enterprise operation instead of buying complete sets of implement for a
whole range of agricultural operations.
Disadvantages
i. It is not a good practice for dry land annual crops
ii. Depletion of same nutrients continually from the same depth by plants will lead to
diminishing returns.
iii. It may lead to soil exhaustion and destruction of soil structure and consequently soil
erosion.
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iv. It exposes the farmer to a great risk in the case of adverse climatic conditions or an
invasion of pests and diseases.
4.4.3.3 Mixed Cropping
This is the cultivation of two or more types of crops on the same piece of land at the same
time. It is the direct opposite of mono-cropping or sole cropping. Mixed cropping is not
organised with the help of a formal principle but based on the best possible adaptation to the
natural conditions. Yams and guinea corn; yams and okra and pepper; maize and cassava and
cowpea; cocoa and bananas can be planted under the practice.
Advantages
i. It effectively uses the available soil nutrients during the growing season.
ii. It discourages the spread of pests and diseases.
iii. Mutual benefits are derivable from the crops combination.
iv. Adequate soil cover is provided
Disadvantages
i. It does not suit the use of farm machines and equipment.
ii. Young crop plants may be trampled underfoot during the harvesting of older crop plants.
iii. If not wisely carried out, it will lead to excessive and harmful competition among crops,
the result of which is low yield.
4.4.3.4 Inter-Cropping
This is the planting of fast growing and fast maturing crops between slow growing and slow
maturing crops such that the fast growing crop planted after the first crop is harvested first
e.g. A farmer may plant yams or cassava and later plant ground nut or maize between the
yams or cassava respectively. He then harvests the groundnut or maize while the yam or
cassava crop continues to grow.
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Advantages
i. It allows full engagement of labor and distribution over a longer period
ii. Risk of crop failure is distributed because two crops are planted as against one in mon-
cropping
iii. The practice helps to check weeds, protects soil against evaporation by sunlight and
prevents erosion and helps to minimize storage losses.
4.4.3.5 Inter-Planting
It involves the planting of two or more crops on the same piece of farmland during the same
season, but here the first crop to be planted is harvested first and the second crop is harvested
later e.g. maize and cassava can be inter-planted (maize planted in March and Cassava in
June). The maize will be harvested in June/July while the cassava continues to grow until it is
harvested at a later date.
4.4.4 Crop Rotation
This is the practice in which the same piece of farmland is kept under cultivation every year
in such a way that the crops grown are sequentially arranged that deep rooted crops for
instance, do not follow each other to avoid depletion of soil fertility. In modern agriculture,
one simple solution to the problem of poor crop yield which is characteristic of peasant
agriculture is to practise crop rotation. This practice is different from country to country and
even varies within a country because climatic conditions affect the type and range of crops
which can be grown in an area. In any crop rotation course, it is usually desirable to include
at least one leguminous crop. In this practice, there is also a short fallow period when no
economic crop is grown. During this period, the idea is to grow ‘mucuna’ or any other
leguminous crop that can help build up the soil by replenishing its lost nutrients.
The principle of crop rotation can be illustrated by a four-year crop rotation as follows:
Year 1ST Plot 2ND Plot 3RD Plot 4TH Plot
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1ST Year Yam Groundnut Cassava Maize

2ND Year Groundnut Cassava Maize Yam
3RD Year Cassava Maize Yam Groundnut
4TH Year Maize Yam Groundnut Cassava
The practice has so many advantages:

i. Land can be used for a time to produce crops without becoming barren.
ii. Incidence of pests and diseases is greatly reduced. Hence, it provides a good
measure/method of controlling pests and diseases.
iii. Crop yield can be maintained at a high level on the same piece of land for many years
without rearranging the farmland.
iv. It is very simple and cheap to practise.
List the activities that form part of cropping practices.

i. Shifting cultivation
ii. Continous cropping
iii. Mono-cropping
iv. Mixed farming
v. Inter-planting
vi. Inter-cropping
vii. Crop rotation
Conclusion
Cultural practices allow the practicing farmer to plan and implement his farming activities under
the best climatic, environmental and agronomic conditions while farming systems enable him to
run his farm enterprise by practising the most economically efficient systems of production. The
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technical information gathered under this study session is important for the learner to engage in
profitable farm enterprises and be self-employed in the future.
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1. Cultural practices are all the activities carried out on the farm before, during and after
planting of crop seeds, seedlings or root stocks.
2. Agricultural systems are the ways or methods by which a group of people carry out
agricultural production according to its customs and beliefs, in order to meet their
common needs and improve on their living standard.
3. Modern-day agricultural practices give room for the joint cultivation of crops and rearing
of livestock simultaneously with the aim of maximising the net gains, or minimising the
overall production costs to the farmer.
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session. You can then re-check your answers with the ‘Notes on Self-Assessment Questions’
Mention some of the activities carried out as part of the cultural practices in crop production?
What do you understand by the term ‘agricultural systems’?
Highlight some of the activities that form part of the agricultural farming systems in Nigeria as a
nation.
List some of the activities that form part of the cropping practices in Nigeria as a Nation.
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References
Adenekan M, Olutayo and Sosanya S. Olufemi (2008). Principles and Practices of Crop
Protection. Vol. 2. Published by aDonai Printing Press, Ibadan. Oyo State. Pp 138
B. Chanderasekaran, E. Somasundaram, and K. Annadurai (2010). ATextbook of Agronomy
O.A.Iwena (2011). Essential Agricultural Science Book 2. Tonad Publishers Limited, Ibafo,
Ogun State. Nigeria. Pp222
The World Bank, (2004). Agriculture Investment Sourcebook: Agriculture and Rural
Development (ARD), Washinton, DC. 20433. Pp508
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Study Session 5: Agricultural Mechanization
Introduction
Agricultural mechanisation is defined as the use of tools, implements, and machines for
agricultural land development, crop production, harvesting, preparation for storage, storage, and
on-farm processing. It is also the application of engineering principles and technology in
agricultural production, storage, and processing on the farm. Agricultural mechanisation includes
three main power sources. These are human, animal, and mechanical.
The objectives of mechanisation include the following:

1. To encourage better management of farm enterprises.
2. To enhance timeliness and increase profitability in farm operations.
3. To provide good finishes for manually unattainable farm operations.
4. To reduce boredom in farming operations.
5. To make processing and preservation of farm produce easier, thereby reducing wastages.
6. To foster co-operation among farmers and therefore increase farmers' income.
7. To ensure reduction in drudgery in farm operations.
8. To achieve a reduction of labour requirements and enhance agricultural production
through higher rates of work output.
9. To ensure promotion of agro-allied industrial establishment.
At the end of this session, you would have learnt more about:
5.1 Constraints to agricultural mechanisation in Nigeria

5.2 Agricultural processing
5.3 Farm machinery and their characteristics
5.4 Soil tillage and tillage machinery.
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5.1 Constraints to Agricultural Mechanization in Nigeria
1. Land tenure system: The communal land tenure system prevents the cultivation of large
farm which is suitable for mechanization.
2. Scattered farm holdings: The use of small but scattered farm holdings is also not
conducive or economical for mechanisation, especially in West Africa.
3. Financial constraints: Most farmers, especially in West Africa, are very poor and cannot
afford the cost of tractors and farm implements.
4. Inadequate facilities: The facilities or machinery for fabricating and repairing farm
implements are grossly insufficient where they are available.
5. Bad topography: The topography of most West African landscapes is too rough and
unconducive for farm mechanisation.
6. Different soil types: Soil types are extremely varied and the machines to use on them
have not been developed locally. Nigeria, for instance, still depends on imported
machinery which is not too suitable for our soil.
7. Inadequate spare parts: Availability of spare parts is a major problem as these parts are
still being imported.
8. Inadequate technical manpower: Available technical manpower to operate or service the
implements and machines is not adequate.
9. Problems of stumps and logs: During clearing, heavy stumps and logs are usually left
behind, and they constitute additional problems in mechanisation.
List any two of the constraints to agricultural mechanisation in Nigeria.
i. Land tenure system

ii. Scattered farm holdings
iii. Financial constraints
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iv. Inadequate facilities

v. Bad topography
vi. Different soil types
vii. Inadequate spare parts
viii. Inadequate technical manpower
ix. Problems of stumps and logs
5.2 Agricultural Processing
Agricultural processing is defined as an activity that is performed to maintain or improve the

quality or to change the form or characteristics of an agricultural product in order to add value to
agricultural materials after their production.
The sequential processing operations are classified as:

1. Cleaning, grading, and sorting
2. Drying and dehydration
3. Milling and size reduction
4. Handling, packaging, and transportation
5. Agricultural waste and by-products utilisation
1. Cleaning, grading, and sorting: Cleaning means the removal of foreign or dissimilar
materials from the agricultural products, which is achieved by washing, screening,
handpicking, and air picking. Grading is the classification of cleaning products based on
commercial values, usage or quality. Sorting is the separation of cleaned products into
various quality fractions based on size, shape, colour, etc.
2. Drying and dehydration: Drying refers to the removal of moisture from agricultural
products to predetermined moisture content level while dehydration means the removal of
moisture to very low levels usually bone-dry conditions.
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3. Milling and size reduction: This is the grinding of agricultural produce to reduce the
bulkiness of the produce.
4. Handling, packaging, and transportation: The performance of any processing activity is

often affected by the efficiency of the movement of material from one-unit operation to
another. Optimisation and movement of material in a processing plant are essential to reduce
the cost of operation to maximise profit and also for easy transportation.
5. Agricultural waste and by-products utilisation: Research shows that 80% of the energy
required for cooking is obtained mainly from wood, crop residue, and cow dung. Nearly 50
% of the energy used in rural areas can be saved by using improved cooking stoves and
furnaces. Cow dung and other mass can be used for the generation of biogas.
List the serial activities that are carried out during agricultural processing operations.

i. Cleaning, grading, and sorting
ii. Drying and dehydration
iii. Milling and size reduction
iv. Handling, packaging, and transportation
v. Agricultural waste and by-products utilization.
5.3 Farm Machinery and their Characteristics
A good agricultural engineer must be able to differentiate between agriculture and other
industries. He should also recognise that agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline
that applies engineering science and technology to agricultural production and processing.
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The farm machinery engineer needs to be familiar with the basic principles and practices in
agriculture. This is because cultural practices may need to be reviewed, or new crop varieties
developed, to make the mechanisation of a particular operation feasible or to increase the
effectiveness of a machine. There may be a need to revise the processing equipment and
standards to accommodate mechanically-harvested crops.
5.3.1 General Requirements of a Functioning Farm Machine
The following are the requirements of functioning farm machinery:

1. It must permit the widest manufacturing tolerances that are consistent with good
performance.
2. It must perform satisfactorily over wide ranges in a considerable number of variables
3. It must be operated where the temperature is well above 40oC or where it is below
freezing and must be subjected to rain, snow, and sleet.
4. It must utilise the lowest-cost materials that are available and satisfactory for the job
5. Instead of resting on a solid factory floor or moving over a smooth road, it must operate
over uneven terrain through dust, stones, mud, and sand.
6. It must be designed to handle wide variations in crop and soil conditions.
7. It must be subject to stringent economic limitations.
8. The cost of manufacturing the machine must be kept to an absolute minimum so that the
limited amount of operation will not put the cost per hour into a prohibitive range.
9. Farm machinery designs must be as simple as possible.
5.3.2 Types of Farm Implements

1. Trailed: It is also referred to as pull-type. This is because it is pulled and guided from a
single hitch point and is never completely supported by the tractor. This complete unit is
hitched by the drawbar of the tractor.
2. Semi-mounted implement: These are more compact and more maneuverable than pull
type. They are attached to the tractor at a horizontal hinge axis that is partially supported
by the tractor during transportation.
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3. Mounted implement: These are termed as direct mounted, tractor mounted or tractor
carried ploughs. It is attached to the tractor through a hitch linkage in such a manner that
is completely supported by the tractor when in its raised position. Increased size of
mounted type ploughs causes tractor instability during transport.
4. Self-propelled machine: In this type of implement, the propelling power unit is an
integral part of the implement.
5.3.3 Tractors
A tractor is a self-propelled power unit that has wheels or tracks that are used to operate both
machines and agricultural implements. The power required by tractors in driving the implements
is derived from the power take-off shaft (PTO) or the belt pulley of the tractor.
Classification of tractor
Tractors can be classified based on the following features:

1. Engine capacity
2. Structural design
There are three types of tractor engine capacity, namely:

1. Large tractor (50 HP)
2. Medium tractor (between 25 and 50 HP)

3. Small tractor (25 HP).
The structural design classification

1. Wheel tractor
2. Walking tractor (power tiller)
3. Crawler tractor (chain type)
- Wheel tractor: The four-wheel tractors are the most popular and are used in the world.
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- Walking tractor/power tiller: This type of tractor is a walking type tractor. This tractor
is usually fitted with two wheels only.
- Crawler tractor/Chain type: This is also called track-type tractor or chain type tractor.
In such tractors, there is an endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels.
The engine of a tractor may be powered by diesel or petrol fuel, depending on the
ignition system of the engine.
The differences between the diesel engine and the petrol engine are as follows:
a. The diesel engine generates great pressure while the petrol engine generates lower
pressure.
b. Air alone is compressed in the combustion chamber of the petrol engine
c. Diesel engines do not require spark plugs like the petrol engines.
How to Operate a Tractor

i. Apply the hand brake.
ii. Put gear level in neutral.
iii. Open the throttle slightly.
iv. Switch on ignition.
v. Press the starter until the engine fires and runs on its own.
vi. Disengage clutch by pressing the clutch down.
vii. Select a suitable gear.
viii. Slowly release pressure on the clutch pedal and it moves slowly forward or
backward.
ix. Open the throttle further to the required engine speed.
x. Place both feet on the footrest.
xi. Steer it in the required direction.
Routine services and maintenance of a tractor
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i. Check the battery of the tractor and the tractor and top the electrolyte (if
necessary)
ii. Check the fuel level
iii. Check the cooling system (Radiator)
iv. Check the gear and the differential oil
v. Check the engine oil
vi. Check the tyres whether there is enough pressure
vii. Check bolts, nuts and pins
viii. Check the greasing points.
List any two of the general requirements of a functional farm machine
i. It must permit the widest manufacturing tolerances that are consistent with good
performance.
ii. It must perform satisfactorily over wide ranges in a considerable number of variables
iii. It must be operated where the temperature is well above 40 oC or where it is below
iv. It must utilise the lowest-cost materials that are available and satisfactory for the job
v. Instead of resting on a solid factory floor or moving over a smooth road, it must operate
vi. It must be designed to handle wide variations in crop and soil conditions.
vii. It must be subject to stringent economic limitations.
viii. The cost of manufacturing the machine must be kept to an absolute minimum so that the
ix. Farm machinery designs must be as simple as possible.
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5.4 Soil Tillage and Tillage Machinery
Tillage can be defined as the mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable

conditions for crop production. It is also the agricultural preparation of soil by
mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning the soil
The objectives of tillage systems are listed below:
1. To obtain deep seedbeds that will be suitable to cultivate different crops.
2. To manage plant residues
3. To destroy and remove unwanted plants
4. To provide a desirable soil structure for a seedbed or a root bed
5. To aerate the soil for proper growth of crops
6. To increase the water-absorbing capacity of the soil
7. To destroy the insect pests and their breeding places
8. To reduce soil erosion
9. To accomplish segregation, which involves the movement of soil from one layer
to another, the removal of rocks and other foreign objects, or root harvesting
10. To incorporate soil amendments and (or) mix fertilisers with the soil.
5.4.1 Tillage Methods
Tillage operation is classified into primary and secondary tillage operations.
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Tillage machinery performs such operations as ploughing, harrowing, ridging and

weeding/slashing.
i. A primary tillage operation constitutes the initial, major soil working operation. It is
normally designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials and rearrange
aggregates. Examples include plow (disc or mouldboard type) and rotary cultivator
ii. A secondary tillage operation is intended to create refined soil conditions following
primary tillage. Examples include disc harrow, tine cultivator, tine harrow, ridgers,
and weeders.
5.4.2 Types of Tillage systems
1. Minimum Tillage System: This is also referred to as zero-tillage. This refers to the
planting of the stubble of the previous crop without disturbing the soil in any way except that
which is necessary to place the seed at the desired depth.
The major objectives of the minimum tillage system are:

a. To reduce mechanical-energy and labour requirements
b. To achieve moisture and reduce soil erosion
c. To perform only the operations necessary to optimise the soil conditions for each type of
area within the field
d. To minimise the number of trips over the field.
2. Conventional tillage system: This principle is based on soil inversion to improve the soil
tilt, followed by various operations for the preparation of the seedbed.
3. Traditional Tillage: This refers to the method of seedbed preparation whereby hoes are
used with various conventional tillage equipment left out of use. The purpose is to reduce power,
and machinery, decrease soil compaction, and minimise soil erosion by water and wind. The
ridges are wide to conserve water by reducing run-off. It involves cutting the roots of weeds and
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other plants and leaving the crop residue on the surface or mixed into the top few centimeters of
soil.
Mention the different forms of minimum tillage systems known to you.
i. Minimum tillage system (or zero-tillage)

ii. Conventional tillage system
iii. Traditional tillage system
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1. Agricultural mechanisation is the application of engineering principles and technology in

agricultural production, storage, and processing on the farm.
2. It encompasses the use of tools, implements, and machines for agricultural land
development, crop production, harvesting, storage, and on-farm processing.
3. It is the deployment of the human, animal, and mechanical sources of power to carry out
all the essential farming activities.
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List the major constraints to agricultural mechanisation in Nigeria.
Mention the serial activities that are carried out during agricultural processing operations.
i. List the general requirements of a functional farm machine.

ii. Mention the four (4) different types of farm implements.
a. Mention the two (2) types of tillage operations

b. Mention the different forms of minimum tillage systems known to you.
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References
Agricultural Machinery Management Data. 1976. Agricultural Engineer yearbook. Pp. 322-329,
ASABE St, Joseph MTCH
Barger, E.L., J.B. Liljedahl, W.M. Carleton, and E.G. Mckibben. 1963. Tractors and their power
units, 2nd Edition, Chap. 12. John Wiley and Sons New York.
Barnes, K.K., and P.E. Stricker, 1960. Management of machines. USDA Yearbook of
Agriculture, pp 346-354.
Bill A. Stout and Bernard Cheze 1990. CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume III.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers Publication. pp 536 -540
Chackravery, A., 1988. Post-Harvest Technology of Cereals, Pulses and Oil Seeds. Revised
Edition. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. PVE. Ltd. ~New Delhi.
Handerson, S, M and R.L. Perry 1976. Agricultural process Engineering Third Edition. The AVI
Publishing Co. Westport, Connecticut.
Harrington, Roy. E. 1970. Thresher principle confirmed with Multicrop Thresher J.Agric. Eng.
7(2):49-60
Kepner, R.A., Bainer, R, and E.L.Barger. 1978. Principles of Farm Machinery Third Edition,
Chap. 1 &2. The AVI Publishing company, Inc: USA.
Okulaja, A.E.2006. Effect of Tillage practices on soil proportions under Maize Cultivation in
Ayetoro Campus, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ogun State. Unpublished B. Agric
Project pp 41.
Osunlaja, S.O. Ayanlaja S.A. and J.O. Akinyemi: Introduction to Nigeria Agriculture in
Essentials of General Studies Volume 2 pp 102-117.
Sosanya O.S. 2014. Foundations of Agricultural Production and Management. Chap. 5.

