3.

0 Literature Review

A temporary immigrant who crosses into another country's territory and takes up
residence and employment there is known as an expatriate or expat (Andersen & et al). As an
expatriate, it is not a choice to be made lightly to pack up, relocate, and lead an expatriate
lifestyle. Before making such a major decision, there are several things to consider as there
are too many challenges that will occur during the journey of being an expatriate.

According to Dowling & Welch (2004), the challenges of expatriate adjustment in

foreign nations are numerous for both expatriates and their parent country businesses. The
issues have a wide variety of sources. It may be caused by various management approaches,
linguistic or cultural barriers, insufficient pre-employment training, a lack of family support,
cultural differences or the incapacity to collaborate with new hires. Problems that expatriates
run into while overseas may cause them to fail, which would result in early termination of
their employment and return to their place of origin, or resignation from their position before
completing the task given to them.

Additionally, being an expatriate is quite stressful because the entire expatriation

process necessitates intensive training and preparation before to departure. When a foreign
employee struggles to fit in at a subsidiary, it may damage their performance and perhaps
cause them to fail and return home too soon. For example, the company must send another
expatriate to complete the task if the first one was not successful. The business will have to
spend extra money on the task as a result of this. Therefore, it's important to comprehend how
expats adjust to their new environment.

In few researches, it is found that expatriation is a significant disruption in

individuals’ lives (Lazarova et al, 2010). For example, stress increases during these
experiences have been medically measured (Wurtz, 2022). However, expatriates face
different challenges from loneliness and isolation to communication and interaction issues
with locals, a possible gap between expectations and reality and more generally challenges in
adjusting to a different culture.

There are two major types of expatriation, which are assigned expatriates (AEs) and
self-initiated expatriates (SIEs). AEs move because of arrangements made by their parent
company while SIEs initiate their own movement hence emphasize the different challenges
face by each expatriates. According to Suutari (2022), cross-cultural leadership research has
largely been comparative research contrasting leadership styles of managers from different
countries. For example, the focus has been on understanding the differences and similarities
across national cultures. He also stated, if challenges faced in different cultures are studied,
the focus has traditionally been on the adjustment challenges faced by the expatriate and the
factors influencing adjustment.

Based on research made by McNulty (2019), expatriates have frequently been

described as particularly vulnerable, having little knowledge of local customs and frequently
experiencing acculturation stress, with only a small local support network to help them. They
also argue that this could set off a chain reaction of more serious crisis events. They extend
traditional crisis studies that have suggested that working abroad is a stressor in and of itself,
leading to a variety of negative outcomes.
 It is known that expatriate has many challenges. According to Rocke (2017), one of
the most common problems of the expatriation process addressed by scholars on a regular
basis is the problems and difficulties of the foreign assignment that arise during the
repatriation stage. When expatriates relocate to work and live in another country, they enter a
new cultural environment.

According to V.P. Goby and Z.U. Ahmed (2002), expatriates face cultural shock,
differences in work norms, isolation, home sickness, a different system of healthcare
protection and education for children, a different language, cuisine, and other living costs.
Most expatriates face problems with both their work and personal adaptation; if unresolved,
these problems can cause stress for an employee, as well as a negative impact on his/her
professional career and the overall success of the foreign assignment (Qin, Zhou, 2009).

Expatriates have become one of the most important strategic assets in multinational
corporations, as they perform a wide range of important tasks in foreign subsidiaries,
positively impacting various aspects of subsidiary and headquarters performance. Expatriates
are inundated with feelings of anxiety and uncertainty of not knowing what to expect in the
host country both in work and non-work settings and these feelings can obstruct social
integration and performance.