Directorate of the General and Entrepreneurial Studies Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ogun State.pp 49-55
Steemt I. 2018. Problems and prospects of Farm mechanization
Vanden Berg. G.E. 1996. Analysis of forces on tillage tools. J. Agric Eng. Res. 11:201-201.
Page 110 of 251

Study Session 6: Livestock Management
Introduction
Climate to a great extent, influences livestock husbandry. Tropical areas with varied temperature,
rainfall, humidity, etc. based on location have different rates of grass/pasture growth, disease
vector occurrence and heat stress, which directly or indirectly affect livestock performance and
their well-being.
Animal productivity is often adversely affected by stress and discomfort. High ambient
temperature reduces feed intake, increases water intake and in the long-run reduced growth rate.
Animals that have sweat glands dissipate excessive heat through sweat. Those that cannot pant
and the others augment evaporation from the lungs with evaporation from a protruding tongue.
The type of house provided for the animals often influences environmental conditions.
Indigenous animals are better adapted than exotic ones though the latter are better producers due
to long time selection. Exotic animals avoid excessive heat load by grazing in the cool of the
day. High temperature also reduces efficiency of feed utilisation.
At the end of this session, you would have acquired more knowledge in the following areas:
6.1 Livestock Management System

6.2 Principles of Livestock Management
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6.1 Livestock Management System
Livestock management in the tropics can be categorised under three broad headings, namely;
extensive, semi-intensive and intensive system. The types of animal involved and their utility
determines how the stock is kept. Housing in livestock farming is dependent on the climatic
situation, types of management system and availability/cost of local raw materials. Tropical areas
require open-sided houses to reduce heat stress. Intensive management system often involves
provision of houses which are often permanent. Durable materials last longer and are easily
cleaned, they may be expensive but they are recommended for use due to their durability.
Reproduction is affected by temperature, humidity and length of day light. High temperature
reduces fertility, increases incidences of abnormality in oogenesis and spermatogenesis and
embryonic mortality.
The extensive system: This is commonly used by the peasant or subsistent producers or by
migratory or sedentary herdsmen (often the nomads and transhumance). In subsistence
production, a few animals are kept mainly to meet domestic need for meat, milk and eggs by the
producers and their families. Surpluses are sold. These producers feed their stock haphazardly
and management practices are generally poor. Pastures are never established. Animals graze or
browse along the road sides or on stubbles or they are tethered and fed with cut forage. They
may receive some by-products concentrates. The producers are never specialists. Houses are
often not constructed for the animals. Lands used for extensive rearing of goats are often those
that are not of immediate agricultural use and/or those that are too difficult or costly to fence.
Minimum amount is expended on labour, feeding and other expenses. Extensive management
system will not thrive where there is too much rain or adverse weather conditions, and where
there are many predators and little grazing or browsing opportunities. Extensive grazing is
common in areas with common and/or marginal land and where family labour (women children)
is available.
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Semi-intensive system: This is in between extensive and intensive management system. In this
system, animals are provided with sheds/pens during adverse weather conditions and during the
night. Likewise, feeds are supplemented or animals are kept on domestic and industrial waste.
Limited grazing or stall feeding is practiced, depending on the availability of time, labour and
feeds. Animals are rarely fed concentrates. Disease outbreak is minimal when compared with
intensive management. Animal population is always small.
Intensive system: This is the ‘zero grazing’ method in which animals are denied access to
pasture (stall feeding) or where there is intensive use of cultivated forage. It is the stocking rate
that determines performance. Zero grazing requires high labour and capital investment. It is
practised where land is limited but where there exists abundant supplies of crop residues and
agro-industrial by-products.
The quality of feed is of greater importance in intensive system. It affects productivity, and a
larger proportion of the cost of maintenance of intensively-kept animal is involved in feeding the
animals. It is a system which favours those situations where land is limited but sources of
concentrate and supplement are available.
High capital investment of the system has not encouraged its wide use in the tropics.
Furthermore, high stocking density leads to closer contact among the birds with a greater risk of
disease spreading very fast within the stock. This increase maintenance cost in terms of
medication. If proper medication is not applied, many animals may be lost to disease outbreak.
For ruminants, pasture that is supplemented with concentrate feed will suffice. Non ruminants
must be fed with well-balanced rations in form of meals, depending on utility and productivity.
The use of non-conventional feed stuffs to feed animals will help reduce cost of feeding.
Animals kept intensively must be managed routinely to reduce vice habits, hazards due to injury
and over-fatness. Management practices like debeaking of birds and dehorning exercise are part
of the routine practices. Furthermore, animals are vaccinated against endemic diseases,
dewormed, have their teeth clipped (in pigs) and docked (for sheep), castrated (for males not
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needed for mating), dipped against ecto-parasites, etc. Animals’ houses must be cleaned and
disinfected regularly to reduce or eliminate the spread of diseases.
6.1.1 Housing
The provision of houses for livestock is supposed to prevent them from environmental hazards
and to make them comfortable. Most houses create problems because basic requisites are not
considered when they are constructed. At times, expensive buildings are provided because the
farmer can afford it and not for the good health and comfortability of the animals.
Generally, cheap, temporary buildings from local materials are preferable to permanent building,
especially when livestock size is small. These are often open sided, thus, aiding ventilation. Due
to their temporary nature, they have short life span and are destroyed before there is a major
buildup of disease organisms.
With intensification of livestock, the materials needed tend to be costlier and modern. Larger
number of animals is often confined to small spaces and this often introduces challenge and risk.
To avoid problems, environmental conditions must be controlled by suitable housing so as to
protect the animals from inclement health conditions or else, productivity will be impaired.
Modern materials to be used ought to be cheap, disposable and well designed. Impervious
concrete floors and lower walls are readily cleaned and disinfected farm building should be
properly located, constructed, spaced out and grouped. Special attention should be given to the
economy of their initial cost, maintenance as well as the health and comfort of the animals. The
houses should lead to efficient management so as to reduce labour to the minimum.
A farm site should be near a market to reduce cost of transportation, water source should be
close. The topography should be even to reduce cost of preparation and building. The soil should
be porous and the slope should be gentle to aid drainage. The land area should be larger enough.
The farm stead should be located in a way to enhance maximum sun exposure in the North and
minimum sun exposure in the South. The areas should be protected from strong prevailing
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winds. Availability of trees will aid wind breaks. The road to the farm should be an all-weather
road. Reliable supply of power/electricity help.
Once a site is selected, the plans and design of the house must be done. The building should be
centrally sited and easily accessible. Adequate space should be given to the animals.
Overcrowding aids the outbreak of diseases. Adherence to minimum space standard ensures that
animals are free to rise, lie down, walk, feed and turn around. Good ventilation enables animals
to regulate their body temperature, reduces the buildup of microorganisms and ensures the
removal of toxic gases. It also reduces humidity by the removal of moisture thus making the
environment less favourable to the survival of infectious organisms.
The house should be well lighted. This enhances feeding and observation of animals in order to
detect diseased ones. Although cheap materials are advocated, roofing materials of choice must
be such that exhibit good insulation in order to reduce heat stress. The floors should be easy to
clean, impermeable and should allow easy movement of stocks without being slippery. Rough
surfaces should be avoided where possible. Concrete or paved surface (with cement), slated and
rammed floors are the common types. The floor should slope towards the drains.
Types of Animals’ Houses: The method of husbandry, the type of climate, availability of raw
materials and the economic stand of the farmers are some of the factors that determine the design
of buildings. However, housing types could be the conventional barn types, loose housing or the
windowless types. The first two is common in the tropics. Windowless houses are constructed in
the temperate regions.
Conventional barns (Stanchion barns): In this type of house, animals are managed on raised
platforms, and they are held at the necks by chains or Stanchion. The barns are roofed and the
walls are complete. Windows and or ventilators are placed in appropriate places. These make the
animals to be less exposed to harsh climatic conditions. Although animals kept in barns tend to
be cleaner and less affected by diseases, the air tends to be humid and the floor becomes damp in
humid areas.
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Loose Housing: In this type of housing system, animals are kept loose in open paddock or
pasture throughout the day and night, except at milking time. Shelter is provided along one side
under which animals can retire in adverse periods (of rains, heat or cold). A common watering
tank is provided and fodder is fed to the animals. Milking is done in separate barns and
concentrates are fed during milking. It is ideal to store day fodder in the sheltered area where
animals are allowed a limited access through a moveable fence (self-feeding) the open paddock
is enclosed by means of half walls or wooden or plain wire fence of convenient height.
Loose houses are cheaper to construct, easier to expand and flexible in utility. Feeding and
management of stock is easier in loose house because of common feeding and watching
arrangements. Also, animals are more comfortable as they move about freely.
Free ranges: livestock are left free in a large estate extending to thousands of square meters. It is
usually a natural or cultivated pasture land with watering points and shelter located at convenient
places. It is commonly used for sheep and beef cattle that are handled daily. These ranches are
common in South America.
Regardless of housing floor space requirement is dependent on types of animals, size and age.
Animal pens should not be too large so as to facilitate efficient feeding end management, and to
prevent the aggressiveness of stronger animals towards the weak ones. Care should be taken to
ensure correct dimensions of manger and water troughs so that free access to these is permitted.
Houses are made available in intensive or large scale production. Subsistence farmers hardly
house animals. Where they do, make shift houses or shades are used.
6.1.2 Animal nutrition
Animal nutrition involves provision of well balanced ration in the right quantity according to
body and productive requirements, and according to animal’s ability to digest and utilise the feed
provided. The components of food include water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals and
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vitamins. Quality and quantity of feed provided are determined by the system of management
practised.
Water is needed for metabolic processes. It is the main constituent of all body fluids and it is
essential for the transport of nutrients. It has no energy contributory potential. It is provided
mainly through drinking or from food and it is occasionally manufactured form fat oxidation in
the bodies of animals.
Proteins are complex organic compounds made up of amino acids which can be essential or non
essential. Essential types must be included in the food. Proteins from animal source have higher
biological value than plant protein. Proteins are the main components needed for growth. Energy
can also be obtained from it. Ruminant animals’ need of amino acid is not as critical as that of
non- ruminant animals.
Carbohydrates (sugars, non sugars, and lignin) are the main sources of energy for animals. Non-
ruminant animals cannot efficiently utilise many of the non-sugar substances in the foods, while
ruminant animals, on the other hand, have bacteria and protozoa in their digestive tracts to aid
digestion and utilisation of non-sugars. In the case of ruminant animals, the end products of
digested food substances are volatile fatty acids, but for non-ruminant animals, simple sugar are
the end products of carbohydrate digestion.
Lipids (fat and oil) provide twice the energy available in carbohydrates. They are carriers of
vitamins A,D,E, and K. They are broken down into three types of fatty acids (Linoleic, Linolenic
and Arachidonic ) which are essential building blocks for most domestic animals.
Minerals (macro and micro elements depending on the quantity needed) are essential for
metabolism. Deficiency often results in malformation or deficiency symptoms such as retarded
growth, anaemia, etc. Macro-minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium chlorine,
sulphur and magnesium form constituents of the skeleton, blood and soft tissues.
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Vitaimins (water soluble i.e. B complex and C, and fat soluble i.e. A, D, E, and K) are essential
food substances required in small quantities. Deficiency often causes clinical symptoms.
These food components are found in common feeds and fodders in different quantities. Pasture
grasses contain more of carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals while legumes have high level of
protein. Oil seeds are rich in lipids. Roughages contain higher proportion of crude fibre or non-
digestible materials. Concentrates have low moisture and fibre and are more digestible.
Breeding is the mating of selected male and female animals of superior attributes and with high
potentialities for desirable traits. Healthy normal ova and progenies are often of better productive
ability. Healthy normal ova and spermatozoa will fuse, divide and develop before parturition of
well grown young ones. Good environmental condition for copulation, fertilisation, pregnancy
nurture, and growth result in viable progeny. Heat cycle management and observation are
essential in intensive livestock management.
Selection is practised to separate good producers from bad or poor producers. It improves the
average level of production as a result of the selection of genetically good animals.
Mating systems used are often based on familial relationship in the breeding of closely-related
animals. Out-breeding involves mating of animals less-related than the average of the population
they are drawn from. In-breeding increases the level of homozygosity while heterozygosity is
increased by out-breeding (e.g. cross breeding).
Mention the three (3) different methods of raising livestock
i. Intensive method
ii. Semi-intensive method
iii. Extensive method
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6.2 Principles of Livestock Management
In any part of the world, livestock husbandry is affected by the environment. The environment
includes factors such as the climate, housing feeding and nutrition, among others. In the tropics
the climate is not uniform but varies with latitude, altitude, topography, distribution of land and
water, ocean currents, drainage and vegetation. However, daily and seasonal temperature
variability is relatively small and, day length is also fairly constant all year round. Hence, the
degree of cloud cover determines the total hours of sunshine and total solar radiation.
The effect of climate on livestock is either directly on the animals or on the animals’
environment. Temperature, humidity, precipitation and solar radiation are the important variables
of climate that affect animals. Photoperiod (duration of light) influenced reproduction and some
biological functions of some species of livestock.
Acclimatisation, the complex processes by which an animal adjusts itself to the environmental
condition in which it lives, determines productivity. Ability of an animal to adjust itself to
average environmental conditions as well as extremes of climate is termed adaptability. There is
a considerable variation in adaptability between individual species and between individuals
within the same species. Animal adaptability is partly determined genetically and partly by its
environment such as feeding, housing and management techniques, among others. Well adapted
animals exhibit minimum loss in body weight and health, high reproductive efficiency, disease
resistance and longevity, and low mortality when exposed to stress.
Constant exposure to high temperature results in a rise in rectal temperature in animals. It causes
a decline in feed intake, increase in water intake, decrease in milk production, change in milk
composition, reduction in growth rate and loss in body weight. Animals dissipate heat by
sweating. Those that lack sweat glands (e.g. poultry) accomplish evaporative cooling by panting
as well as through their extensive air sac system.
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In humid zones of the tropics high humidity depresses evaporative heat loss; hence, heat load on
the animal is increased. High humidity combines with high temperature to cause depressed feed
intake and consequently reduce production.
Solar radiation causes sun burn, sink cancer and increase in heat load on the animals. It therefore
affects growth, production and reproduction. Animals with light coat and glossy textured coat are
less affected by solar radiation than those with dark, sparse and coarse hair coat.
Day length affects reproduction in animals because photo-periodism control initiation of the
breeding cycles in some domestic animals e.g. sheep and buffaloes. The conception rates in
buffaloes tend to be higher during the short day length season.
Climate affects the growth of the vegetation which the animals eat. The quality and quantity of
feed available to the animals is determined by climate. Precipitation affects plant growth;
reduced or low precipitation limits plant growth drastically e.g. in semi arid regions.
Plant growth is rapid after the rains, the grass are lush and succulent. During the rainy season,
tropical plants mature earlier and this situation creates the need for animals to digest coarser
fodders which may add to their heat load. The succulent plants, on the other hand, contain less
dry matter.
High temperature and high humidity provide a favourable breeding environment for external and
internal parasites, fungi and bacteria. In so far as the type of vegetation in a region influences the
incidence of insect vectors of diseases, climate has quite dramatic indirect effect on animal
production. In some part of tropical Africa where rainfall is sufficiently high to support a dense
growth of vegetation, especially when other factors are favourable, the high incidence of tsetse
fly (Glossina spp) makes some form of livestock production difficult. The type of disease vectors
dictate the type and cost of houses for the protection of the animals.
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The length of daytime grazing of cattle varies according to the degree of climatic stress, the
breed and type of cattle utilised, and the quantity and quality of the pasture available. The
Bostaurus type of cattle are grazed for shorter time in the day while night grazing is encouraged.
Generally, domestic animals have been subjected to conditions that the wild type do not
experience. This artificial condition of life demands that these animals must be carefully
selected, carefully fed on liberal, nutritious and well balanced rations, and properly housed in
spacious, comfortable, well ventilated pens/shed. It is only when comfortable conditions are
provided that productivity can increase. Most domestic animals have been selectively bred by
man to ensure improvement in their productive capacity. For example, dairy animals have been
selected to produce above their natural capacity. The excess milk produced has become an
essential part of human nutrition. Likewise, pullet birds have been selectively bred for
production of high number of eggs.
Breeding is the mating of selected male and female animals of superior genetic merit and known
potentialities for desirable quantities. The progenies of such mating have better productivity.
Culling or weeding is another livestock management practice that ensures improvement.
Through the culling exercise unhealthy, uneconomic, and low productive animals are eliminated
from the herd thus ensuring that they do not reproduce inferior progeny or lower the profit of the
farmer through their low productivity.
Feeding of well-balanced rations in the correct quantity in accordance to the animal’s body
requirement and productivity ensures high performance. Overfeeding is wasteful while under
feeding is deficient. It lowers productivity and must thus must thus be avoided.
Day-to-day management of animals in terms of sanitation, hygiene, disease control, housing and
health care are also important for an efficient livestock industry.
What activities are usually considered as part of livestock management principles?
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i. Livestock acclimatisation
ii. Temperature
iii. Humidity
Conclusion
Livestock management, to a very large extent determines the performance and productivity of
domesticated/economic animals. Farm animals need to adjust themselves to the condition of the
environment in which they live in order to enhance their performance and productivity. This
required ability to conform to the average environmental conditions varies among various farm
animals depending on their breeds, traits, nativity, the selection procedures they were subjected
to, as well as their types and the purposes for which they were kept.
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1. The climatic condition of farm animals is a major influencer and determinant of their
performance and productivity.
2. Different locations in the tropics have varying temperature, rainfall, and humidity which
subsequently determine the rate of grass/pasture growth, disease vector occurrence, heat
stress, as well as disease vector occurrence, as well as heat stress which directly or
indirectly affect livestock performance and well-being.
3. High ambient temperature reduces feed intake, efficiency of feed utilisation, increases
water intake and reduces livestock growth rate, all of which eventually force down the
economic performance and productivity of farm animals.
4. In terms of adaptability, indigenous animals perform better than exotic breeds due to their
genetic make-up and their selection processes.
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Mention the three (3) different methods of raising livestock.
Highlight the activities that are usually considered as part of livestock management principles.
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References
Manle, J.P (1990). The cattle of the Tropics University of Edinburgh, Center for Tropical
Veterinary Medicine.
Oluyemi, J.A and F.A Roberts (1979). Poultry Production in Warm Wet Climate, Macmillan
Tropical Agriculture, Horticulture and Applied Ecology Series.
Sastry, N.S.R and C.K. Thomas (1980). Farm Animal Management Vikas Publishing House.
PVT Ltd.
Willamson, G. and W.J Payne (1978). An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. The
English Language Book Society and Longman
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Study Session 7: Introductory Aquaculture and Small-Scale Fish

Production
Introduction
Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic flora (microphytes and macrophytes) and fauna
(invertebrates and vertebrates) under controlled environmental conditions in water-based
environment through a sustainable and renewable management process. Aquatic life has the
potential to diversify world economy and human nutrition through farming. These aquatic
organisms include seaweeds, sponges, echinoderms, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. Others are
crustaceans (shrimps, prawns, crabs); molluscs (aquatic snails, bivalves, squids, octopuses);
fishes (sharks/rays, bony fishes); aquatic reptiles (amphibians, turtles, snakes, crocodiles); and
aquatic mammals (whales, dolphins, seals). Fish farming came into existence over 4000 years
ago depicted with paintings of culture procedures in Egypt, Rome and China. There are311 fresh
water and 478 marine fish species that inhabit the water bodies of Nigeria (Fish base, 2020a;
2020b).
At the end of this session, you would have learnt more about:
7.1 The importance of aquaculture

7.2 Objectives of aquaculture
7.3 Fish identification
7.4 Aquaculture systems in Nigeria's fishery sector
7.5 Pond construction techniques
7.6 Aquaculture management techniques
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7.1 Importance of Aquaculture to the National Economy
1. It provides quality protein-rich food and feed.
2. Fish products are useful in the health and pharmaceutical sectors.
3. It is used in education, research and development.
3. With fish being an international commodity, acquaculture is a dependable source of foreign

exchange earnings.
4. It utilises food not used by man and farm animals.
5. It involves the utilisation of land not suitable for agriculture.
6. It brings about gainful employment and poverty reduction.
7. It leads to the growth of ancillary industries thereby providing income generation for the
government.
List any three (3) of the main importance of aquaculture to the national economy
i. It provides quality protein-rich food and feed.
ii. Fish products are used in health and medical management.
iii. It is used in education, research and development
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7.2 Objectives of Aquaculture
1. Increased aquatic biodiversity and conservation
2. Re-introduction and restocking of depleted fishery resources
3. Aesthetic and beautification through ornamental fishery
4. Rational management of aquatic resources to meet increasing world population
5. Production of low cost protein rich, nutritive, palatable and easily digestible human food.
Itemise any three (3) objectives of aquaculture to the national economy
i. Increased aquatic biodiversity and conservation.

ii. Re-introduction and restocking of depleted fishery resources.
iii. Aesthetic and beautification through ornamental fishery.
7.3 Fish Identification
Fish are poikilothermic species and can be identified based on: (i) body structure: mouth
type (terminal, sub-terminal, inferior, superior, retracted, protracted); caudal
fins(rounded, truncate, emarginated, lunate, forked, pointed); scales (cycloid, ctenoid,
ganoid, placoid, scute); teeth structure (villiform, fang-like, canine-like, molar-like,
incisor-like); teeth position (pre-maxillary, maxillary, mandibular, vomerine)
(Fig. (Fig 1: Morphological Characteristics of Fish (Source: Fischer and Hureau, 1985).
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Feeding Habits
Fish exhibit diverse fishing habits which include the following:
Filter feeders feed on algae, desmids, diatoms, and particles which are trapped on the gill rakers
due to slow flow of water.
Detritivores feed on sediments/dead organic matter while herbivores feed on plant cells.
Zooplanktivores feed on zooplankton and microscopic aquatic animals
Grazers feed by biting, grazing singly/in groups
Molluscivores eat mollucs, snail flesh extracted from the protective shell
Carnivores actively hunt life-prey with well-developed grasping teeth
Omnivores feed on a combination of aquatic plants and aquatic animals.
Fish habitat:
Fish live in fresh water (in which the salt concentration is <1ppt), brackish water (2-34ppt) and
marine water (>34ppt).
Table I shows typical bony fishes found in most inland freshwater bodies in Nigeria.
Table 1: A List of Some Fresh Water Fish species.