No Title Citation References Index

1 Factors Kok Fei, T. L., &Le, L. Y. (2020). https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v
Contributing to Factors Contributing to Expatriate 5i9.469
Expatriate Adjustment to Life in Malaysia.
Adjustment to Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences
Life in Malaysia and humanities (MJSSH), 5(9)

2 A transactional Wurtz, O. (2022). A transactional https://www-emerald-

stress and stress and coping perspective on com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insight/con
tent/doi/10.1108/JGM-10-2021-
coping expatriation: new insight on the roles
0086/full/pdf?title=a-transactional-
perspective on of age, gender and expatriate type. A stress-and-coping-perspective-on-
expatriation: Coping Perspective on Expatriate. expatriation-new-insights-on-the-roles-
new insights on of-age-gender-and-expatriate-type
the roles of age,
gender and
expatriate type.
3 Using Narratives Harry, T. T., Dodd, N., & https://www-emerald-
and story-telling Chinyamurindi, W. (2019). Using com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insi
to understand Narratives and story-telling to ght/content/doi/10.1108/JGM-
the challenges understand the challenges faced by a 05-2018-
faced by a sample of sef-initiated expatriates in 0024/full/pdf?title=telling-tales-
sample of self- South Africa. Telling Tales, 7(1). using-narratives-and-story-
initiated telling-to-understand-the-
expatriates in challenges-faced-by-a-sample-
South Africa of-self-initiated-expatriates-in-
south-africa

4 The expatriate Haslberger, A., &Brewster, C. (n.d). https://www-emerald-

family: an com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insight/con
The expatriate family: an
tent/doi/10.1108/02683940810861400/
international international perspective, 23(3). full/pdf?title=the-expatriate-family-an-
perspective international-perspective

5 Exploring the Zhang, Y., & Oczkowski, E. (2015). https://www-emerald-

potential effects com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insight/con
Exploring the potential effects of
tent/doi/10.1108/CCSM-05-2015-
of expatriate expatriate adjustment direction, 0062/full/pdf?title=exploring-the-
adjustment 23(1). potential-effects-of-expatriate-
direction adjustment-direction

6 Suutari, V., Raharjo, K., & Riikkila E,T. https://www-

The challenge of (n.d.) The Challenge of cross-cultural emerald.com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
cross-cultural leadership interaction: Finnish my/insight/content/doi
leadership expatriates in Indonesia /10.1108/13620430210449948/f
interaction: ull/pdf?title=the-challenge-of-
Finnish crosscultural-leadership-
expatriates in interaction-finnish-expatriates-in-
Indonesia indonesia
7 Highway to McNulty, Y., Lauring, J., Jonasson, C., https://www-emerald-
Hell? Managing com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insight/conte
& Selmer, J. (2019). Highway to Hell?
nt/doi/10.1108/JGM-10-2018-
expatriates in Managing expatriates in crisis. 7(2). 0054/full/pdf?title=highway-to-hell-
crisis managing-expatriates-in-crisis

8 Expatriation: Rocke, D. (2017). Expatriation: https://llufb.llu.lv/conference/RE

Challenges and Challenges and Success Factors of an EP/2017/Latvia-Univ-Agricult-
Success Factors International Career. Rural REEP-2017_proceedings-451-
of an Environment Education Personality 456.pdf
International
Career

9 The Challenges Hamze, M. (2020). The Challenges https://www.researchgate.net/p

Facing Facing Expatriate Managers Working ublication/
Expatriate in Foreign Countries. Management 342181685_The_Challenges_Faci
Managers and Economic Review, 5(1). ng_Expatriate_
Working in Managers_Working_in_Foreign_C
Foreign ountries
Countries

10 Stress, Burnout Santos, L. (2020). Stress, Burnout https://go.gale.com/ps/retriev

and Turnover and Turnover Issues of Black e.do?tabID=T002&resultList
Issues of Black Expatriate Education Professionals in Type=RESULT_LIST&search
Expatriate South Korea: Social Biases,
Education Discrimination and workplace ResultsType=SingleTab&hitCoun
Professionals in bullying. Gale Academic, 17(11). t=213&searchType=Bas
South Korea: icSearchForm&currentPositio
n=3&docId=GALE%7CA64
Social Biases,
3312834&docType=Report&
Discrimination
sort=Relevance&contentSeg
and workplace ment=ZONE-
bullying. MOD1&prodId=AONE&pag
eNum=1&contentSet=GALE
%7CA643312834&searchId=
R5&userGroupName=myuni
sel&inPS=true
11 Expatriate Sterle, M., Fontaine, J., Mol, J., & https://www.frontiersin.org/articl
Family Verhofstadt, L. (2018). Expatriate es/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01207/full
Adjustment: An Family Adjustment: An Overview of
Overview of Emprical Evidence on Challenges and
Empirical Resources. Frontiers in Psychology.
Evidence on
Challenges and
Resources
12 Homesickness in Hack-polay, Dieu, & Mahmoud, A. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi
developing (2021). Homesickness in developing /pdf/10.1177/239700222095273
world world expatriates and coping 5
expatriates and strategies. German Journal of
coping Human Resource Management,
strategies 35(3).

13 A study on S, H., & Murugesh, M. (1997). A file:///Users/farahathirah/Downl

Challenges and study on challenges and adjustment oads/01.05.2016ssmjipaperprest
adjustment of of expatriates in Cross Cultural ntedwithmonaherceo.pdf
expatriates in Context. SS INTERNATIONAL
cross cultural JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY
context. RESEARCH, 2(5).

14 Language Tenzer, H., &Schuster, T. (2017). file:///Users/farahathirah/Downl

Barrier in Language Barriers in Different Forms oads/Languagebarriersindifferent
different forms of International Assignments. typesofinternationalassignments
of international Research Gate. November2015.pdf
assignments.

15 Expatriate Richardson, C. & Wong, W. (2018), https://www-emerald-

academics in “Expatriate academics in Malaysia: com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insig
Malaysia: motivation, adjustment, and ht/content/doi/10.1108/JMD-12-
motivation, retention” Journal of Management 2017-0421/full/html
adjustment and Development, 37(3).
retention
16 Investigating the Sambasivan, https://www-emerald-
factors M., Sadoughi, M. and Esmaeilzadeh, com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insig
influencing P . (2017), "Investigating the factors ht/content/doi/10.1108/IJPPM-
cultural cultural and performance: The case 10-2015-0160/full/html#abstract
adjustment and of Malaysia", International Journal
expatriate of Productivity and Performance
performance: Management, 66(8).
The case of
Malaysia

17 Host country Paulus, https://www-emerald-

language skills P . and Muehlfeld, K. (2017), "Host com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.my/insig
and expatriates’ country language skills and ht/content/doi/10.1108/JGM-11-
cross- cultural expatriates’ cross- cultural 2016-0062/full/html
adjustment in adjustment in the presence of fear of
the presence of terror", Journal of Global Mobility,
fear of terror 5(4).

18 Cross-cultural Tahir, R. (2021). Cross- cultural https://www.researchgate.net/pr

training: a study training: A study of European ofile/Rizwan-Tahir-
of European expatriates in New Zealand. 6/publication/351985934_Cross-
expatriates in European Journal of Training and cultural_training_A_study_of_Eur
New Zealand Development, 46(9) opean_Expats_in_NZ/links/60e80
ff1b8c0d5588ce3851c/Cross-
cultural-training-A-study-of-
European-Expats-in-NZ.pdf
19 The dark side of Bader, B., Schuster, T., Bader, A.K. https://www.emerald.com/insigh
expatriation: and Shaffer, M. (2019), "The dark t/content/doi/10.1108/JGM-06-
dysfunctional side of expatriation: dysfunctional 2019-070/full/html
relationships, relationships, expatriate crises,
expatriate crises, predjudice and a VUCA world",
prejudice and a Journal of Global Mobility, 7(2)
VUCA world

20 Impact of Cross- Polón, M. (2017). Impact of cross- https://www.theseus.fi/bitstr

Cultural cultural training on expatriate eam/handle/10024/129376/
Training on performance - theseus. theseus. Polon_Menni.pdf?sequence =1
Expatriate
Performance
3.0 Literature Review

Expatriates face a variety of challenges when working and living in a foreign

country. These can include cultural differences, language barriers, homesickness, and
difficulty adjusting to a new environment. They may also struggle with issues related
to housing, healthcare, and finances. Additionally, expatriates may experience
discrimination or prejudice, and may have difficulty building relationships and
networks in their new location. Overall, expatriates need to be prepared to face these
challenges and have the resources and support necessary to successfully navigate
them.

One of the main challenges that expatriates face is cultural shock. This refers
to the feelings of disorientation, confusion, and anxiety that can occur when an
individual is exposed to a new and unfamiliar culture. Cultural shock can lead to a
range of negative outcomes, including stress, depression, and a lack of cultural
adaptation Factors that can influence the cultural adjustment process include the
expatriate's level of cultural intelligence, the support provided by the host
organization, and the expatriate's personal characteristics and coping strategies.
Several studies have also identified a link between expatriates' challenges and their
overall job performance and well-being. For example, expatriates who experience
difficulty with cultural adjustment may have lower job satisfaction and may be more
likely to experience stress and burnout.