FISH FAMILY GENERIC AND SPECIES NAME
Mormyridae Hyperopisus bebe
Mormyrus rume
Characidae Alestes longipinus
Hydrocynus forskahlii
Hepsetidae Herpsetus odoe
Icthyoboridae Phago loricalus
Cyprinidae Labeo oguensis
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Bagridae Chrischythys nigrodigitatus

Schillbeidae Schilbe mystus
Claridae Clarias gariepinus
Heterobranchus bidorsalis
Malapteruridae Malapterus electricus
Mochokidae Synodontis schall
Centropomidae Lates niloticus
Cichlidae Sarotherodon galilaeus
Tilapia zilli
Oreochromis niloticus
Channidae Channa obscura
Anabantidae Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Crassostrea (Oyster) Crassostrea gasar
Cambaridae (Crayfish) Procambarus clarkia
Brachyura (Crab) Callinectes sapidus
Penaeidae (Shrimps) Panaeus monodon
Palaemonidae (Prawn) Palaemonetes monodon
Adapted Source: Olurin (2019)
What are the elements of fish identification?
i. Feeding habit of the fish

ii. Habitat of the fish
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7.4 Aquaculture Systems in Nigeria's Fishery Sector
There are numerous water bodies in Nigeria capable of sustaining the culture and capture of
different species of aquatic organisms which abound in the Nigerian aquatic ecosystem. These
are man-made lakes, reservoirs, dams, streams, rivers, creeks, lagoons, wetlands, coastal
brackish water and the coastal marine environment. These areas are endowed fishing grounds of
different fish species, which support the livelihoods of many Nigerians, especially the riverine
and coastal communities. The sector is divided into: (i) Capture Fisheries which entails the
harvesting of fish from marine, brackish and freshwaters, and it is divided into inland and marine
capture fisheries. (ii) Culture Fisheries. Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic flora and fauna in
monitored culture systems.
Aquaculture can be practised on land (geophore) or in water (aquaphore). Land-based

aquaculture are mainly practised in earthen ponds, plastic tanks, concrete tanks, vats or in
agricultural field crops e.g. rice that uses excess water. Aquaphore-based aquacultures are
practised in large water bodies (fresh water or marine) with the use of pens, cages and rafts
suspended in the water body. Basically there are four forms of culture systems with a more
recent inclusion.
i. Extensive aquaculture: This is practised in non-drainable water body with low stocking
density, low production, little or no nutritional input, low level of investment with fish
depending on the natural productivity and poor management practices.
ii. Semi-intensive aquaculture: This is an intermediate system between extensive and
intensive aquaculture in which pond fertilisation is used to increase primary productivity,
supplementary feeds in form of agro-industrial waste provided and used as feed. Semi-
intensive aquaculture yield higher than extensive aquaculture as fish are stocked at
densities higher than those of extensive aquaculture.
iii. Intensive aquaculture: In this case, fish are provided with complete feeds that meet the
nutritional requirements of the species stocked at higher density with complete control on
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most of the factors of production which results in yields higher than those in other
systems.
iv. Integrated aquaculture: This is the combination of fish culture with other forms of
agriculture which uses the farm resources optimally for the production of food and fish. It
serves as a form of food security against the failure of either venture e.g. fish and poultry,
fish and piggery, fish and duck, fish and rice.
7.4.1 Factors to be considered in the establishment of an aquaculture enterprise
- Feasibility.
- Suitable site.
- Water of good quality and quantity.
- Land topography.
- Soil structure, texture and porosity.
- Fish seed availability.
- Feed of good quality and quantity,
- Market availability and proximity.
- Agro-climatic and meteorological conditions.
- Security from poaching and sabotage.
7.4.2 Selection of fish species for culture
i. Ability to tolerate crowding

ii. Fast growth ability
iii. Ability to accept artificial feed
iv. Resistance to disease
v. Propensity to breed in captivity
vi. Good market value
vii. Local availability of fish seed
viii. Adaptability to the environment.
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Identify the three (3) forms of fish cultural systems known to you.
Fish Culture Systems
This involves the system of single or species combination to achieve production objective.
i). Monoculture: this is the rearing of a single fish species at a particular time.
ii). Monosex culture: this is culturing the same sex of fish whose genetic make-up has been
altered to achieve fast growth and reduce production of juvenile fish of no economic importance.
iii). Polyculture: this involves culturing more than a single species at the same time in the same
culture medium. The species combination utilizes available natural foods at different trophic
levels and compatibility is key.
7.5 Pond Construction Techniques
Ponds are small shallow water bodies which are man-made or naturally formed as a depression
on land with the capacity of holding substantial amount of water necessary for fish growth. It can
be grouped based on topographic conditions: i) Embankment ponds formed by obstructing the
flow of water to impound water above its level through a dam structure in a valley location. ii)
Excavated ponds are dug out of the land to impound water below the ground level based on
topography of the land (flat/gentle slopes).
Pond water supply: i) spring pond: fed by spring water; ii) Sky pond: fed by rain iii)Tidal pond:
fed by tidal river or estuary.
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Site selection of aquaculture farms is important to the success of the business as it determines the
suitability of the area for culture techniques. It is in two phases: Visual/reconnaissance survey
and detailed survey.
Water availability needs to be considered with respect to quality and quantity being adequate and
readily available. Sources of the water can be streams, rivers, creeks, lakes etc and. the quality of
the water needs to be monitored regularly. Physico-chemical properties help to determine quality
of water and its suitability for aquaculture. Water quality gives information on the quality of
water in which aquatic flora and fauna inhabit. These are compared with acceptable standards to
know the health status or ability of survival of different aquatic biota. It is divided into physical,
chemical, and biological parameters. Poor water quality is detrimental to fish and difficult to
predict or manage when problem arises. It can lead to adverse effect or death of aquatic biota if
not well monitored. Parameters of interest are; Temperature (25ºC-32ºC), pH (6-9), Dissolved
oxygen (≥4mg/l), Ammonia (1.37-2.2mg/l), Nitrite (≤1-2mg/l), Nitrate (>100 mg/l), Salinity (<
2-34g/l), Alkalinity (20-300mg/l), hardness (20ppm), Carbon dioxide (5-20ppm).
Pond design takes into consideration the type of enterprise to be embarked upon. Ponds are
designed based on the life stages of the fish namely nursery ponds, rearing ponds, grow –out
ponds and brood-stocks ponds. Pond can be designed to take any size form and are constructed
in square or rectangular shape with depth of 0.6-1m for nursery ponds and 1.5-2.5m for
production ponds.
Construction techniques involve land clearing, marking/pegging outlines, stripping /top soil
removal, excavation of pond, dykes construction and grassing of embankments.
Identify the basic factors that must be kept in mind in constructing a technically befitting fish
pond.
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i. Pond water availability and supply: i) spring pond: fed by spring water; ii) Sky pond: fed
by rain iii) Tidal pond: fed by tidal river or estuary.
ii. Site selection
iii. Pond design style
7.6 Aquaculture Management Techniques
After construction has been completed, lime is applied to the pond bottom. Liming is a
neutralisation process with the application of lime materials to ponds. It is anti-parasitic,
increases pH of acidic water to desirable levels and predisposes water to effective fertilisation
using agricultural lime, slaked lime, quick lime, carbide waste, wood ash.
The pond is fertilised by the addition of fertilizer to ponds (Fertilisation). It increases natural
productivity of ponds, provides nitrogen and phosphorus for growth of phytoplankton and
zooplankton. Type of fertiliser used can be organic /inorganic fertilizer.
Fish of desirable species are stocked after pond fertilisation is completed. Stocking is the
introduction of selected, culturable, compatible, and fast growing species into ponds. The amount
and number of fish that can be placed in a pond is known as the stocking density. Stocking is
carried out early in the morning or late in the evening/moderately cool weather to avoid fish
kills as a result of temperature shock.
Sorting is the separation of fish with differential growth pattern and removal of oversized
fish/shooters to prevent cannibalism. It is carried out bi-monthly for the first two months to avoid
cannibalisation of entire stock.
Nutrient rich feed is made available to the fish twice daily (early morning and late evening). The
feed is administered at a feeding point with floating feed or sinking feed... Test cropping is
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carried out to ascertain the growth response of fish to feed and sorting out of shooters is done to
ensure uniform growth of fish.
7.6.1 Fish Nutrition
A major constraint to fish production is feeds for fish culture. Feed is the most expensive item in
the culture of fish. Fish share peculiarity with livestock in nutrients used as source of protein,
energy and lipids. Fish use high protein diets for optimal growth and physiological functions
than other livestock. Complete fish feeds contain all the essential nutrients (carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, vitamins, and minerals) in the required amounts. The amounts of nutrients needed vary
with the developmental stage of the fish. Sources of nutrients include groundnut cake, soybean
meal, palm kernel cake etc. In order to reduce production costs, agricultural by-products and
other wastes are incorporated into fish diets (e.g. maggots, earthworm, water hyacinth, pig and
goat hoof, feather meal, blood meal etc.). Palm oil can also be utilised as a substitute for fish oil
in the diets of fish. Finished fish feeds are now available locally under different brand names
and are in the categories of starter diet (0.2mm-1.9mm), grower diet (2mm-4.5mm), finisher diet
(6mm-9mm) and brood-stock diet (>9mm).These feeds are either floating or pelletized sinking
feeds. The need to preserve fish feeds under hygienic conditions cannot be over-emphasised.
Poor feed storage predisposes feed to aflatoxin which is as a result of mould growth which
causes feed contamination causing a disease known as aflatoxicosis in fish.
7.6.2 Fish Breeding Techniques
The reproductive biology of fish provides information on their spawning cycle, fecundity, egg
size and sexual maturity, which helps in determining the recruitment patterns. The gonadal
development in fish before hatching is represented by the following stages; Stage I (immaturity
stage), Stage II (resting stage), Stage III (maturation stage), Stage IV (maturity stage), Stage V
(reproduction stage) and Stage VI (spent stage). The knowledge of these stages has improved the
breeding techniques now being adopted in producing fish seeds on farms. African catfish Clarias
gariepinus has been successfully bred in Nigeria using these hypophysation agents; Pituitary
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suspension, DOCA (De-oxy-Cortico steroid Acetone), HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin),

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) and Luteinizing Hormone. Male and female fish of same
age and weight known as broodstock are sourced and the female induced to spawn using
hormones. The eggs are fertilized with the milt of male fish and fertilized eggs spread on
kakaban to hatch after twenty-four hours. After the eggs hatch into fish larva they are fed brine
shrimp (Artemia spp.), rotifers, copepods and daphnia as first exogenous feed after the
absorption of the yolk sac (endogenous feeding).
7.6.3 Pollution in Aquatic Environment
Pollution of aquatic ecosystems due to industrial effluent discharge; agricultural run-off

(fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides); and even aquaculture discharge (waste water) poses
problem of reducing the quality of water. These have further impacted on the aquatic biota both
flora and fauna. Toxicity arising from pollutants cause undesirable changes in the environment
which hampers fish production. These pollutants alter the physiological processes in the body of
fish which are detected by histopathology and has led to decreased growth and ultimate death of
fish. Also they have public health implications by the bioaccumulation process in aquatic
organisms destined for the table. These pollutants cover a wide spectrum of gases, chemicals
and solids(e.g. Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, Co, Cd, Ni).
Aquaculture waste water/discharge can be further utilized without creating pressure on the
environment. This can be used in (i) irrigation of food and tree crops (ii) used in
aquaponics/hydroponics to produce vegetables (iii) re-used through recirculation (iv) congealed
recirculated mass used as fertilizer/feed.
7.6.4 Disease Management in Aquaculture
Disease is any disorder of a structure/function that affects parts or all of an organ, associated
with dysfunctioning of the body's normal process and is an economic loss to the farmer in most
cases of eventualities. Disease can be classified as infectious disease transferred to other fish or
non-infectious disease not passed to other fish. It can be caused by pathogens (organisms that
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attack living tissue); nutritional imbalance (diet imbalance in nutrient composition,

over/under/malnutrition); parasites (caused by organism - endo/exo parasites); environmental
causes (by pollution –associated with water quality); management induced stress (improper
management practices) and non-infectious maladies (physiological disorders, physical injuries,
abnormal growth in any fish organ).
The health of fish is affected by parasitic .helminths (Neoechinorhynchus rutilli, Clinostomium

tilapiae) or bacterial flora (Escherichia coli, Klebosiellaspp., Vibrio spp., Streptococcus spp.,
and Enterococcus spp.) causing fish mortality under stressful conditions.
Factors to consider in administering fish medication are fish species, size of the fish, culture
system, cost of chemical, withdrawal period, active ingredient in drug. Others are human toxicity
of drug, age of the fish, number of fish affected, type of disease, level of disease occurrence, type
of feed, manufacturers technical instruction, type of organism in question if parasites, mode of
application and availability of the chemical. After due consideration of these factors, the disease
can then be treated using Dip/bath treatment, dietary treatment or injection.
7.6.5 Post-Harvest Value Addition
Post-harvest fisheries comprise the activities that take place from the time the fish is landed or
harvested until it is consumed. It embraces the cultural, environmental, economic, institutional,
social, technical and marketing aspects of the supply, demand, preservation and processing and
distribution of fish and fish products. Post-harvest loss is the spoilage that occurs due to
biochemical and microbiological changes that occur after death as a result of the following
factors: time, temperature, insect infestation, handling practices and poor processing methods.
Preservation is important as it makes fish available to land locked areas, development of new
product from fish, increase shelf life of fish due to processing and storage, reduces losses of
farmers due to unsold stock, it increases income and revenue of farmers. Post-harvest losses can
be categorised as physical loss of fish, quality loss of fish and market forces loss which leads to
reduced income for farmers. Fish preservation can be achieved by icing/cold storage; sun/solar
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drying; fish salting; fish smoking and fish frying which are used in extending shelf life of fish for
months. Despite preservation with the above methods, micro-organisms still thrive on fish due
to poor storage. The following organisms have been isolated from smoked dried fish: Mucor
spp., Aspergillus spp., Rhizophus spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillum spp., Saccharomyces spp.,
Staphylococcus spp., Klebsiella spp., Escherichia spp., and Dermestes maculatus.
7.6.6 Record Keeping
The business of fish farming is more than just the culture of fish. The managerial aspect is
important and the day to day running of the business is a key factor that allows farmer to know
whether he is making profit or loss. Records of daily activity are kept as farm records while
financial transactions are also documented taking into consideration the double entry principle.
This will give you an advantage in sourcing for loans to improve the business as one of the
requirements for loan is good financial transaction records. Fish farmers are also advised to take
up an insurance policy with the Nigerian Agricultural Insurance Corporation in other to forestall
loss due to disease or hazards, and delay in the payment of premiums. Farmers are indemnified
in cases of loss and this will allow farmers remain in business.
7.6.7 Fisheries Regulation and Administration
Fisheries and aquaculture in Nigeria are being coordinated and regulated by the Federal
Department of Fisheries (FDF). Agencies responsible for fisheries and aquaculture research are
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR); National Institute for
Freshwater Fisheries Research (NIFFR) New-Bussa and Baga; African Regional Aquaculture
Centre (ARAC); National Agency for Food Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC), and
a number of Nigerian Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Agriculture, Monotechnics and
Colleges of Education.
List any four (4) of the main management techniques in aquaculture farming.
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i. Fish Nutrition
ii. Fish breeding techniques
iii. Pollution in aquatic environment
iv. Disease management in aquaculture
Conclusion
Fish represents the major source of protein available to most Nigerians, with an estimated per
caput fish consumption of 13.3kg. Nigeria leads other African countries in aquaculture
production and this sector is mostly private sector driven with increasing importance among the
citizens. Aquaculture is a highly profitable venture if practiced with the recommended
management techniques. Aquatic life has the potential to diversify the world economy and
human nutrition if enormous investment is channeled into its development and improvement.
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1. Aquaculture is a rich source of quality protein and feedstuff, and a dependable source of
income and foreign exchange earnings in Nigeria.
2. Aquaculture business is becoming one of the fastest growing investment enterprises
within the Nigerian economy.
3. Fish products are useful in the health/pharmaceutical sector as well in the ornamental
industry.
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List the importance of aquaculture to the national economy
List the objectives of aquaculture to the national economy
List the basic elements of fish identification?
1. Mention the factors that must be considered in the establishment of an aquaculture

enterprise.
2. List the factors that must be considered in the selection of fish species for culture in a fish
enterprise/business.
Identify the basic factors that must be kept in mind in constructing a technically befitting fish
pond.
List the main management techniques in aquaculture farming.

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REFERENCES
Alarape, A.A and Sotolu, A.O. (2009) Fisheries and Wildlife BIO 220, School of Science and
Technology, National Open University of Nigeria. pp.243.
Diei-Ouadi, Y. and Mgawe, Y. I. (2011).Post-harvest fish loss assessment in small-scale

fisheries: A guide for the Extension Officer.FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical
Paper.No. 559. Rome, FAO. 93p.
Durojaiye, A.F., Taiwo, I.O., Bassey, O.B and Salami, W.A (2018) Preliminary Assessment of
the Physico-Chemical Properties of Yewa Lagoon, Ogun State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of
Fisheries 15(1):1364-1369.
Fafioye, O.O.,Efuntoye, M.O. and Osho, A (2001). Studies on the fungal infestation of five
traditionally smoke-dried freshwater fish in Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria. Mycopathologia154: 177–179.
Fafioye, O.O.,Fagbohun, T.R. and Olubanjo, O.O. (2008).Fungal Infestation and Nutrient
Quality of Traditionally Smoke-Dried Freshwater Fish. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences 8: 7-13
Fish Base (2020a): List of Freshwater Fishes reported from Nigeria.
https://www.fishbase.in/Country/CountryChecklist.php?what=list&trpp=50&c_code=566&csub
_code=&cpresence=present&sortby=alpha&vhabitat=freshDate accessed 1/4/2020
Fish Base (2020b): List of Marine Fishes reported from Nigeria.
https://www.fishbase.in/Country/CountryChecklist.php?what=list&trpp=50&c_code=566&csub
_code=&cpresence=present&sortby=alpha&vhabitat=saltwaterDate accessed 1/4/2020
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Fischer, W. and Hureau, J.C (1985).FAO Species Identification sheets for Fishery purpose,
Southern Ocean (Fishing areas 48, 58 and 88) (CCAMLR Convention Area) Commission for the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Rome, Italy.I. p.232.
Olurin, K. B. (2019). Pushing the boundaries of Fisheries Research: The story so far. Inaugural
Lecture Series ____, OlabisiOnabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Osibona, A.O and Gafar, A.F (2018): Nutritional qualities, Chemical Composition and
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon levels in salted and unsalted Clarias gariepinus smoked with
Lophira alata swood. FUW Trends in Science & Technology Journal. 3(1): 11 – 17.
Sotolu, A.O., Sule, S.O. and Edwin Sam-Mboma (2015).Water Quality Management in
Integration of Fish with Poultry Production. In Olapade O and Samuel M.B Senesie (Eds.):
Sustainable Integrated Pond Based Aquaculture with Rice and Poultry Production: Economic,
Social and Environmental Assessment, Farmers Training Manual.Pg.1-16.
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Study Session 8: Farm Management
Farm management is the practical aspect of the applied science of agricultural economics which
relates with the application of physical and biological sciences to the economics of profitable
resources allocation for maximising the farmer’s net income. Three categories of players are
important in farm management, namely: i). the farmers (owners of farm resources; they
determine their priorities); ii). the extension agents (they are well-informed about research
outcomes to guide the farmers in order to increase their management skills); and iii). the
research workers (they collect and analyse data for the purpose of drawing management
conclusions which help farmers to take proper decisions).
Farmers make constant decisions on resource allocate to maximise profits because they operate
in dynamic environment with ever changing inputs and output prices; and the array of
opportunities open to them from which they must choose to maximize net income
A number of decisions and/or problems are faced by farm management, which include: the
combination of crops and/or livestock to produce; the size of farm to operate; the method of
production to use given the available resources; the system of cultivation to follow; the kinds of
machinery and equipment to use and at what stage of production; the timing of production; and
the the sources of credits available to the farmers and the proper use of them. Proper allocation of
scarce resources requires ample knowledge of various factors of production and their
relationships to agriculture.
8.1 Theory of agricultural production

8.2 Characteristics of agriculture that affect management decisions
8.3 Basic tools and concepts in management
8.4 Management of farm businesses.
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8.1 Theory of Agricultural Production
Human activity can be broken down into two component parts. These are production and
consumption. When there is production, a process of transformation takes place and inputs are
converted into output. The inputs are classified and referred to as land, labour, and capital.
Collectively the inputs are called factors of production.
When the factors of production are combined in order to produce something, a fourth factor is
required. Goods and services do not produce themselves but need some conscious thought
process in order to plan and implement manufacturing. This thought process is often called
entrepreneurship.
The process of transforming inputs to output is what is called production. Output and product
will be used interchangeably, and so will inputs, resources (productive resources) and factors of
production. There is nothing that is permanently an output or permanently an input. What
somebody considers as his output could be another person’s input.
The relationship between factors of production and product is termed production function.
Production function defines the maximum output(s) attainable from a vector of inputs. In
production function, it is assumed that inputs such as land, labour, and capital can be
quantitatively measured. However, factors such as local climate, soil condition, and management
are very difficult to quantitatively determine, particularly in small farm production. This explains
why production functions are usually defined for a particular area, at a particular time and for a
particular level of technology and management.
8.1 Agricultural Production
8.1.1 Factors of Production
(a). Land
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This refers to the land itself and raw materials such as oil and minerals beneath it. Trees grown
by foresters are not classified as land because they have been deliberately grown. Trees in a
natural rainforest are a natural resource and thus, are classified as land. The reward for letting
others use land is called rent. No agricultural production can take place without land. Land for
the production of crops and/or the rearing of animals is not homogeneous. What can be produced
from a particular piece of land depends on a number of factors namely: soil fertility, topography
and climate, especially rainfall. In addition, the availability of land for agricultural production
depends, to a large extent, on the land tenure system. This, to some extent is responsible for low
agricultural production and productivity in Africa, as it does not lead to the most productive
distribution of land among potential users and potential uses.
(b). Labour
Labour is human effort, mental or physical. Care must be taken not to confuse this with
entrepreneur. The reward for labour is termed wages. Labour, in combination with other factors,
of production is utilised to produce outputs. Labour for agricultural production is interwoven
with labour for social and religious undertakings in many parts of Africa, Nigeria inclusive.
Small-holder farmers do not distinguish between hours spent on the farm and hours spent in
setting and/or checking traps or drinking palm-wine while exchanging ideas with other farmers, a
factor which makes it difficult, if not impossible to measure labour in mandays in small-scale
farming. In most African setting, three types of labour can thus be distinguished namely: family
labour, hired labour and exchange labour.
(c). Capital
Capital refers to man made goods used to produce other goods. Money may not be considered as
capital, it is used to buy factors of production - it is not a factor itself. The reward for investing in
capital is called interest. Capital is the produced means of production. It includes investments
such as farm buildings, dams, roads on the farm, machinery, storage barns, stocks of materials
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such as seeds, fertilisers, tree crops, breeding stock, dairy cattle, bullocks (used in ploughing),
etc.
(d). Entrepreneurship
It is the risk-taking activity that utilises land, labour and capital to produce goods or services in
the expectation of a future reward. That reward is called profit in economics. It is often referred
to as management. It involves decision making, supervision at the implementation stage, and
coordination of all activities on the farm.
What are the major factors of production in agricultural enterprises?
i. Land
ii. Labour (household labour and hired labour)
iii. Capital (Cash, raw materials, machines)
iv. Entrepreneurship (skills)
8.2 Characteristics of Agriculture that Affect Management Decisions
The management of a farm is much more difficult than the management of industrial enterprises.
This is due in most cases to the special characteristics of agricultural enterprises. The principal
characteristics are risks and uncertainties which surround agricultural production. Uncertainties
are a situation where an action has a set of possible outcomes, the probability of which are
completely unknown. Risk, on the other hand, is a situation where each action leads to one of a
set of possible outcomes, each outcome occurring with a known probability. Most agricultural
decisions are taken in an environment of risks and uncertainties. Farmers have to take decisions
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now, which will affect production later. The farmer is not sure of the weather condition, and
government policies or new changes in technology. These are factors which make it difficult for
farmers to predict the future with certainty. Other factors include:
1. Changes in inputs and output prices
2. Government actions and policies
3. Actions of other stakeholders in agricultural production, e.g. neighbouring farmers,

money lenders, etc
4. Other unforeseen circumstances, e.g. water shortages, power failure, sickness, theft,
death, etc.
It is, however, the function of farm management to identify these risk factors and uncertainties
and plan farm operations in order to avoid them, or at least, minimise their effects. The following
methods can be used to reduce the effect of risk and uncertainties in farming:
(a). Diversification
To reduce the variability of income resulting from crop production, crops like yam and cassava
should not be combined. This is because both crops require almost the same resources and
incomes, and both are likely to be affected by the same factors. The income from poultry is not
likely to be related to yam or maize production. Therefore, in order to maintain a stable income,
crops and livestock should be combined. This is referred to as diversification.
(b). Flexibility in Farm Organisation and Production Methods
It is not advisable to have too rigid methods of production. Farmers normally operate in a
dynamic environment and information about improvements in production methods often become
available to them. Small changes in prices of resources may need a re-combination of resources
which will allow the farmer to take advantage of greater profits.
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(c). Cost flexibility
This is related to flexibility in farm organisation. A farm with a high fixed cost in relation to
variable cost will find it more difficult to adjust its production system than a farm with lower
fixed costs.
(d). Inventor Management
A good farm manager must be able to watch the movement of prices. If prices are likely to rise,
he should stock his warehouse and when prices are expected to fall, he should stock less.
(e). Guaranteed Minimum Prices
There are various government programmes that are aimed at helping the farmers. One of such
programmes is buying the farmer’s crops (all that he has available for sale) at an agreed
minimum price, if the farmer cannot sell the crops at the current market prices. For this to be
effective, the minimum price must be enough to cover the cost of production of such crops or
livestock and allow for normal profit.
i. Itemise the characteristics of agricultural enterprises that affect management decision

making.
ii. Mention the various ways by which risk may be minimised in an agricultural enterprise.

(a). i. Risks and uncertainties.
i. Unstable changes in inputs and output prices
ii. Unstable government actions and policies
iii. Actions of other stakeholders in agricultural production, e.g neighbouring farmers, and
money lenders, etc.
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iv. Other unforeseen circumstances, such bad weather condition, water shortages, power
failure, sickness, theft, death, etc.
(b). i. Diversification
ii. Flexibility in farm organisation and production methods
iii. Cost flexibility

iv. Inventor management
v. Guaranteed minimum prices
8.3 Some Basic Tools and Concepts in Management

1. Agricultural finance
2. The law of diminishing returns
3. The principle of substitution
4. Opportunity costs
5. Absolute and comparative advantage
6. Farm planning and budgeting
7. Valuation and depreciation
8.3.1 Agricultural Finance
Credit is borrowed money. Agricultural credit is borrowed money that can be used to purchase
inputs for production processes, which generates income over time. In this sense, credit is capital
and to distinguish it from other forms of capital, it is called debt capital. Credit facilitates assist
in the development process by supplementing the farmer’s own capital (his equity capital).
Conceptually, credit can be divided into three types:
1. Production credit
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2. Investment credit
3. Consumption credit
Investment credit tends to lower the farmer’s risk, while production credit or consumption credit
tends to increase the risk. Production credit allows him to have a greater cash outlay for the
production. Investment credit increase the farmer's net worth and provides a cushion for bad
years. Consumption credit, on the other, can free family resources for production or investment
activities, which can include the education of family members. In most rural areas, farmers tend
to acquire credit for consumption purposes.
Credit agencies are frequently classified into two group. These are formal institutions and and
informal institutions. Formal institutions include banks and cooperative credit unions while
informal agencies may be further sub-divided into two groups. Family members, kinsmen and
farmer‘s credit associations (such as esusu clubs) lend money or assets at little or no interest.
Village traders and money lenders sometimes charge very high interest rates. As a result of some
difficulties, formal credit agencies rarely operate in rural areas without government support and
promotion. Farmers are often forced to rely on informal sources.
Approaches to the Supply of Credit to Farmers
To ensure that credit gets to the farmers effectively, many methods have been devised in many
countries including Nigeria, to supply credit to small-holder farmers with some degree of
certainty of repayment. They include the following:
1. Use of cooperative societies
2. Use of produce buyers and other informal lenders
3. Use of development project agencies
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Use of cooperative societies
Cooperative societies are usually formed to solve problems that cannot be solved individually.
The problems associated with obtaining agricultural credit are such that cooperatives societies
can be used to overcome them. Credit in kind such as inputs as well as extension services can be
delivered through cooperative societies in a cheaper and more effective manner.
Use of produce buyers and other informal lenders
Produce buyers are those who go to the village to buy agricultural products for sale in urban
centre. Agricultural credit can be successfully channelled through them. However, there are two
main problems with channelling credit through produce buyers and money lenders. First, it is
difficult to control the interest rates they charge. Second, it is difficult to get trustworthy produce
buyers and money lenders. These two problems have been responsible for the little interest
shown in using produce buyers and money lenders as agents in the supply of credit to small-scale
farmers.
Use of Development Projects Agencies
Many agricultural development projects are very close to the small farmer communities and their
activities bring them into direct contact with the farmers. Examples of such development projects
include the integrated rural development projects in many developing countries and the non-
governmental organisations. Since these agencies are close to the farmers, they can act as agents
for providing agricultural credit to small farmers.
8.3.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns
The law of diminishing returns states that the marginal product of any input (e.g, fertiliser) will
(eventually) fall as the employment of that input increases, assuming other factors of production
are held constant.
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8.3.3 The Principle of Substitution
Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) is the rate at which one production input (e.g.
labour) can be substituted for another factor (e.g. capital) while holding output constant along an
isoquant. A particular isoquant denotes the combinations of two factors of production (e.g.
capital and labour) which produce the same quantity of output. If we assume that the two factors
are continuously substitutable, then every point on a particular isoquant represents a particular
feasible technique, or factor combination, that can be used to produce a particular level of output.
8.3.4 Opportunity Costs
This is a very useful concept in farm management. It helps in deciding which enterprise to go
into, taking into consideration some of the available resources. For example, on a piece of land,
maize or vegetable may be planted. If an hectare of maize yields an estimated income of
N90,000 while an hectare of vegetable yields N10,000 and maize is grown, then the opportunity
cost of growing maize is the N10,000 income which could have been earned if vegetable had
been produced.
8.3.5 Absolute and Comparative Advantage
Absolute advantage is the simplest measure of economic performance. It is the ability to produce
a good at a lower cost, in terms of real resources than another country. Absolute advantage is
neither necessary nor sufficient for a country to export a good. In other words, a country has an
absolute advantage economically over another, in a particular good, when it can produce that
good more cheaply or it can produce more of the good than another country can, with the same
amount of resources. For example, if country ‘A’ has an economic advantage against country ‘B’
at producing product ‘X, and country ‘A’ has an economic advantage against country ‘B’ at
producing product ‘Y’, then, country ‘A’ has an absolute advantage over country ‘B’ with
respect to product ‘X’ and product ‘Y’.
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The theory of comparative advantage is a pure theory based upon a set of assumptions, which is
an abstraction from the complexities of the real world. This theory explains why it can be
beneficial for two parties (countries, regions, individuals) to engage in business together, even
though one of them may be able to produce every item more cheaply than the other. In fact, the
theory of comparative advantage is a demonstration that a country can gain from trade even if it
has an absolute disadvantage in the production of all goods, or that it can gain from trade even if
it has an absolute advantage in the production of all goods. As a result, the party with a
comparative advantage can produce the particular good or service by giving up less value in
other goods or services that he could otherwise produce with his labour and resources than the
other parties would have to give up in producing that same good or service. Comparative
advantage measures efficiency in terms of relative magnitude. Since countries have limited
resources and level of technology, they tend to produce goods or services in which they have a
comparative advantage. Comparative advantage implies an opportunity cost associated with the
production of one good compared to another.
8.3.6 Farm Planning and Budgeting
Farm planning can be defined as the preparation of an operational programme for a farm which
will ensure the conservation of land and other resources and the efficient use of production
factors, thereby increasing the net income and satisfaction of the farmer. It used to be held that
planning is not often required in traditional farming because farmers mainly practise the
agriculture which is suited to the soil type and that such programmes have stood the test of time.
This is however, no longer tenable. As new technologies are introduced, there is the need to
combine and recombine available resources to achieve higher production. Farm plans are
particularly required when there are limiting factors such as land, labour and capital, the aim
being the maximisation of returns to the limiting factors. In actual fact, every farmer has a plan.
Some might put their ideas on paper while others do some mental arithmetic. By and large, it is
essential that plans are written down for various reasons, one of which is that the assumption
surrounding a particular plan can be checked in case the plan falls short of expectation. The plans
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can then be checked against achievements, and changes can be made in estimates depending on
the availability of data.
Just as a plan can be made for an enterprise or for the whole farm, so can one be made for a new
farmer as well as an older farmer. The new entrant to farming will be faced with a major decision
about what is the most profitable farming business to go into. In order to answer this, he has to
consider such problems usually encountered in farm management. It is for the old farmer, or the
existing farm that a lot of planning is required. This is because there have been some investments
in fixed costs which may not be easy to change. But then the old farmer also has some
information about yields and prices and even of comparable standards in the district. He is thus
likely to know what he wants, that is, he already has his objectives. The function of farm plan
would then be to see how best his enterprises can be readjusted to increase his income or satisfy
his other objectives.
There are unfortunately too few farm planners in developing countries and the possibility of
preparing farm plans for each farmer is remote. As a result, only few can be reached. But after
some years, farmers who may have been in the programme may be able to teach their
neighbours.
The planning data required would normally depend on whether planning involves a new farm or
an existing farm. For a new farm, more assumptions have to be made about input-output
coefficients. Neighbouring farms can, for instance, give the yields of particular crops and prices
of outputs can be obtained from markets in the environment.
There are two major methods of farm planning. These are budgeting and linear programming.
The most important and the most widely used is budgeting. Budgeting has been defined as the
detailed quantitative statement of a farm plan, or a change in farm plan, and the forecast of its
financial result. It sets out (a) the physical aspects of the plan; what to produce, how much, and
the resource needs and (b) the financial aspects of the farm; the expected costs and returns and
therefore, production. The term ‘term budget’ is however, often used solely in regards to (b).
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Types of Budgeting
l. Complete budgeting
ii. Partial budgeting; and
iii. Break-even budgeting
Complete budgeting is carried out when total reorganisation is desired. It is usually carried out
for a new farmer, just starting a farm or when technologies and methods of production have
changed, or when size of farm has increased or whenever any other force outmodes the existing
farm organisation. Once a long-run budget is prepared, it provides the framework within which a
short-run or a year-to-year plan is developed. The budget for a year may be worked out in detail
or it may be used to compare those alternatives which appear to make adjustment possible in
terms of the outlook for the coming year.
Steps in Making Farm Budgets
Certain steps should be followed in preparing budgets, if a meaningful plan is to be produced.

These steps are listed below:
1. Determine the farming goals and farmer's preferences
2. List the farm resources that are available to the farmer
3. Determine which of the resources are currently being used
4. List the gross production
5. Prepare a statement of expenditure and income for the farm on the basis of current utilization
of the farm resources
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6. Analyse the input-output relationships such as labour and/or machine performances or

efficiency attained on the farm
7. Compare the above with the standards available on other farms around the area
8. Diagnose structural weaknesses and operations
9. Determine priorities in correcting the structural and operational weaknesses
10. Prepare a number of alternative farm plans and choose one as the final plan to be adopted
11. Supervise the implementation of the programme under the plan, and
12. Evaluate the result.
Simple Farm Budget
Table 1: A complete farm budget for Mr Olowolayemo on a 5-Hectare Farm
Revenue
Crops Hectare N
Yam 1.0 55,000
Maize 1.0 53,500
Cowpea 1.0 54,000
Millet 1.0 53,500
Livestocks
Broiler 500 25,000
Layers 100 20,000

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Total Revenue 314,500
Variable Cost
5 regular workers @ N 500 per month for 12 months
Equipment 40,000
Others (miscellaneous) 50,000
Total Variable Cost 120,000
Gross margin = Revenue - Total Variable Cost
= N 314,500 - N 120,000
= N 194,500 (or N 38,900 per hectare)
Once a complete budget is prepared, only partial budgets need to be prepared if only small
changes are desired. In the case of partial budget, four budget changes are relevant; two relate to
costs and two to revenue. The partial budget can be set out as follows:
Debits (N) Credits (N)
Increase in costs Decrease in costs
Decrease in returns Increase in returns
For instance, a farmer may want to substitute yam for maize. A partial budget can be prepared. In
this case, four items would be considered:
a. Increase in costs due to the changes
b. Decrease in revenue due to the changes
c. Decrease in costs such as saved labour, fertilisers, etc.
d. Increase in revenue
Note that a + b reduces income while c + d increases income.
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Budgets can be prepared for a number of items on the farm. There can also be a labour budget, a
machine budget, a capital budget or a cash-flow budget. A cash-flow budget includes operating
receipts, capital sales, operating expenses, capital expenditures, family expenditures, money
borrowed and repayment of borrowed money. When the information is summarized, it will assist
in estimating the amount and timing of receipts as well as the availability of loan repayment
funds.
Finally, there is the break-even budgeting that can be employed to estimate the yield required to
provide an exact balance of changes in costs and revenue, so that the farmer is neither better nor
worse off. It may be the case that the farmer is considering buying a new machine, but is not
quite certain what benefits he would obtain by so doing. A break-even budget will then show the
level of benefits needed to cover the extra cost of investing on the new machine.
Defects in Using Budgeting as a Planning Tool
a. Budgeting assumes linear relationship and hence ignores diminishing returns and
complementary relationships between enterprises.
b. There is the problem of estimating yields and prices, particularly for new farmers.
c. Many budgets may be needed before a high-profile plan is obtained and even
then, there is no way of knowing whether more profitable plans exist or not.
However, the above problems can be overcome to some extent by having adequate records either
from existing farms or research institutes. Furthermore, the problems will become easier for an
experienced farm planner.
8.3.7 Valuation and Depreciation
The primary purpose of a valuation is to provide an opinion about the price a property might
achieve if it were sold or of the rent if it were let. Valuations may be undertaken for a variety of
reasons and the following issues need to be understood before the valuation is carried out:
1. The purpose and date for which the valuation will be required
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2. The interest to be valued
3. The assumptions upon which the valuation will be made.
Depreciation is the term used to describe the decline in value of a physical asset over a certain
span of time. Most objects lose value due to damages from use, aging, obsolescence, and
impairment. However the exact amount of value that is lost and the current ‘book value’ of an
asset cannot be easily known. Depreciation is thus used as an estimate of this decline and is used
for several important purposes in today‘s business world.
Methods for Computing Asset Depreciation
(a). Straight-Line Method
The straight-line method is the most popular and simplistic way to determine depreciation. In
this method, it is assumed that depreciation occurs at a constant rate per unit of time. The
constant rate yields a linear equation appearing as a straight line when graphed. R is the
depreciation allowance, W is the wearing value, which is the original value minus scrap value,
and n is the number of useful years that the item can be used.
W
R
n
C = original cost of the capital asset
S = scrap value
W = wearing value (where W  C  S
R = depreciation allowance for a year
n = useful life of a capital asset in years, service hours, or production units.
(b). Declining Balance Method

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The declining balance method of depreciation uses a fixed rate of depreciation that is multiplied
by the book value to get the depreciation allowance. In this formula, the depreciation rate stays
constant but since the depreciation allowance depends on the book value as well, the amount of
money that is depreciated changes at every step. The larger amount of depreciation will take
place in the first few years and gradually the amount of depreciation will get smaller and smaller
over the years.
(c). Sum of the Year‘s Digits Method
The sum of the year‘s digit method is a way to calculate depreciation where the depreciation rate
diminishes as it gets closer to the end of the estimated life of the item. To calculate the rate of
depreciation, the number of years of the estimated life of the item are added up and placed in the
denominator and the numerator is the number of years that are left in the items estimated life.
The equation below shows the depreciation formula:
n 1
r1  , R1  r1W rn 
1  2  ...  n" 1  2  ...  n"
In the equation, r is the depreciation rate per year and W is the wearing value.
i. Itemise the various methods used in computing the depreciation value of an asset
i. Straight-Line Method
ii. Declining Balance Method
iii. Sum of the year‘s Digits Method
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8.4 Management of Farm Businesses
Every farm is unique, as no two farms are identical. Moreover, there are various types of farms -
peasant farms, corporation farms, government farms, stock farms, mixed farms, etc. All these
apart, there are various categories of people who could be termed manager and the management
of the farms will be influenced not only by the type of farm, the caliber of the manager, but also
by the economy and social environment in which the farmer operates. For example, a manager
who by training is expected to be a better farm manager than another one may not be so if, for
instance, he does not get the necessary support of the extension personnel who should supply
him with some research findings to guide his judgment. Furthermore, the farm manager on the
government or corporation farms may be constrained in the performance of his duties by the civil
service arrangement or mere politics of the day. For these reasons, it is not correct to pronounce
a farm or farmer to be ‘efficient’ or ‘inefficient’ in isolation. These indices must be related to the
objectives of the farm and the economic, social and physical consideration under which the farm
manager is operating, and it is only through this means that one can hazard a guess at whether a
farm manager is actually efficient or not. For instance, if the government considers that it wants
to provide jobs for people on the farm and the government is able to do this through a farming
programme, then it could be considered as efficient and the manager may earn a promotion. But
if we look at this from the point of view of the productivity of labour, then we may have course
to doubt the judgment that the farm is efficient, if in fact, it employs more labour than is actually
needed.
The case of peasant farmers is even different. In the peasant framework, the management of the
farm is synonymous with home management, and since individuals differ even more than farms,
there can be no universal guidelines as to how to manage a home or a farm.
These observations are not supposed to indicate that one cannot learn how to manage a farm.
This session is intended to provide useful tools for the farm manager to manage his farm. Once
armed with these tools, the farm manager should then be able to use his judgement to determine
how best to manage a farm under given set of situations. The ability to combine his personal
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judgment with initiative and intuition will determine whether a farm manager is a good, a fair or
a bad one.
Conclusion
Farm management is a practical field of applying scientific principles to the allocation of scarce
resources to farm enterprises for the purpose of maximising farmer’s net income. Attainment of
economic efficiency in resource allocation and utilization to achieve the set objectives of food
security and income maximisation form the bedrock of farmers’ continuity in the farming
business. This is the whole essence of farm planning to guide the preparation of an operational
programme for a farm in order to ensure the proper allocation and utilisation of farm resources
(land, labour and capital) to improve on the net income and satisfaction of the farmer.
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1. Farm management entails a practical application of scientific principles to the

allocation of scarce resources to farm enterprises for the purpose of maximising
farmer’s net income.
2. The main essence of farm management is to ensure economic allocation and
efficiency of resource use of the factors of production (land, labour and capital).
3. The resultant gain of proper farm management to the farmer is the attainment of
food security (in the case of subsistent farming) and maximisation of the net
income and satisfaction to the farmer (in the case of commercial farming).
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Itemise the basic factors of production in agricultural enterprises.
1. Mention the characteristics of agricultural enterprises that affect management decision

making
2. Mention the various ways by which risk may be minimised in an agricultural enterprise.
1. Identify the approaches to the supply of credit to farmers

2. Identify the steps taken in making a complete farm budget
3. Itemise the various methods used in computing the depreciation value of an asset
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References
Adegeye, A.J and Dittoh, J.S. 1985. Essentials of Agricultural Economics. Impact Publishers
Nig. Ltd., Ibadan.
Guthrie, G L., and Lemon, L; D. 2004. Mathematics of Interest Rates and Finance. Upper Saddle
River, N.J: Prenntice Hall.
Suranovic, S. M. 2006. Definitions: Absolute and Comparative Advantage.
International Trade Theory and Policy Lectures Notes:

http//internationalecon.com/v.1.0/ch40/c090.html. Assessed 7/18/06.
Upton, M. 1996. The Economies of Tropical Farming Systems. Cambridge Unversity Press.
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Study Session 9: Agricultural Extension and Teaching Methods
Introduction
Extension encompasses all the efforts made to relate education to the needs of human life and the
application of science to bring educational services to the less informed farmers. Extension
Agents (EAs) are employed to deliver information in improved technologies to farmers.
The concept of extension is based on the following basic premises/assumptions, namely: i)

people have unlimited potential for personal growth and development; ii). development may take
place at any stage of their lives, with appropriate learning opportunities; iii). adults are only
motivated to learn by the need for increased productivity/living standards; iv). learning must be
continuous to meet up with changing needs and production technologies; and, v). people acquire
knowledge and skills to make optimal choices for individual and social benefits.
The essence of extension work is that, as an educational process, involves i). working with rural
people along the lines of their immediate and felt needs/interest; ii). conducting worthwhile
activities in the spirit of cooperation and mutual respect between extension workers and the rural
people; and, iii). utilizing supporting activities to bring extension work and extension staff up to
date through various developmental means.
9.1 Objectives of extension

9.2 Main principles of extension
9.3 Problems of agricultural extension in Nigeria
9.4 Extension teaching methods
9.5 Mass media as an agricultural agricultural extension method
9.6 Teaching-learning interaction.
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9.1 Objectives of Agricultural Extension Services
Objectives are expression of the ends towards which one’s efforts are directed. The fundamental
objective of extension is to develop rural people economically, socially and culturally by means
of education.
More specifically, the objectives of extension are:
i. To assist people to discover and analyse their problems and identify the felt needs
ii. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve their
problems
iii. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way
people would be able to understand and use
iv. To assist people in mobilising and utilising the resources which they have and which they
need from outside
v. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.
List any two (2) reasons for promoting agricultural extension services in Nigeria
i. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify the felt needs.
ii. To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to solve their
problems.
iii. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way
people would be able to understand and use
iv. To assist people in mobilising and utilising the resources which they have and which they
need from outside
v. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.
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9.2 Main Principles of Extension
Extension work is directed at changing people’s way of doing things in a specific predetermined
way believed to be desirable for individuals and the entire society. There are certain basic
principles guiding the conduct of extension work, which may differ with respect to the
community in which extension work is carried out. Extension principles have been defined as
guidelines for the conduct of extension and these principles are the bedrocks upon which
extension work rests. The principles are:
1. Principle of Cultural Difference: Culture simply means social heritage. There is cultural
difference between the extension agents and the farmers. Differences exist between groups of
farmers also. The differences may be in their habits, customs, values, attitudes and ways of life.
For extension work to be successful, it must be carried out in harmony with the cultural pattern
of the people.
2. Grassroots principle: Extension programmes should start with local groups, local situations
and local problems. It must fit into the local conditions. Extension work should start with where
people are and what they have. Change should start from the existing situation.
3. Principle of Indigenous Knowledge: People everywhere have indigenous knowledge systems

which they have developed through generations of work experience and problem solving in their
own specific situations. The indigenous knowledge systems encompass all aspects of life and
people consider it essential for their survival.
Instead of ignoring the indigenous knowledge systems as outdated, extension agents should try to
understand them and their ramifications in the life of the people, before proceeding to
recommend something new to them.
4. Principle of Interests and Needs: People’s interests and people’s needs are the starting points
of extension work. Identifying the real needs and interests of the people is a challenging task.
Extension agents should not pass on their own needs and interests as those of the people.
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Extension work shall be successful only when it is based on the interests and needs of the people
as they see them.
5. Principle of Learning by Doing: Learning remains far from perfect, unless people get
involved in actually doing the work. Learning by doing is most effective in changing people’s
behaviour. This develops confidence as it involves maximum number of sensory organs. People
should learn what to do, why they do what they do, how to do it, and with what results.
6. Principle of Participation: Most people in the village community should willingly cooperate
and participate in identifying their problems, planning projects for solving the problems and
implementing the projects to get the desired results. It has been the experience of many countries
that people become dynamic if they take decisions concerning their own affairs, exercise
responsibility for, and are helped to carry out projects in their own areas.
The participation of the people is of fundamental importance for the success of an extension
programme. People must share in developing and implementing the programme and accept that it
is their own programme.
7. Family Principle: The family is the primary unit of the society. The target for extension work
should, therefore, be the family. This implies that, the family, as a whole, is developed
economically and socially. It is not only the farmer that must be developed, the women and the
youths in the farm area are also to be involved in extension programmes.
8. Principle of Leadership: Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is
essential in extension programmes. Local leaders are the custodians of local thought and actions.
The involvement of local leaders and legitimisation by them are essential for the success of a
programme. Leadership traits are to be developed in the people so that they of their own shall
seek change from less desirable to more desirable situations. The leaders may be trained and
developed to act as agents of change in the villages.
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9. Principle of Adaptability: Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible
and adapted to suit the local conditions. This is necessary because people and their situations,
their resources and constraints vary from place to place and from time to time.
10. Principle of Satisfaction: The end product of extension work should produce satisfying
results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek further
improvement.
11. Principle of Evaluation: Evaluation prevents stagnation. There should be a continuous built-
in method of finding out the extent to which the results obtained are in agreement with the
objectives fixed earlier. Evaluation should indicate the gaps and steps to be taken for further
improvement.
List some of the basic principles of extension services.
i. Principle of cultural difference

ii. Grassroots principle
iii. Principle of indigenous knowledge
iv. Principle of interests and needs
v. Principle of learning by doing
vi. Principle of participation
vii. Family principle
viii. Principle of leadership
ix. Principle of adaptability
x. Principle of satisfaction
xi. Principle of evaluation
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9.3 Problems of Agricultural Extension in Nigeria
Oladoja (2006) opined that the tragic weakening of the agricultural extension system in Nigeria
is caused by underfunding, neglect and mismanagement by the former military government
combined with the ineffective and expensive World Bank Training and Visit system, which has
resulted in a situation in which it is difficult for agriculture to prosper in the country. He further
asserted that Nigeria is seriously handicapped without an effective extension system. However,
the problems facing agricultural extension system in Nigeria can be analysed as follows:
i. Problems of focus: It is not clearly defined whether the focus of agricultural extension in
Nigeria is on men, women, children and the aged.
ii. Policy making: The organizational structure of agricultural extension shows that the
administrative system is pivoted on a top-down approach (i.e. bureaucratic) rather than a
bottom-up approach (i.e. participatory).
iii. Problem of enactment: The extension system is yet to be backed by law in Nigeria. There
is no clear policy guideline on extension programme planning
iv. Problems of Responsibility: Before the advent of the Agricultural Development
Programme (ADP), extension used to be the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of
Agriculture. With the introduction of the Training and Visit system (T&V system) by
ADPs, the responsibility has now become that of the state. The State Ministry of
Agriculture has now drawn up policies on extension. But how relevant are the policies
drawn up by the government for agricultural extension development in Nigeria? There is
no specific policy statement on extension in Nigeria. The implementation of a policy on
agricultural production is always faulty. More so, those who are saddled with the
responsibility of implementing the various policies on agricultural extension are not
living up to expectation.
v. Political problem: Extension programme requires professional leadership for
effectiveness but as a result of political influence, any agriculturist is regarded as an
extensionist and so, can be appointed to lead where an extension specialist is supposed to
be. Little attention is paid to extension by the people in power who do not regard
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agricultural extension as a tool for the nation's development. Different people in Nigeria
perceive extension programmes differently.
vi. Inadequate Funding of Extension: There is an erratic release of fund to all agricultural
extension units. Initially the funding of ADP's in Nigeria was tripartite approach
involving the World Bank’s financial assistance. Poor funding leads to poor pattern of
communication. It also affects the span of control and the unity of command in Training
and visit system.
vii. Inadequate Input Supply: Farm inputs such as fertilizer, agro chemicals, improved seeds
etc, are not affordable for the farmers to buy and are not also readily available. Poor
quality of agro-chemical services from unnecessary delay in clearing and distribution of
chemicals to the appropriate quarters for marketing. Extension workers cannot
recommend the input that is not readily available to farmers.
viii. Linkage between Extension and Research: There is a weak linkage between farmers,
extension and research in Nigeria. The available techniques are not usually suitable and
adaptable to the country's environment. Developing an appropriate technology requires a
participatory approach
ix. Problem of Selfish Interest and Greed: This concerned the extension administrators
including the supervisors, and the extension managers. They attend seminars, workshops
and conferences themselves, but deny the real extension workers the opportunity to
participate in the training programme. Also, funds are not released as and when due.
x. Problem of Extension Staff-Farmer Ratio. In Nigeria, there is no agricultural radio or
rural radio for information dissemination. Therefore, the extension agents (EA) transmit
information to his farmers through personal contact. As a result of understaffing,
extension agent to farm family ratio is as large as 1:2500, or 1:30 or more. In Canada, it
is 1:110 while in Denmark, the ratio of Extension Agent to farm family is 1:325 (Axinn,
1988).
xi. Welfare and Motivation of Workers: These are at zero level, the extension workers are
not encouraged to develop themselves, there is no provision for in services or on-the-job
training. The extension staff was active and efficient when the ADP's was funded by the
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World Bank, but now the moral of staff has been dampened following the withdrawal of
the World Bank.
xii. Poor Staffing: In Nigeria, government does not take cognisance of the employment of
professionally competent staff as extension workers.
xiii. Lack of Programmed Evaluation: - Most agricultural extension programmes are not
evaluated based on the set objectives.
Enumerate any four (4) of the major problems limiting the effectiveness of agricultural extension
services in Nigeria.
i. Difficulty in identifying the object/focus f extension services

ii. Problem of policy making and implementation
iii. Problem of policy enactment
iv. Problems of responsibility
v. Political problem
vi. Inadequate funding of extension activities and programmes
vii. Inadequate input supply
viii. Inadequate linkage between extension and research
ix. Problem of selfish interest and greed on the part of extension administrators
x. Shortfall in the prescribed extension staff-farmer ratio
xi. Inadequacy of welfare and motivation of workers
xii. Poor staffing capacity
xiii. Lack of programmed evaluation
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9.4 Extension Teaching Methods
Extension teaching methods are the special tools used by the extension workers to stir up in
farmers, the desire to change. The success of the extension worker as a teacher depends, to a
large extent, on his skills in selecting and using properly, the various methods either singly or in
combination with each other.
Many factors influence the choice of extension methods. Therefore, the extension workers must
consider the following before making any choice:
i. Nature of the subject matter, its complexity and whether any selection of the farmers has
already adopted the practice
ii. Amount of time the extension worker intends to devote to the method and how much
time he thinks the farmers can be expected to devote
iii. Proper reinforcement by ensuring adequate relationship of selected method(s) with the
generally acceptable extension methods before embarking on the execution of extension
programmes.
The methods are:

i. Individual contact extension teaching method
ii. Group contact extension teaching methods
iii. Mass media extension teaching methods
iv. Emerging extension teaching method.
9.4.1 Individual Contact Methods
Individual contact method allows extension workers and the farmer to interact on one-to-one and
face-to-face basis. These could be farm visit, home visit, office calls and inquiry, informal
contact, model farm, and field flag.
(a) Farm and Home Visit
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The extension worker meets with individual farmer on his farm and in his home in order to:
i. Establish contact with men and women farmers and with others within the farmer’s
household
ii. Become aware of the practices and problems that exist in the farm and in the farmer’s
household
iii. Provide information and assistance in terms of advice on input procurement, sourcing of
credit and provision of additional information/explanation on knowledge and skill taught
previously; and,
iv. Provide rescue operation for the farmer in case of farm accident.
Planning and Preparation for Farm and Home Visits Before the visit
i. The extension worker must obtain or prepare the map of the community in which each
family lives or works
ii. The extension worker must prepare and maintain a visitation record containing the data
of visit on each client, purpose of the visit, and activities of the visit. When planning a
follow up visit to a client, the visitation record must be reviewed to refresh the memory.
iii. The extension worker must maintain a calendar of activity which should state what
activities to be carried out, where and when, with regards to the approved educational
activities.
Conducting the visit
The extension worker must carry out the following activities during the actual conduct of the
visit: He must:
i. Greet the farmer and members of the family upon entering the farm or home.
ii. Accept hospitality offered according to local custom and spend some time talking with
the farmer and his family members to be acquainted with their situation.
iii. Observe the conditions and activities of the farm operations.
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iv. Discuss all observations with the farmer and be factual, if it necessary, in suggesting
changes.
v. Offer solutions by discussing what should be done and what changes to be made.
vi. Respect the client's privacy and do not discuss the family’s issues with others.
Follow-up visit
The extension worker must:
i. Review visitation record; make notes and record location on map

ii. Prepare any additional information promised to the farmer
iii. Fulfill all his promised to be able to build and maintain trust and credibility
iv. In a situation whereby the issue of concern would benefit the other clients, the first
farmer must be notified or carried along in the crusade geared towards solving the
identified problems.
(b) Office Calls and Inquiries
This method enables the farmer to make personal visits to the extension office to seek
information, assistance and clarification on agricultural news heard, emerging situations on
the farm, procurement of input, feedback on previous learning experiences, and other farm
supporting facilities. To encourage office calls and inquires by the farmers, which would
facilitate strong relationship and extension values, the extension worker must:
 Establish the extension office in a government location;
 Keep regular office hours so that the farmers will know when he or she will be
available;
 Keep visitors register or book so that clients may keep records of their visit and
enquiries should the extension worker be out of office within the scheduled office
hour;
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 Keep the office neat, orderly and attractive;
 Maintain an up-to-date bulletin board and have information material readily

available; and
 Put the visitor at ease, especially if the individual appears to be shy in the new
environment.
Advantages of Individual Contact Methods
The individual contact method provides the farmer with the opportunity to know the extension
worker better and build personal bond with the community people.
 It enables the extension worker to know individual farmers better, what and how they
think, what their needs are, how they carry out their day-to-day activities and their
cultural activities.
 The credibility and integrity of the extension workers and their organization are initiated
and nurtured.
 Individual contact methods have been found highly effective among the illiterate clientele
who had not been and cannot be exposed to other methods than face-to-face interaction.
Disadvantages
 It is relatively costlier than meeting the farmer in a group
 It is time-consuming in terms of the number of farmers to be reached per time or

duration (one farmer at a time)
 The number of farmers or clientele to be reached and served by an extension worker is

limited.
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9.4.2 Group Contact Methods
Group contact method involves face-to-face interaction between the extension worker and a
group of farmer at the same time and place. This is mostly when and where time and staff at the
disposal of the extension worker are limited and when farmers are to be persuaded to try new
farm practice.
The method also works better on the principle that a group decision is better than
individual decision. This means that there is a ‘collective resolve’ to embark on new practice.
Some of the group methods are identified as follows: method demonstration, result
demonstration, field days, field trips, group meeting and discussion, etc.
(a) Method Demonstration
Method demonstration is employed to show that teaching or learning experience can be imparted
step-by-step for the purpose of teaching new skills (new techniques) and practical knowledge to
the farmer. The example of how to use a new farm tool, how to spray herbicide, a new planting
technique of crop to prevent erosion or how to prepare fermented slurry from maize grain can be
demonstrated. For the method to be effective, it must be properly planned through adequate
preparation.
1. Planning the Demonstration: The extension worker must do the following:
 Identify the problem to be solved preferably with the local clientele
 Identify the skill to be taught; that is, decide what skill to use focusing on the problem
and educational objectives to be attained
 Gather information about the skill and study thoroughly
 Identify the method that will break down into teachable segments
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 Involve the clientele in the planning and presentation of the demonstration by seeking
the people's advice and assistance in the provision of information such that local
interest and level of adoption is increased
 Assemble material required to conduct the demonstration, that is, everything a farmer
would need to apply the practice on his farm
 Plan the presentation step by step including an introduction and summary
 Rehearse the presentation until it can be given with confidence
2. Holding the Demonstration:
Schedule the demonstration for the most convenient time and place for the clients and be
gender-compliant
 Group the audience so that everyone can see and hear the demonstration clearly.
 Introduce the demonstration by explaining why the new practice is important and what
will take place at the gathering.
 Ask for assistance from the audience to help in demonstrating the various difficult steps.
 Encourage members of the audience to attempt the new method during the meeting. If
time allows, each individual should be given the opportunity to practice the skill.
 Summarise the important skills and the steps, and list the equipment needed.
 Distribute visual aids showing each step if available
3. Follow-up
 Evaluate the demonstration carefully noting where the strength and weaknesses appeared.
 Visit those clients who indicated interest in the demonstration.
(b) Result Demonstration

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Result demonstration is employed when an extension worker wants to prove to or persuade

people that a new idea is better than the existing farming practice or idea in terms of relative
advantage, yield and better increase in income. It is used purposely to:
 Demonstrate the superiority of new idea or farming practices over the existing ones
 Persuade extension clientele to try the new practice
 Set up a long-term teaching situation
An example of result demonstration would be a comparison of two maize crops, one with
fertiliser application and the other one without using fertilizer on a Small-Plot Adoption
Technique (SPAT) or 10m x 10m plot at the corner of the farmer's farm. Result demonstration is
costly in terms of time but highly effective, if successful. It therefore needs careful planning and
preparation.
1. Planning Result Demonstration
 Identify the problem to be solved by the demonstration.
 Decide upon the objectives to be accomplished.
 Gather complete information about the purposed practice and study it thoroughly.
 Seek the assistance of the clientele in planning and carrying out the demonstration.
 Ensure the endorsement and legitimisation of the demonstration by the local leaders
in order to reinforce the efforts.
 Seek the recommendation of the leaders about good and possible host farmers.
 Develop a complete plan of work clearly delineating each individual step and
slowing who has responsibly demonstrated plots that are centrally located and are
close to the road so that people can easily visit the site
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 Visit the local farmer and work with him or her to make sure that he or she
understands the purpose of the demonstration and how it will be implemented
2. Executing the demonstration
 Ask local leaders to co-operate in encouraging people to attend the start of the
demonstration
 Use the demonstration site for meetings and hours during the time of the
demonstration.
 Encourage the host farmer to describe the entire process of each visit and meeting.
 Keep records of all events so that the results, at harvest, may be compared.
 Data from the records could also be used as subject of discussion at other meetings.
 Publicise the demonstration through the best means available to the target audience
and the general public. This could be newspaper, radio, informal contact at market
days and meetings, etc.
3. Evaluating the Demonstration
Evaluate the process and result of the demonstration for future use. The host farmers and
others should carry out the evaluation with the assistance of the extension agent. The farmers
should be assisted to draw implications, and also provide follow-up information and further
training of interested clientele.
(a). Enumerate the four (4) common extension teaching methods known to you
(b). Identify the three (3) basic steps involved in the result demonstration method
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(a). The four (4) common extension teaching methods are:

iv. Emerging extension teaching method
(b). The three (3) basic steps involved in the result demonstration method are:
i. Planning for the demonstration

ii. Executing the demonstration
iii. Evaluating the demonstration
9.5 Mass Media as an Extension Method
The utilisation of mass media methods enables extension educators to enhance their teaching
efficiency. News articles, radio, television, publications, newsletters and the Internet provide
useful tools to reinforce educational content delivered in individual and group educational
settings. Using the mass media makes it possible to disseminate educational content to a large
number of, and a more diverse clientele. The impacts of educational meetings is limited to those
in attendance but a well-written news article providing a solution to a problem will be read by a
large number of people.
(a) Radio
The radio is an accessible form of mass media. Radio stations’ target audiences vary according to
language, age, and income demographics, making it easier for extension educators to reach
selected audiences.
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Technology has increased the efficiency of the radio in reaching large number of people, through
computer networks and satellite links. Specifically, radio broadcasting is a great method of
disseminating emergency or emerging information to the local clientele due to the presence of
radios in almost every home and vehicle.
Extension educators can utilise the radio to disseminate information on healthy diets; inform the
public regarding the activities of extension service, publicise meetings, tours, field days,
workshops, and other scheduled activities; and teach improved production practices.
(b) Television
Television is a popular teaching tool for some extension educators, especially in urban areas.
This method is more personal than the radio, since the audience can both see and hear the
extension educator. In utilising the television as a medium of news dissemination, extension
educators can provide a ‘how to’ lesson and reach an audience many times larger than could be
reached in meetings. An example might be to provide a demonstration related to preparing a
healthy meal.
(c) Publications
Extension publications have long been a staple in educational tools available to extension
educators. They typically focus on a specific topic and are made up of scientific information and
real-world application suggestions for the public. Extension publications play an important role
in current mass communication efforts and have many formats including bulletins and fact
sheets. Publications strengthen and reinforce the news article, radio show, television broadcast,
guides, pamphlets, brochures, newsletters and other forms of printed material.
They are distributed in connection with office calls, farm or home visits, phone calls and
extension educational meetings. They can be distributed electronically via email to address
specific subject matters or topics. Currently, the electronic format of publications allows
Extension educators to provide the most current information quickly.
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(d) Newsletters
Newsletters can be utilised to stimulate interest in a subject, heighten awareness of an issue,

provide timely subject matter information, announce meetings, etc. However, this educational
method can be very dynamic if coupled with other educational methods to underpin educational
content.
With the use of electronic publishing software, today’s newsletters can be made very attractive
and appealing to the reader. These newsletters can be the traditional paper mail-out version or
can be electronically distributed, which is a more common means of distribution.
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Enumerate the common mass information media used in the extension services in Nigeria.
i. Radio
ii. Television
iii. Print media e.g, newsletter, publications, etc
iv. Internet services
9.6 Teaching-Learning Interaction
One way or another, every human being is a teacher. All of us operate within a frame of
reference and we decide what we will say or teach and what we will not say or teach. Both the
teacher and the learner have internal filter which they both go through in order to decide what to
teach and learn. Outside influence also plays a significant role in determining what to teach or
learn. This interactive process is a continuous exercise which promotes effective teaching-
learning process.
A teaching and learning transaction takes place in the context of reciprocal relationships. It is a
relatively discrete event in which one person transmits a message intended to have an impact on
another which frequently generate two types of climates. These two climates are supportive and
defensive climates.
Below is a brief illustration of the two climates.
The Supportive Climate
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Shared problem-solving attitude --- _____ _defensiveness
Acceptance__________________- _______+ initiating behaviour
Empathy ___________________ _______+ growth

Supportive
Listening___________________ ________+ catharsis
_______+ perceptiveness
___+ acceptance and empathy
The Defensive Climate
Advice-giving sensory__________ _____+ defensiveness
Defense_____________________ ______+ responding behaviour
Persuasion __________________ _____ - growth

Climate
Controlling __________________ ______ - perceptiveness
Punishing___________________ _____ - empathy
Conclusion
In this chapter efforts had been made to identify and discuss the basic concept, objectives,
principles and philosophy of agricultural extension that will ensure the success of extension work
which is a necessary pre-requisite for sustainable agricultural development. Extension teaching
methods are avenues through which extension clientele are reached with improved farm practices
to empower them for improved output level and standard of living. Each of the methods is
effective if used properly but none is sufficient and adequate to deal with all extension situations.
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Each method is selected and used singly or in combination with other methods based on its
appropriateness depending on the learning experience in focus, level of adoption where the
clientele knowledge and skill levels of the extension worker are compatible. The extension
worker must be skillful in the use of the extension methods in order to meet the desired
objectives.
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1. The whole essence of extension services is to convey educational information to

meet the economic needs of man with the aim of achieving the goal of an
improved welfare status and a better society/economic environment for man.
2. Agricultural extension, by implication, is a form of ‘out of school’ system of
education for teaching members of the farm family how to raise their standard of
living by their own efforts, and using their own resources by providing their own
scientific knowledge to solve their own problem.
3. Extension services assist farmers and their family members to productively
engage in farm production, and to teach/aid them to adopt improved practices in
production, management, conservation and marketing.
4. The services of extension are worthwhile to the adult members of the farm family
only when the acquired knowledge and skills provide opportunities for practical
application, and for increased productivity and improved standards of living.
5. Agricultural extension therefore involves working with the rural people along the
lines of their immediate and felt needs and interest to make a living for them, and
to enhance their socio-economic well-being, and improve on their physical
surroundings.
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What are the objectives of agricultural extension services?
Highlight the main principles of extension services
Enumerate the major problems limiting the effectiveness of agricultural extension services in
Nigeria.
(a). Enumerate the various extension teaching methods known to you
(b). Identify the three (3) basic steps involved in the result demonstration method
List the common mass information media used in the extension services in Nigeria.
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References
Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nation (1990). Concept and Policy of
Agricultural Extension in Report of Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension. Rome FAO
pp.7.
Maunder, A. H (1973). Agricultural Extension-A Reference Manual (Abridge Edition) Rome

FAO pp.42.
Obibuaku I. O. (1983). Agricultural Extension and Strategy for Agriculture Transformation

Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press. Pp14-22.
Oladoja M. A. (2000). Poverty Alleviation Strategy among Fisher Folks in Lagos and Ogun
States, Nigeria. pp 24-58.
Oladoja M.A. (1994): Training needs of Extension Agents in Lagos Agricultural Development
Programme. pp 4-10.
Ouamar, M. K. (2002). Agricultural Extension at the Turn of Millennium Trends and Challenges.
Human Resources in Agriculture and Rural Development Rome FAO. pp 158-169.
Research and Extension (2002). The Diversity Programmes. Kansa State University College of
Agriculture Manhattan Kansas pp 1-5
Williams S.K.T. (1984): Evaluation and Monitoring Process in Extension. In Williams Needs)-
A manual for Agricultural Extension Workers in Nigeria. Printers Ibadan, Nigeria. pp 143-768
Williams S.KT. (1989): Extension Services within the Strategy of Agricultural Development in
Nigeria in the 1990's. published by ARMTI Ilorin, Nigeria pp 11-30
Rodewald, A.D. (2001). Delivery systems- Is the “latest” technology the greatest? Journal of
Extension. 39 (4) Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/tt2.html.
Seevers, B. &Graham, D. (2012). Education through Cooperative Extension. (3rd ed.).

Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Bookstore.
Wagent, L.P Lemley, A.T., Granthan, D.G., Harrison, E.G., Hilliman, K., Mathers, K. &Younge,
L.H. (2005) Evaluating the effectiveness of public television as a method for watershed
education. Journal of Extension. 43 (2) Retrieved from
http://www.joe.org./joe/2005april/a5.shtml.
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Study Session 10: Introduction to Nutrition and Food Science
Introduction
Foods are made up mostly of edible biochemicals which are mainly derived from living sources
such as plants and animals. Food is a biological material containing chemical substances that is
capable of providing energy and other nutrients necessary for normal growth, development,
repair, and replacement of worn out tissues. No single food item can supply all the nutrients in
adequate or required quantities. As a result, a variety of foods have to be eaten in order to meet
the body’s needs for these nutrients. Therefore, nutrient is defined as a substance that the body
must have in adequate amount in order to maintain a normal healthy life. The body requires
nutrients to operate at optimal health and performance levels. The body must have these nutrients
to take care of its daily functions – growth, maintenance, repairs, and reproduction. Except for
water and oxygen taken from air, the nutrient needs of the body can only be met through food.
Food is made up of different nutrients or chemical substances needed for a newer and healthy
body. No single food has all the nutrients needed by the body; so many foods must be eaten
because each nutrient has its specific roles and uses in the body. Many of these nutrients benefit
the body most when they interact with each other (i.e. nutrients interrelationship). Therefore,
different kinds of food must be combined in a meal to provide all the needed nutrients in the
body.
1.1 Activities of Nutritionists, Food Scientists and Technologists

1.2 Malnutrition
1.3 Nature of Nutritional Problems
1.4 Nutrients and their Importance
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10.1 Activities of Nutritionists, Food Scientists and Technologists
The activities of food scientists and food technologists are geared towards the following:
1. Food scientists help in developing palatable, nutritious, low cost foods to meet the
nutritional needs of various groups of people.
2. Food scientists are involved in improving existing food products and the developing new
ones to meet the demands of consumers for new and different products by altering the
nutrient contents of foods, particularly reducing the caloric content of adding vitamins
and minerals to food to fortify or enrich it. This is known as food fortification or food
enrichment. However, successful product development requires a blend of science and
creativity.
3. Food processing technology is applied in the design and operation of food processing
equipment. These include automated equipment to meet the increased demand for
factory-produced foods.
4. Food preservation is also a major activity of food scientists especially for seasoned
agricultural products. Refrigerated warehouses using controlled atmospheric storage
permit year-round sale of fruits; food freezing, dehydration, sterilisation, canning,
booting constantly receive improvement in their applications.
5. Food scientists also have the goal of making food as safe as possible. The judicious
application of food processing, storage and preservation methods help to prevent
outbreaks of food poisoning, effect of pathogenic micro-organisms and toxic chemical,
such as pesticides and other environmental contaminants.
6. Food scientists are beginning to use new techniques and products emerging from the field
of genetic engineering and biotechnology. Advances in recombinant DNA technology
and related methods are providing improved microbial strains end new enzymes to
increase yields and cut costs in the fermentation industries.
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7. Removal of ions from liquid foods through the combined use of selective membranes and
electric current, a process known as electrodialysis is also done by food scientists.
8. Food scientists are involved in establishing international food standards to promote and
facilitate world trade and at the same time, assure the wholesomeness and value of foods
purchased between nations. Gross efforts are being made by NAFDAC in Nigeria to
safeguard food quality.
9. Food scientists also work in conjunction with nutritionists to develop standards for the
optional nutrient content of food diet and to determine how food processing and storage
affect nutrients.
Enumerate any three (3) of the main activities of food scientists and food technologists in food
nutrition services and development.
The activities of food scientists and technologists are listed as follows:
i. Developing palatable, nutritious, low cost foods to meet the nutritional needs of various
groups of people.
ii. Improving existing food products and developing new ones to meet the demand of
consumers for new and different products by altering the nutrient contents of foods
iii. Application of food processing technology in the design and operation of food processing
equipment
iv. Preservation of food products to enable all-year round supply.
v. Food scientists also have the goal of making food as safe as possible by their efforts on
food processing, storage and various preservation methods help prevent outbreaks of
food poisoning.
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vi. Food scientists use new techniques and products emerging from the field of genetic
engineering and biotechnology to increase yields and cut costs in the fermentation
industries
vii. Removal of ions from liquid foods through the combined use of selective membranes and
electric current, a process known as electrodialysis is also done by food scientists.
viii. Food scientists establish international food standards to promote and facilitate world
trade and to assure the wholesomeness and value of foods purchased between nations.
ix. Food scientists work in conjunction with nutritionists to develop standards for the
optional nutrient content of food diet and to determine how food processing and storage
affect nutrients.
10.2 Malnutrition
Malnutrition is defined as a ‘state of impaired functional ability or development caused by an

inadequate intake of essential nutrients or conditions are produced by malnutrition’. Some of
these are goitre, anaemia, vitamin deficiencies, blindness, and retarded growth and mental
development. Malnutrition is an overall general term that can be either ‘severe’ or ‘moderate’.
Severe malnutrition refers to two conditions, marasmus and kwashiorkor. Each of these results
from continuous restriction of protein and (or) calories in early childhood. Marasmus occurs
when an individual consumes insufficient amounts of food that provide essential calories and
protein. This often develops shortly after birth. Kwashorkor occurs when protein intake is
inadequate.
Moderate malnutrition or chronic under nutrition occurs when both quantity and quality of food
intake are restricted. This form of malnutrition is more common throughout the world. More
nutritional problems in this country appear to fall into this category than in the other.
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Hunger is defined as a ‘physiologic and psychological state that results from insufficient food
intake to meet immediate energy needs’.
Food produces relief from hunger. However, malnutrition requires treatment and rehabilitation
that may be continuous to produce a lasting relief effects. This is why hunger and malnutrition
are interrelated but not the same. Four forms of malnutrition exist:
l. Under-nutrition such as starvation
2. A specific deficiency such as vitamin A deficiency
3. An imbalance of nutrients such as lack of several amino acids
4. Over-nutrition such as obesity.
Mention the four (4) forms of malnutrition common among Nigerian citizens
The four (4) forms of malnutrition common among Nigerian citizens are listed as follow:
i. Under-nutrition such as starvation

ii. A specific deficiency such as vitamin A deficiency ’
iii. An imbalance of nutrients such as lack of several amino acids
iv. Over-nutrition such as obesity.
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10.3 Nature of Nutritional Problems
Many diseases have a nutritional component and lack of an adequate diet directly cause diseases
or contribute to an individual’s susceptibility to disease. Nutrition-related health problems could
be divided into several categories.
- Protein deficiency: Adequate nutrition is especially important in the first months and
years of life. Mothers who do not receive sufficient protein or calories during
pregnancy or during breast feeding have children with increased susceptibility to
diseases. If protein calorie malnutrition continues throughout the first years of life,
permanent physical and mental impairment of development occurs,
- Chronic energy deficiency: Individuals who are chronically deprived of sufficient
calorie intake must reduce their activities. This leads to reduced economic activity
and family support. This, in turn, leads to less economic output which rather
compounds the problem.
- Iron deficiency: Iron deficiency is among the most widespread of the brace nutrient
deficiency. This results in both social and medical problems and loss of productivity.
- Iodine deficiency: This deficiency causes goitre or thyroid enlargement and is still
widespread. Several other related diseases are also related to iodine insufficiency.
This deficiency has been eliminated in the developed world by the addition of iodine
to table salt.
- Vitamin deficiencies: The major vitamin deficiency in vitamin A. In some parts of the
world, this single deficiency has led to widespread blindness and related disease.
Other severe vitamin and mineral deficiencies occur in isolated populations and areas.
In many cases these deficiencies do not directly cause but may lower a population’s abilities to
contribute to a productive society, but simply put, the malnourished are not able to work towards
the common good of all. Such deficiencies also lead to increased susceptibility to other diseases.
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List any two (2) forms of nutrition-related problems among Nigerian citizens
The four (4) types of nutrition-related problems among Nigerian citizens are:
i. Protein deficiency
ii. Chronic energy deficiency
iii. Iron deficiency
iv. Iodine deficiency
v. Vitamin deficiencies
10.4 Nutrients and their Importance
(a). Carbohydrates
Three groups of carbohydrates are of major importance:
1. Monosaccharide: Simple sugars such as glucose, fructose and galactose which cannot be
broken down into smaller units during digestion.
2. Disaccharides: More complex sugars such as sucrose (cane or beet sugar), lactose (milk
sugar), and maltose which can be split into monosaccharide or simple sugar dining digestion.
3. Polysaccharides: Larger, more complex molecules such as starch, dextrins, and cellulose, and
glycogen which may also be split into monosaccharide or simple sugar during digestion.
Functions of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are indispensable energy materials for the body.
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- The end-product of carbohydrate (glucose) circulates in the blood and is essential for life.
Therefore, carbohydrates ‘spare’ body protein so that it can be used for growth and
maintenance of the body.
- Carbohydrate in the liver serves a protective function and assists in the normal process of
metabolism of protein and fat.
The central nervous system is extremely dependent upon abundant supply of glucose for the
blood. Nervous tissue has little glycogen stored in it. As a result, glucose must be available to
meet the energy needs of the nervous system. For example, the brain can suffer damage from
prolonged hypoglycemia or a low blood sugar level. An adequate supply of vitamin B complex
must be available for carbohydrate to be utilised by the body. Vitamin B complex plays an
important part in the metabolism of carbohydrates in the body.
(a) Fat
Fat is the concentrated energy sources of food. Like carbohydrate fat is composed of chemical
elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is the form in which animal store energy for
future use. Fats are lighter than water and are also insoluble in water. They are not easily
digested because of their high carbon content. The fats that are fluid at room temperature are
usually digested easily than solid fat. Vegetable fats are usually liquid at room temperature and
are called oils, e.g. Soya beans oil, groundnut oil, cotton seed oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, etc.
while animal fat are solid at room temperature. The basic difference is due to the kind and
amount of fatty acid present.
Functions of fats
1. They provide the body with heat and energy.
2. Fat adds flavour to food making them more palatable
3. When fat is available for energy, it spares protein for growth and body maintenance
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4. Fats provide essential fatty acid for the fat soluble vitamins.
(c). Protein
Proteins are similar to carbohydrates and fats because, like those nutrients, they contain carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Some proteins also contain sulphur, iron, phosphorus and iodine. Proteins
are composed of larger, more complex molecules than fats or carbohydrates. The large molecules
of proteins are made up of many simple units called amino acids. These amino acids contain
nitrogen. Investigators found that foodstuffs containing nitrogen differ from those that do not.
They found twenty-two amino acids present in common proteins that occur in nature. These
amino acids are often classified according to how essential they are in the daily diet.
Nine amino acids have been identified as absolutely necessary for infants; adults require eight.
The body cannot manufacture these essential amino acids but they must be taken into the body
through foods.
The essential amino acids are:
l. Histidine; 2. Iseleucine; 3. Leucine; 4. Lysine; 5. Methionine;
6. Phenylalanine 7. Threonine; 8. Tryptophan; 9. Valine
The Non-essential amino acids are:

1. Alanine 2. Areinine 3. Asparaeine 4. Aspartic acid 5. Cysteine
6. Gluiamic acid 7. Glutamine 8. Glycine 9. Hydroxypreline 10. Proline
Functions of protein
- For growth;
- For the maintenance and repair of body tissue;
- For the formation of hemoglobin and plasma proteins;
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- For the regulation of water balance and maintenance of proper acid balance (pH) within
the body;
- It is also required for the formation of enzymes, antibodies and hormones; and,
- For energy generation when sufficient carbohydrates and (or) fats are lacking in the body
Sources of protein
Both animals and plants are sources of protein for the human diet. The best sources of protein are
animal foods. Excellent sources are sea foods, eggs, cheese, milk and meat. They have high
biological value and arehighly digestible. Plant foods are also fair as protein source like corn,
rice, oats, sorghum, millet, wheat of dry legumes. However, legumes like soybean are good
sources of quality protein.
(d). Water
Water is very essential to the human body. A normal healthy individual maintains a certain water
balance to assist the body perform adequate body maintenance. The body is equipped with
different mechanisms including thirst to help maintain the water balance. About 60% of a man‘s
weight is water.
Sources of water in the body
The body losses about 2 litres of water per day in the form of dehydration, sweating and
excretion. This is why it is important to consume about 2 litres of water every day to replace the
water loss from the body daily and maintain water balance. There are three main sources of
water to the body, namely:
a. Consumption of fluids such as drinking water, edible fruits, juices, tea, milk, soup, etc. a
b. Semi solid feed such as meat, poultry, vegetable, cereals, fruits, etc.
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c. Oxidation and metabolic process of the body cells.
Functions of water in the body
i. Water provides a transport medium for suspended and dissolved substances from one part
of the body to another.
ii. Water is the medium for excretion of waste nitrogenous matter in form of urine formed in
the kidneys.
iii. The high thermal capacity of water enables the body to work at a near constant internal
temperature.
iv. The principal means by which heat is lost from the body is by evaporation or evapo-
transpiration. The heat required for this latent heat of evaporation is taken from the skin
tissues. This is continuous and essential for body temperature control.
v. Certain external surfaces of the body need to be bathed in water to maintain their
passages and the conjuctiva of the eyes.
vi. Water is a necessary chemical reagent entering into the many hydrolysis reactions of
digestion and metabolism.
(e). Vitamins
Vitamins may be defined as organic compounds which are present in small amounts in natural
foodstuffs, and are required for normal growth, maintenance of life, and reproduction. They
cannot be synthesised by the body and must be obtained from the diet. They are needed in very
small amounts, in milligrams (mg) or even micrograms. They have been divided into two groups,
namely: water soluble or fat soluble vitamins.
Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins Functions Food Sources Deficiency Recommended
symptoms and Dietary
diseases allowance
Vitamin A To maintain Liver, margarine, Stunted growth, -
(Retinol) and functions of the egg yolk, dark night blindness,
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Pro-Vitamin A epithelial tissues, green vegetables, keratinised skin,

(carotene) mucous deep yellow etc.
membrane and vegetables, etc.
eye. Promotes
growth.
Vitamin D Promotes Fortified milk Rickets, weak -
absorption and and margarine, bones, bow legs,
(calciferol) utilization of egg fish poorly formed
calcium and teeth, etc.
phosphorus for
the growth of
bone.
Vitamin E Protects Vegetable oil,
tocpherol) Vitamins A and green vegetable,
unsaturated fatty whole grains,
acids from nuts, etc.
oxidation;
protects cell
structure
Vitamin K Essential for Green leafy Hemorrhage
blood clotting vegetables, pork,
liver, soybean
oil, etc.
Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins Functions Food Sources Deficiency Recommended
symptoms and Dietary
diseases allowance
Thiamin (B1) Essential for Pork, organ, Beriberi Adult male and
carbohydrate meat, whole female (0.5mg)
metabolism grains, nuts,
legumes,
enriched bread
and cereals
Riboflavin (B2) Essential for Milk, cheese, Cheilosis Adult male and
growth and egg, grean leafy female (0.6mg)
reproduction, vegetables,
carbohydrates, enriched bread
fats and protein and cereals
Niacin (Nicotinic Essential for Yeast, meat, Pellagra Adult male and
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acid) carbohydrate poultry, fish, female (0.6mg)

metabolism whole grain,
nuts, enriched
bread and cereals
Vitamin B6 Essential for liver, meat, Anemia, nervous Adult male and
metabolism of whole grains, disorder female (202.2mg
amino acids, fat soybean oil, nuts, daily)
and corn, potatoe,
carbohydrates etc.
Pantothenic Acid Essential for Liver and organ Adult male and
metabolism of meats, whole female (4-6mg
carbohydrate, grains cereals, daily)
fats and amino nut, egg, etc.
acids
Folacin Required for Liver, dark green Anemia Adolescent and
normal body vegetables, adults
(Folic acid) growth, kidney, yeast, (40mg/day)
prevention of legumes, nuts,
anemia etc.
Vitamin B12 Essential for Animal foods – Pernicious Adolescent and
metabolism of liver, kidney, Anemia adults (3g/day)
carbohydrate, meat, milk, eggs,
fats and amino etc.
acids; prevention
of anemia
Ascorbic acid Essential for Citrus fruits, Scurvy Adolescent and
healthy tissues, green pepper, adults
(Vitamin C) promotes healing straw berries, (80mg/day)
f wounds, cabbage,
maintains tomatoes,
healthy blood potatoes, etc.
vessels, assists in
teeth and bone
formation
Enumerate the basic classes or components of food that you know
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The six (6) major classes/components of food are:
i. Carbohydrates
ii. Fat
iii. Protein (they are also sources of energy like carbohydrate and fats)
iv. Water
v. Vitamins
vi. Mineral resources
Conclusion
Foods are very important requirements for the growth and sustenance of man. The human body
requires basic nutrients to operate at optimal health and performance levels and to take care of
the body's daily functions, including growth, maintenance, repairs, and reproduction. Human
beings require food nutrients in varying amounts and quantities as dictated by individual’s age,
sex, body size, activities and health status. While food science applies the knowledge of basic
sciences to the fundamental physical and biochemical nature of food substances, food technology
encompasses the application of the information generated by food scientists in preserving,
processing, packaging and distributing food products to enhance their availability, adequacy and
safety for consumption.
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1. Foods are edible biological and biochemical substances derived from plants and animals
2. Food has the capability of providing energy and other nutrients necessary for normal
growth, development, repairs, and replacement of worm-out tissues.
3. The utilisation of food substances is complementary in nature as no single food item can
supply all the nutrients in adequate and required quantities.
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Enumerate the main activities of food scientist and food technologists in food nutrition services
and development.
Mention the four (4) forms of malnutrition common among Nigerian citizens
Enumerate the various types of nutrition-related problems among Nigerian citizens
Highlight the six (6) basic classes or components of food that you know.
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References
Potter, M.N and Hotchkins, J.H (1997). Food Sciences. Chapman and Hall, New York.
Ronsivall, L.J and Ernest, R.V (1998). Elementary Food Science. Chapman and Hall, New York.
Okhiria, A.O and Karim, O.R (2005). A manual of Home and Hotel Management. Ejide Printing
Press, Nigeria.
Passmore, R and Eastwood, M.A (1987). Human Nutrition.
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Study Session 11: Introduction to Forestry and Wildlife

Management
Introduction
Tropical forests provide tangible and intangible materials and essential benefits because of their
biodiversity. Forest products are converted into forms that are useful to man. Tangible forest products
include wood for timber, poles, panels, pulp for paper making, and fuel. Forest resources could be
classified as game reserve from economic point of view. Forest products could be timber forest
products (TFPs) or non-timber forest products (NTFPs). TFPs include logs for furniture works while
NTFPs include latex for rubber, wild animals, fuel woods, sponge, among others.
The term ‘forest’ is specifically used to describe land with tree canopy or cover of more than 10
percent of an area of more than 0.5ha. Examples of forest trees are Teak (Tectona grandis), Gmelina
aribires, Pinus elliotti, Pinus caribaea, etc. Wildlife refers to all the animals and plants that exist in
their natural habitat (be it terrestrial, aquatic or arboreal). Wildlife management is the science and art
of changing the characteristics and interactions of wild animal in order to achieve specific human
goals compatible with economic development, scientific approach and educational advancement.
11.1 Types of vegetation in Nigeria

11.2 Forest and its functions
11.3 Importance of forestry and wildlife conservation
11.4 Objectives of wildlife conservation in Nigeria
11.5 Destruction and restoration of forest and its resources
11.6 Forest Products/Produce
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11.1 Types of Vegetation in Nigeria
1. Mangrove Forest and Coastal Vegetation (e.g. Lagos, Rivers, Bayelsa States)
2. Fresh water swamp forest (e.g. parts of Lagos and Ogun States)
3. Lowland rain forest (e.g. parts of Ogun and Ondo States)
4. Derived Savanna (e.g. parts of Ogun and Oyo States)
5. Guinea Savanna (e.g. Kwara, Niger and Benue States)
6. Sudan Savanna
7. Sahel Savanna
8. Desert (this is not very common in Nigeria; however, it is fast encroaching unless urgent and
adequate steps are taken to check it).
Mention three (3) of the common types of vegetation in Nigeria
The common types of vegetation in Nigeria are:
i. Mangrove Forest and Coastal Vegetation (e.g. Lagos, Rivers and Bayelsa State)
ii. Fresh water swamp forest (e.g. parts of Lagos and Ogun States)
iii. Lowland rain forest (e.g. parts of Ogun and Ondo States)
iv. Derived Savanna (e.g. part of Ogun and Oyo States)
v. Guinea Savanna (e.g. Kwara, Niger and Benue States)
vi. Sudan Savanna
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vii. Sahel Savanna

viii. Desert
11.2 Forest and its functions
Forest as a versatile environmental resources provide both goods and services functions.
The goods can be classified into:
1. Timber-Based Forest Products (TFPs)

2. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
The timber-based forest products include: timber, fuel and poles. The non-timber forest products
include foods, drugs, fruits, honey, medicinal plants, mushroom, etc.
Forest service functions can be in four ways, namely:
i. Environmental service functions
ii. Social service functions
iii. Spiritual service functions, and
iv. Cultural service function
Environmental service functions can further be classified into three categories, namely:
1. Erosion
2. Water catchment
3. Pollution abatement.
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Forest serves as sink to carbon and other dangerous pollutants. They also give out quality air
(Oxygen) as by-product of photosynthesis. In addition, forests protect the underground waters as
well as abate noise pollution.
The social functions of the forest include the use of forest environment such as forest reserves,
national parks and game reserves for relaxation, picnics, etc. in order to reduce the stress of work
or to provide opportunity for relaxation while on holiday.
The spiritual functions of forest include the use of forest estate as grounds and mountains for
spiritual meditations, religious groups and prayer warriors’ praying ground.
The cultural service functions include the use of some plants for specific cultural functions. For
instance, the leaves of Newboldia levis are used for chieftaincy title/coronation in Yoruba land.
Mention the forest service and environmental service functions of forest known to you
The forest service functions include:
i. Environmental service functions
ii. Social service functions
iii. Spiritual service functions, and
iv. Cultural service functions
The environmental service functions include:
i. Erosion
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ii. Water Catchment

iii. Pollution abatement
11.3 Importance of Forestry and Wildlife Conservation
1. Provision of food: Fruits are made available. Also ‘bush meat’ supply becomes possible and
this increases animal protein availability in rural and urban areas
2. Environmental education: Places like zoological gardens, museums, games reserves and
National Parks provide humans the opportunity to learn about animals that live around them,
their behavior, as well as their feeding habits
3. Generation of revenues: Government derives revenue from wildlife through sport hunting and
entrance fees to games reserves, geological gardens, National Parks, etc.
4. Provision of recreation and tourism: Wildlife still serves as the main source of attraction of
tourists to Africa.
5. Environmental protection: When wildlife is conserved, their environment is equally conserved

i.e. the plants, soil and water around the animals in the wild are equally conserved. Hence, this
would help check environmental degradation like erosion and flooding of streams and rivers.
6. Medical Research: Primates are close relatives of humans. Hence, the drugs that are produced
for the treatment of various diseases are usually tested on them before they are administered to
humans.
7. Wildlife by-products: Hides, skins, tusks, feathers, hairs and bones of wild animals are used to
make shoes, bags, cups, hats, etc. which are highly priced.
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8. National Heritage: Wildlife is our National heritage. Hence, it must be preserved so that the
on-coming generation would also meet them.
9. Wildlife is used in traditional medicines
10. Wildlife provides employment opportunities to man
11. Timber for furniture, pulp for paper, latex for tyre/rubber industries, essential oils, gums,
incense, spices, tannins, etc. for the leather industries.
List any three (3) benefits of forest and wildlife conservation
Forest and wildlife conservation serve the following functions:
i. A source of food (fruits, bush meat supply which increases animal protein availability in
rural and urban area)
ii. A means of environmental education (such as zoological gardens, museum, game
reserves and national parks)
iii. A source of income to government
iv. Provision of recreation and tourism
v. Environmental protection
vi. Use for the purpose of medical research
vii. Wildlife by-products (e.g. hides, skins, tusks, feathers, hairs and bones of wild animals
are used to make shoes, bags, cups, hats, etc. which are highly priced)
viii. It serves as national heritage
ix. Wildlife is used in traditional medicines
x. Wildlife provides employment opportunities to man
xi. It is a source of timber for furniture, pulp for paper, latex for tyre/rubber industries, etc.
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11.4 Objectives of Wildlife Conservation in Nigeria
In Nigeria, the major national wildlife management objectives are:
i. To provide ‘bush meat’ in order to supply increase the availability of animal protein in
both the rural and urban areas of Nigeria, with much focus on the rural areas;
ii. To preserve the nation’s national heritage;
iii. To promote game viewing, tourism and foreign exchange earnings - sport, fishing and
sport hunting;
iv. To encourage and promote wildlife conservation for education and research;
v. To generate employment opportunities in rural areas;
vi. To promote ecological diversity and stability through the preservation and maintenance
of gene pool.
Constraints of Wildlife Management in Nigeria
1. Game poaching
2. Bush burning
3. Illegal grazing by livestock
4. Shortage of skilled manpower
5. Illegal farming
6. Inadequate funding
7. Ignorance of the benefits accruable from natural and wildlife resources
8. Inadequate legislature and enforcement
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9. Inadequate research information
10. Lack of implementation of management objectives and research findings
i. Highlight any two (2) objectives of wildlife conservation in Nigeria

ii. Identify any two (2) constraints to wildlife conservation in Nigeria
(a). The objectives of forest and wildlife conservation in Nigeria are as follows:
i. Bush meat supply to increase the availability of animal protein in both rural and urban
areas of Nigeria, with emphasis on the rural area;
ii. To preserve our national heritage;
iii. To promote game viewing, tourism and foreign exchange earnings - sport, fishing and
sport hunting;
iv. To encourage and promote wildlife conservation for education and research;
v. To generate employment opportunities in rural areas;
vi. To promote ecological diversity and stability through the preservation and maintenance
of gene pool.
(b). The constraints to forest and wildlife conservation in Nigeria are as listed below:
i. Game poaching
ii. Bush burning
iii. Illegal grazing by livestock
iv. Shortage of skilled manpower
v. Illegal farming
vi. Inadequate funding
vii. Ignorance of the benefits accruable from natural and wildlife resources
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viii. Inadequate legislature and enforcement

ix. Inadequate research information
x. Lack of implementation of management objectives and research findings
11.5 Destruction and Restoration of FOREST and its RESOURCES
11.5.1 Forest Destruction (Deforestation)
Forest destruction is brought about by the expansion of human economic activities due to
increase in population size. These activities have brought about two types of forest destruction,
namely deforestation and forest degradation.
a. Deforestation - This can be defined as the removal of forest and other forms of vegetative
cover from the site without replenishing it.
b. Forest degradation - on the other hand involves changes within the forest that affects its
structure and functions negatively. Such changes ultimately hinder the capacity of the
forest estate to supply the products and services expected from it.
11.5.2 Forest Restoration (Aforestation)
Restoration of forest is in two forms. That is, it could be in the form of reforestation or
aforestation.
i. Reforestation is the establishment of a forest on a temporary unstocked land. This could

be by natural means (natural succession) or by artificial means (i.e. plantation
establishment).
ii. Aforestation refers to the establishment of forest plantation on land areas that were not
originally covered by forest or regarded as forest. It means changes or transformation
from that which is non-forest to forest.
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(a). Concisely define the following terms as they relate to forest resource management in
Nigeria:
i. Deforestation
ii. A forestation
i. Deforestation – This is defined as the removal of forest and other forms of vegetative
cover from the site without replenishing it.
ii. A forestation - This is the establishment of forest plantation on land areas that were not
from that which is non-forest to forest
11.6 Forest Products/Produce
Forest products are usually referred to as all goods and services provided by the forest. Although,
‘forest products’ and ‘forest produce’ are sometimes used interchangeably, they have been
differentiated. For instance, Okoro (2002) defines forest produce, on the other hand, as the sum
total of all the biodiversity that may be utilised in households or marketed, or that have socio-
cultural importance. On the other hand, forest products are all the foregoing and their derivatives
after further processing or manufacturing. This means, it is a ‘produce’ if it comes to the market
in raw form, and ‘product’ if it enters the market in a processed form. However, some forest
produce do not need further processing before they reach their final consumer. Hence, they could
be referred to as forest products.
The various products obtainable from the forest include, round wood, wood fuel, sawn wood,
wood based panels, pulp and paper and non-wood forest products.
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Classification of Forest Produce
For the purpose of proper management of forest resources, there is need to classify forest
produce into convenient groups. However, forest produce have been classified in four (4) ways:
1. Tangible and intangible forest products
2. Major and minor forest products
3. Timber and non-timber forest products
4. Wood and non-wood forest products
The classification into major and minor forest products describes timber as a major forest
product while other forest products are regarded as minor.
The classification into what is tangible and intangible groups forest produce like wood, fruits,
wrapping leaves, mushrooms, medicinal herbs and wildlife into tangible forest produce while the
environmental service is grouped as intangible.
Timber and Non-Timber Produce
Timber produce can be said to be said to be of various species which are desirable for the
production of sawn timber as well as pulp wood. Wood can be categorised as (i) soft wood (e.g.
Pinus elliotti) (ii) hard wood (e.g. Tectona grandis) and (iii) ordinary wood (e.g. chewing stick).
Examples of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are non-wood products such as fruits and
spices, games, mushrooms, and environmental service functions, among others.
What are forest products or produce? Give a few examples of common ones
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Forest products refer to all the goods and services provided by the forest. Examples include
round wood, wood fuel, sawn wood, wood based panels, pulp and paper and non-wood forest
products. Others are bush meat, snails, sponge, etc
Conclusion
Man has continued to depend on forest and wildlife resources for his means of livelihood. Tropical
forests provide tangible and intangible materials and are of essential benefits to mankind because of
their biodiversity. Tangible forest products such as wood, poles, panels, pulp and fuel are useful to
man as raw materials in other sub-sectors of the economy, and are good sources of income. Wildlife
conservation as an important component of forest resource management further enhances the
economic and environmental relevance of the forest reserves by providing a basis for understanding
the characteristics and interactions of wild animal population within their habitats in order to achieve
economic development as well as educational advancement.
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1. Forests cultivation, exploration and preservation are economically useful as a tool for the
socio-cultural development of tropical nations as they provide tangible and intangible
material benefits to mankind.
2. As a result of their biodiversity, forest resources and products are easily convertible to
goods, commodities and services that are useful to man in various sectors, including
cultural, religious, economic and industrial.
3. The forest inhabits several plants and animals in varying degrees of size, nature and form,
many of which have direct or indirect impact on human livelihood in one way or another,
and they contribute positively to human life and existence.
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session. You can then re-check your answers with the ‘Notes on Self-Assessment Questions’
Enumerate the common types of vegetation available in the tropics of Nigeria
Highlight concisely, the services rendered by the forest with respect to the following functions:
1. Forest service, and

2. Environmental service functions
List the benefits of forest and wildlife conservation
1. Highlight the objectives of wildlife conservation in Nigeria

2. Identify the major constraints to wildlife conservation in Nigeria
Concisely define the following terms as they relate to forest resource management in Nigeria:
i. Deforestation
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ii. A forestation
1. What are forest products or produce? Give a few examples of some common ones
2. What are the major classes of forest products that abound in Nigeria?
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References
Afolayan, T.A (1987). “Man’s humanity to Nature: the over-exploitation of wildlife resources”.
Inaugural lectures, Series 3, Akure: Federal University of Technology, Akure, 1987. 35pp.
Okori, S.P.A (2002). “Forest produce in Edo State.”. An invited paper presented at a workshop
on Forest People and the Environment in Benin, Edo State, Nigeria, 5-6 September; 13pp.
Page 226 of 251

Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1
SAQ 1.1
i. Crop production
ii. Livestock production
SAQ 1.2
3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation, Ibadan
SAQ 1.3
i. Source of food for human and livestock consumption
ii. Source of raw materials to industry
iii. Source of national income
iv. Employment generation
v. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade
vi. A tool for national development.
SAQ 1.4
i. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints

ii. Lack of modern implements and machinery
iii. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
iv. Poor credit facilities and financing
v. Incidence of pests and diseases
vi. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities
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vii. Inadequate processing and storage facilities

viii. Inadequacy of extension services
ix. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly
perishable
x. Instability of price policies
xi. Inconsistencies of government policies on agriculture.
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1.5
i. Enforcement of the Land Use Act of 1978 and if properly executed it will enable genuine
farmers access to farmland.
ii. Local fabrication of farm implements and establishment of tractor and equipment hiring
units and centers
iii. Government subsidy programmes on agricultural inputs iputs)
iv. Provision of banks loans
v. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form cooperative
societies
vi. Research into pests and diseases of agricultural produce and livestock should be
encouraged
vii. The construction and maintenance of rural roads on regular basis.
viii. Construction of storage silos in production areas to keep perishable and seasonal produce
ix. Regular training of farmers in agricultural processing and encouragement of farmers by
buying off agricultural produce during harvest or surplus, organize storage and sell to the
end users during scarcity.
x. Employment of qualified and adequate number of extension officers to serve as link
between farmers and researchers.
xi. Establishment of Agricultural Pricing and Marketing Boards in the marketing of
agricultural goods to get rid of middlemen.
xii. Proper monitoring/implementation of agricultural policies.
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Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 2
SAQ 2.1
i. Size
ii. Population Density and Composition
iii. Occupation
iv. Social Integration
v. Social Stratification
vi. Social Differentiation
vii. Social mobility
viii. Social Control
ix. Shortage or absence of social amenities and services
x. Rural land acquisition and tenure systems
SAQ 2.2
i. Family institution
ii. Marriage institution
iii. Educational institution
SAQ 2.3
i. Christianity
ii. Islam
iii. Traditional belief system
SAQ 2.4
i. Cooperative societies: Economic services are performed through the cooperative efforts
ii. Government or privately established institutions serving the rural area
iii. Individual farmers who look for services among individuals and groups
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SAQ 2.5
(a). i. Lack of commitment to rural development efforts
ii. Policy associated problems
i. Lack of systemic and coordinated implementation of programmes resulting in duplication
ii. Lack of community involvement/empowerment
iii. High level of corruption
(b). i. Rural areas form the most important sector of the economy because majority of the land,
labour, capital are domiciled in the rural areas.
i. Lack of development activities in the rural areas have led to rural-urban migration
ii. The higher the level of advancement of the rural peoples through the development of
their areas, the greater the employment opportunities
iii. With concerted efforts on rural development, the problem of poor access to social and
economic infrastructure and services are often solved.
iv. The problem of infant mortality, malnutrition and disease prevalence, food insecurity are
reduced via rural area development.
SAQ 3.1
Some of the economic crops that can be grown in Nigeria include:

i. Cereals (e.g. paddy rice, maize, etc.)
ii. Mushroom
iii. Tuber crops (cassava, yam, etc.)
iv. Legumes (cowpea, soybeans, etc.)
Some of the economic livestock that can be reared in Nigeria include:
i. Poultry
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ii. Large ruminants (e.g. cattle)

iii. Small ruminants (e.g. sheep and goat)
iv. Pigs
SAQ 3.2
Pigs are very profitable to raise due to the following traits it possesses:
i. Its fecundity
ii. Its high feed conversion ratio
iii. Ability to feed on cheap and common foodstuffs.
SAQ 3.3
Aquaculture is an important enterprise in the Nigerian agricultural sub-sector because:

i. It serves as a source of income to the households
ii. It helps to preserve raw foods
iii. It makes food available throughout the year, even during the off-seasons
SAQ 3.4
Forest products can be defined to be the ‘outputs’ of forest exploration and investments. They
include timber products (e.g. teak, logs, etc) and non-timber products (e.g. mushroom, snails,
bush meat, sponge, etc.).
They are very important in the Nigerian agricultural sub-sector because:

i. They are sources of income to the rural households.
ii. They are sources of foreign earnings.
iii. The study of forestry helps to preserve natural resources (trees and wildlife).
Page 231 of 251

SAQ 4.1
The necessary activities that must be carried out as part of the cultural practices in crop
production include the following:
Pre-planting-operations:
i. Choice of site/site selection
ii. Land clearing
iii. Burning
iv. Stumping
v. Farm layout
vi. Tillage/tilling
Planting-operations:
These activities include planting date, spacing/planting distance, seed rate, planting depth,
mulching/capping, nursery establishment, and transplanting).
Post-planting operations
These include thinning, supplying, mulching, manure/fertilizer application,
watering/irrigation, weeding, pest/disease control, harvesting, farm level processing, and
storage.
SAQ 4.2
Agricultural systems are the methods by which a group of people in a particular place, region or
country carry out agricultural production (crops, livestock, fishery, snailery, agro-forestry, etc.)
according to its customs and beliefs, in order to supply human needs and improve their living
standards.
Page 232 of 251

SAQ 4.3
Some forms of agricultural farming system in Nigeria are:

i. Arable farming: The cultivation of edible, annual crops that complete their maturation
period within one year.
ii. Mixed farming: A system of cultivating crops and rearing of animals on the same parcel
of land at the same time.
iii. Livestock/Pastoral farming: A system of rearing ruminant animals and growing of

grass/forage crops on which they will graze.
SAQ 4.4
Some of the activities that form part of the cropping practices in Nigeria include the following.
i. Shifting cultivation: This is a practice whereby farmers move from one parcel of land to
another one to grow crops, after cultivating the former land parcel for a number of
years, to allow it to rejuvenate and revive its fertility.
ii. Continous cropping: This is a practice whereby farmers continue to cultivate a particular
parcel of land to for several years without allowing the land to naturally rejuvenate.
iii. Monocropping: It is a practice by which farmers grow only one type of crop on a parcel
of land.
iv. Mixed farming: A system of cultivating crops and rearing of animals on the same parcel
of land at the same time.
v. Inter-planting: A system of planting of two or more crops on the same piece of farm land
during the same season, but here the first crop to be planted is harvested first and the
second crop is harvested later.
vi. Intercropping: The practice of planting fast-growing and fast-maturing crops between
slow-growing and slow-maturing crops such that the fast-growing crop planted after
the first crop is harvested first.
Page 233 of 251

vii. Crop rotation: This is a practice in which the same piece of farm land is kept under
cultivation every year in such a way that the crops grown are sequentially arranged so
that deep-rooted crops (for instance) do not follow each other to avoid depletion of
soil fertility.
SAQ 5.1
The major constraints to agricultural mechanisation in Nigeria include:
i. Land tenure system

ii. Scattered farm holdings
iii. Financial constraints
iv. Inadequate facilities
v. Bad topography
vi. Different soil types
vii. Inadequate spare parts
viii. Inadequate technical manpower
ix. Problems of stumps and logs
SAQ 5.2
The serial activities that are carried out during agricultural processing operations are:
i. Cleaning, grading, and sorting
ii. Drying and dehydration
iii. Milling and size reduction
iv. Handling, packaging, and transportation
v. Agricultural waste and by-products utilization
Page 234 of 251

SAQ 5.3
(a) The general requirements of a functional farm machine are:
i. It must permit the widest manufacturing tolerances that are consistent with good
performance.
ii. It must perform satisfactorily over wide ranges in a considerable number of variables
iii. It must be operated where the temperature is well above 40oC or where it is below
iv. It must utilise the lowest-cost materials that are available and satisfactory for the job
v. Instead of resting on a solid factory floor or moving over a smooth road, it must operate
vi. It must be designed to handle wide variations in crop and soil conditions.
vii. It must be subject to stringent economic limitations.
viii. The cost of manufacturing the machine must be kept to an absolute minimum so that the
ix. Farm machinery designs must be as simple as possible.
(b). The four (4) different types of farm implements are:

i. Trailed: It is also referred to as pull-type this is because it is pulled and guided from a
single hitch point and is never completely supported by the tractor.
ii. Semi-Mounted Implement: These are more compact and more maneuverable than pull
type. It is attached to the tractor a horizontal hinge axis that is partially supported by
the tractors
iii. Mounted: These are termed as direct mounted, tractor mounted or tractor carried
ploughs.
iv. Self-propelled machine: In this type of implement, the propelling power unit is an
integral part of the implement.
Page 235 of 251

SAQ 5.4
(a). The two (2) types of tillage operations are:

i. Primary tillage operation constitutes the initial, major soil working operation.
ii. Secondary tillage operation, which is intended to create refined soil conditions following
primary tillage.
(b). The different forms of minimum tillage system are:
i. Minimum tillage system (or zero-tillage)

ii. Conventional tillage system
iii. Traditional tillage system
SAQ 6.1
The three (3) different methods of raising livestock
1. Intensive method: The animals are kept within a confined place to make routine
management activities more effective and gainful, and to reduce their operational cost.
2. Semi-intensive method: The animals are allowed free range during the day and they go
back to their shed in the night.
3. Extensive method: The animals are totally left to freely scavenge around for the food
and water without any attention given to them. The risk and losses involved in this kind
of livestock management practice is high compared to other forms of practices.
SAQ 6.2
1. Livestock acclimatisation
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
Page 236 of 251
SAQ 7.1
The basic importance of aquaculture to the national economy
i. It provides quality protein rich food and feed.

ii. Fish products are used in health and medical management.
iii. They are used in education, research and development
iv. They are international commodity and foreign exchange earner.
v. They utilise food not used by man and land animals.
vi. Utilization of land not suitable for agriculture is an advantage of aquaculture.
vii. Gainful employment and poverty reduction.
viii. Growth of ancillary industries providing income generation for government
SAQ 7.2
The objectives of aquaculture to the national economy include:
i. Increased aquatic biodiversity and conservation.

ii. Re-introduction and restocking of depleted fishery resources.
iii. Aesthetic and beautification through ornamental fishery.
iv. Rational management of aquatic resources to meet increasing world population.
v. Production of low cost protein rich, nutritive, palatable and easily digestible human
food.
SAQ 7.3
The basic elements of fish identification?
i. The feeding habit of the fish

ii. The habitat of the fish
Page 237 of 251
SAQ 7.4
(a). Some of the factors that must be considered in the establishment of an aquaculture
enterprise include:
i. Feasibility of the enterprise
ii. Suitable site.
iii. Water of good quality and quantity.
iv. Land topography.
v. Soil structure, texture and porosity.
vi. Fish seed availability.
vii. Feed of good quality and quantity,
viii. Market availability and proximity.
ix. Agro-climatic and meteorological conditions.
x. Security from poaching and sabotage
(b). Those factors that must be considered in the selection of fish species for culture in a fish
enterprise/business include:
i. Ability to tolerate crowding
ii. Fast growth ability
iii. Ability to accept artificial feed
Page 238 of 251

iv. Resistance to disease
v. Propensity to breed in captivity
vi. Good market value
vii. Local availability of fish seed
viii. Adaptability to the environment.
SAQ 7.5
The basic factors that must be kept in mind in constructing a technically befitting fish pond.
i. Pond water availability and supply: i) spring pond: fed by spring water; ii) Sky pond: fed
by rain iii) Tidal pond: fed by tidal river or estuary.
ii. Site selection
iii. Pond design style
SAQ 7.6
Highlight the main management techniques in aquaculture farming.
i. Fish Nutrition
ii. Fish breeding techniques
iii. Pollution in aquatic environment
iv. Disease management in aquaculture
v. Post-harvest value addition
vi. Record keeping
vii. Fisheries regulation and administration
Page 239 of 251

SAQ 8.1
The four (4) major factors of production in agricultural enterprises are:
i. Land
ii. Labour (household and hired labour)
iii. Capital (cash, raw materials, machines)
iv. Entrpreneurship (skills)
SAQ 8.2
(a). The characteristics of agricultural enterprises that affect management decision making
are:
i. Agricultural decisions are taken in an environment of risks and uncertainties

ii. Unstable changes in inputs and output prices
iii. Unstable government actions and policies
iv. Actions of other stakeholders in agricultural production, e.g neighbouring farmers,
money lenders, etc.
v. Other unforeseen circumstances, such bad weather condition, water shortages, power
failure, sickness, theft, death, etc.
(b). The various ways by which risk may be minimised in an agricultural enterprise include:
i. Diversification
ii. Flexibility in farm organisation and production methods
vi. Cost flexibility

vii. Inventor management
Page 240 of 251

viii. Guaranteed minimum prices.
SAQ 8.3
(a). The different approaches to the supply of credit to farmers include:
i. Through cooperative societies
ii. Use of produce buyers and other informal lenders
iii. Through the aid of development project agencies
(b). The steps to be taken in making a complete farm budget are:
i. Determination of the farming goals and farmer's preferences
ii. Listing of the farm resources that are available to the farmer
iii. Determination of which of the resources are currently being used
iv. Listing of the gross production
v. Preparing a statement of expenditure and income for the farm on the basis of current
utilisation of the farm resources
vi. Analysing the input-output relationships such as labour and/or machine performances or
efficiency attained on the farm
vii. Comparing the above with the standards available on other farms around the area
viii. Diagnosing structural weaknesses and operations
ix. Determining the priorities in correcting the structural and operational weakness
Page 241 of 251

x. Preparing a number of alternative farm plans and choose one as the final plan to be
adopted
xi. Supervising the implementation of the programme under the plan, and
xii. Evaluation of the result.
SAQ 8.4
The various methods used in computing the depreciation value of an asset include:
i. Straight-Line Method
ii. Declining Balance Method
iii. Sum of the Year‘s Digits Method
SAQ 9.1
The objectives of agricultural extension services in Nigeria include the following:
1. To assist people to discover and analyse their problems and identify their felt needs.
2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve their
problems.
3. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way
people would be able to understand and use.
4. To assist people in mobilising and utilising the resources which they have and which they
need from outside.
5. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.
Page 242 of 251

SAQ 9.2
The main principles of extension services within a developing economy are as follow:
i. Principle of Cultural Difference

ii. Grassroots Principle
iii. Principle of Indigenous Knowledge
iv. Principle of Interests and Needs
v. Principle of Learning by Doing
vi. Principle of Participation
vii. Family Principle
viii. Principle of Leadership
ix. Principle of Adaptability
x. Principle of Satisfaction
xi. Principle of Evaluation
SAQ 9.3
The major problems limiting the effectiveness of agricultural extension services in Nigeria
include:
i. Difficulty in identifying the object or focus of extension services
ii. Problem of policy making and implementation
iii. Problem of policy enactment
iv. Problems of responsibility
v. Political problem
vi. Inadequate funding of extension activities and programmes
vii. Inadequate input supply
Page 243 of 251

viii. Inadequate linkage between extension and research
ix. Problem of selfish interest and greed on the part of extension administrators
x. Shortfall in the prescribed extension staff-farmer ratio
xi. Inadequacy of welfare and motivation of workers
xii. Poor staffing capacity
xiii. Lack of programmed evaluation
SAQ 9.4
(a). The four (4) common extension teaching methods are:

iv. Emerging extension teaching method
(b). The three (3) major steps involved in the result demonstration method are:
i. Planning for the demonstration
ii. Executing the demonstration
iii. Evaluating the demonstration
SAQ 9.5
The most common mass information media used in the extension services in Nigeria are:
i. Radio
ii. Television
Page 244 of 251

iii. Print media e.g. newsletter, publications, etc

iv. Internet services
Notes on the Re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 10
SAQ 10.1
The activities of food scientists and technologists are listed as follows:
i. Developing palatable, nutritious, low cost foods to meet the nutritional needs of various
groups of people.
ii. Improvement of existing and development of new food products to meet the demand of
consumer for new and different products by altering the nutrient content of foods
iii. Application of food processing technology in the design and operation of food processing
equipment.
iv. Food preservation is a major activity of food scientists especially for seasoned
agricultural products.
v. Food scientists have the goal of making food safe for human consumption.
vi. Food scientists are beginning to use new techniques and products emerging in the field of
genetic engineering and biotechnology.
vii. Removal of ions from liquid foods through the combined use of selective membranes and
electric current, a process known as electrodialysis.
viii. Food scientists are involved in establishing international food standards to promote and
facilitate world trade and at the same time assure the wholesomeness and value of foods
purchased between nations. Gross efforts are being made by NAFDAC in Nigeria to
safeguard food quality.
ix. Food scientists work in conjunction with nutritionists to develop standards for the
optional nutrient contents of food diet and to determine how food processing and storage
affects nutrients.
Page 245 of 251

SAQ 10.2
The four (4) types of malnutrition common among Nigerian citizens are listed as follows:
i. Under-nutrition such as starvation
ii. A specific deficiency such as vitamin A deficiency ’
iii. An imbalance of nutrients such as lack of several amino acids
iv. Over nutrition such as obesity.
SAQ 10.3
The four (4) types of nutrition-related problems among Nigerian citizens are:
i. Protein deficiency
ii. Chronic energy deficiency
iii. Iron deficiency
iv. Vitamin deficiency
SAQ 10.4
The six (6) major classes/components of foods are:
i. Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharide (simple sugars) such as glucose, fructose and galactose.
- Disaccharides (complex sugars); combination of monosaccharides or simple sugars, e.g.

lactose (milk sugar), and maltose.
- Polysaccharides (more complex sugar molecules), e.g starch, dextrins, and cellulose, and
glycogen.
Page 246 of 251
ii. Fat
iii. Protein (they are also sources of energy like carbohydrate and fats)
iv. Water
v. Vitamins
vi. Mineral resources
SAQ 11.1
The common types of vegetation in Nigeria are:
i. Mangrove Forest and Coastal Vegetation (e.g. Lagos, Rivers and Bayelsa States)
ii. Fresh water swamp forest (e.g. parts of Lagos and Ogun States)
iii. Lowland rain forest (e.g. parts of Ogun and Ondo States)
iv. Derived Savanna (e.g. parts of Ogun and Oyo States)
v. Guinea Savanna (e.g. Kwara, Niger and Benue States)
vi. Sudan Savanna
vii. Sahel Savanna
viii. Desert.
SAQ 11.2
(a). The forest service functions include:
i. Social service functions
Page 247 of 251

ii. Spiritual service functions, and
i. Cultural service function
(b). The environmental service functions include:
i. Erosion
ii. Water Catchment
iii. Pollution abatement
SAQ 11.3
Forest and wildlife conservation serve the following functions:
i. A source of food (fruits, bush meat supply which increases animal protein availability in
rural and urban area)
ii. A means of environmental education (such as zoological gardens, museum, game
reserves and national parks)
iii. A source of income to government
iv. Provision of recreation and tourism
v. Environmental protection
vi. Use for the purpose of medical research
vii. Wildlife by-products (e.g. hides, skins, tusks, feathers, hairs and bones of wild animals
are used to make shoes, bags, cups, hats, etc. which are highly priced)
viii. It serves as national heritage
ix. Wildlife is used in traditional medicines
x. Wildlife provides employment opportunities to man
xi. It is a source of timber for furniture, pulp for paper, latex for tyre/rubber industries, etc.
xii. Timber for furniture, pulp for paper, latex for tyre/rubber industries, essential oils, gums,
incense, spices, tannins, etc for the leather industries.
Page 248 of 251
SAQ 11.4
(a). The objectives of forest and wildlife conservation in Nigeria are as follows:
l. To provide ‘bush meat’ in order to supply increase the availability of animal protein in both the
rural and urban areas of Nigeria, with much focus on the rural areas;
2. To preserve the nation’s national heritage;
3. To promote game viewing, tourism and foreign exchange earnings - sport, fishing and sport
hunting;
4. To encourage and promote wildlife conservation for education and research;
5. To generate employment opportunities in rural areas;
6. To promote ecological diversity and stability through the preservation and maintenance of
gene pool.
(b). The constraints to forest and wildlife conservation in Nigeria are as listed below:
i. Game poaching
ii. Bush burning
iii. Illegal grazing by livestock
iv. Shortage of skilled manpower
v. Illegal farming
vi. Inadequate funding
vii. Ignorance of the benefits accruable from natural and wildlife resources
Page 249 of 251

viii. Inadequate legislature and enforcement
ix. Inadequate research information
x. Lack of implementation of management objectives and research findings
SAQ 11.5
i. Deforestation – It is defined as the removal of forest and other forms of vegetative cover
from the site without replenishing it.
ii. A forestation - This is the establishment of forest plantation on land areas that were not
from what is non-forest to what is a forest.
SAQ 11.6
(a). Forest products refer to all the goods and services provided by the forest. Examples include
round wood, wood fuel, sawn wood, wood based panels, pulp and paper and non-wood forest
products. Others are ‘bush meat’, snails, sponge, etc.
(b). The major classifications of forest produce/products are as follow:
i. Tangible and intangible forest products
ii. Major and minor forest products
i. Timber and Non-Timber Forest products

ii. Wood and Non-wood Forest Products
Page 250 of 251

Page 251 of 251

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OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY

OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

GNS105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development

List of Other Contributors to the Original Lecture Note Manuscripts

Recommended Study Time

What you are about to Learn in this Course?

1. Understand the general overview of agriculture in the Nigerian context

Working through this Course

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

Final Examination and Grading

Tutors and Tutorials

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 7

Study Session 1: Overview of Nigerian Agriculture .................................................................... 27

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 ................................................................................... 27

1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria ............................................................. 28

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1 ................................................................................................ 31

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1 .................................................................................................. 31

1.2 Later efforts at Agricultural Development in Nigeria .................................................... 32

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.2 ................................................................................................ 33

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2 .................................................................................................. 33

1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development ................................................................ 33

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.3 ................................................................................................ 34

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.3 .................................................................................................. 34

1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria ...................................................................... 35

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.4 ................................................................................................ 35

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.4 .................................................................................................. 35

1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges .......................................... 36

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.5 ................................................................................................ 37

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.5 .................................................................................................. 37

Summary of Study Session 1 .................................................................................................... 39

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 ......................................................... 40

SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.1) ............................................................................... 40

SAQ 1.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.2) ............................................................................... 40

SAQ 1.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.3) ............................................................................... 40

SAQ 1.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.4) ............................................................................... 40

SAQ 1.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.5) ............................................................................... 40

Study Session 2: Sociology of Nigeria Rural Areas ................................................................. 42

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2 ................................................................................... 42

2.1 Distinguishing Factors Responsible for Rural-Urban Differentiation .............................. 43

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1 ................................................................................................ 47

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1 .................................................................................................. 47

2.2 Rural Social Institutions in Nigeria ................................................................................ 48

2.2.1 Family Institution .................................................................................................... 48

2.2.2 Marriage institution ................................................................................................. 50

2.2.3 Education as an Institution in Rural Nigeria ........................................................... 51

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.2 ................................................................................................ 53

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.2 .................................................................................................. 53

2.3 Religion and Belief Systems in Rural Nigeria ............................................................... 53

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.3 ................................................................................................ 55

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.3 .................................................................................................. 55

2.4 Rural Economic Institutions in Nigeria.......................................................................... 55

2.4.1 The Significance of Economic Institutions to Rural Dwellers ............................... 56

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.4 ................................................................................................ 57

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.4 .................................................................................................. 57

2.5 The Concept of Rural Development............................................................................... 57

2.5.1 Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria............................................................ 58

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5 ................................................................................................ 58

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5 .................................................................................................. 58

2.5.2 Significance of Rural Development Effort ............................................................. 58

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5.2 ............................................................................................. 59

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5.2 ............................................................................................... 59

Summary of Study Session 2 .................................................................................................... 61

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2 ......................................................... 62