Furthermore, expatriates often have difficulty finding healthcare providers

who speak their native language and are familiar with their cultural customs. This can
lead to communication problems and a lack of trust in the healthcare system.
Additionally, expatriates may have difficulty navigating the healthcare system in their
host country, which can lead to delays in receiving necessary medical treatment.
Expatriates are also at a higher risk of mental health issues such as depression and
anxiety due to the stress of living in a foreign country and the lack of support from
family and friends. These mental health issues can also be exacerbated by the lack of
access to mental health services in the host country. Additionally, expatriates may
also face financial challenges when it comes to healthcare. Many expatriates are not
covered by the healthcare system in their host country and must pay for healthcare
services out of pocket. This can be particularly difficult for expatriates who are on a
limited income.

Another major challenge that expatriates face is language barriers. The ability
to speak the local language is crucial for effective communication and social
interaction, and research has shown that expatriates who struggle with language
barriers are more likely to experience negative outcomes such as isolation and
dissatisfaction with the expatriate experience. Language barriers can lead to a range of
challenges for expatriates, including difficulty communicating with colleagues,
difficulties in assimilating into the host culture, and problems with building
relationships with local people. Additionally, language barriers can lead to feelings of
isolation and loneliness, which can negatively impact an expatriate's mental health
and well-being. Research also suggests that language barriers can negatively impact
an expatriate's job performance and career advancement. For example, expatriates
who struggle with the local language may have difficulty understanding important
business information and may not be able to effectively communicate with their
colleagues or clients. This can lead to difficulties in completing tasks, making
decisions, and achieving goals.

Some studies have also shown that language barriers can be particularly
challenging for expatriates who are also dealing with other stressors, such as cultural
differences, homesickness, or family problems. These stressors can compound the
difficulties caused by the language barrier, making it even more difficult for the
expatriate to successfully adapt to their new environment. In terms of solutions,
several studies have suggested that providing language training and support can help
expatriates overcome language barriers and reduce the challenges they face. This can
include offering language classes, providing access to language tutors or language
exchange partners, and encouraging expatriates to immerse themselves in the local
culture by participating in local activities and events.

In addition to these challenges, expatriates often face difficulty in adapting to

the new cultural norms and values. Expatriates who are unable to adapt to the new
cultural norms may experience feelings of rejection, frustration, and marginalization.
Despite these challenges, expatriates can successfully adjust to their new cultural
environment. Factors that have been found to be positively associated with successful
cultural adjustment include pre-departure preparation, cultural intelligence, and social
support.

Overall, the literature suggests that expatriates face a range of challenges when
adjusting to a new culture, but that these challenges can be overcome with the right
resources and support. Host organizations can support expatriates by providing
cultural training and support, and by creating a positive and inclusive work
environment. Additionally, expatriates can improve their own cultural adjustment by
developing their cultural intelligence and using effective coping strategies. Future
research in this area could focus on identifying specific strategies and interventions
that can support expatriates in overcoming these challenges and successfully adjusting
to their new cultural environment.

No Title Citation Reference Index

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them to even J. (2023), "“It’s hard for com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
understand them to even understand my/insight/content/doi/
what we are what we are saying”(.) 10.1108/cpoib-06-2020-
saying”(.) Language and power in the 0084/full/html#sec004
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19 No. 1, pp. 27-
45. https://doi.org/10.1108/
cpoib-06-2020-0084

2 Expatriate Mathur‐Helm, B. (2002), https://www-emerald-

women "Expatriate women com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
managers: at managers: at the crossroads my/insight/content/doi/
 the crossroads of success, challenges and 10.1108/096494202104
of success, career goals", Women in 16813/full/html
challenges Management Review, Vol.
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goals 28. https://doi.org/10.1108/
09649420210416813

3 Host country Rosa González, https://www-emerald-

language J.M., Barker, M. & Shah, com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
proficiency D. (2021), "Host country my/insight/content/doi/
and identity: language proficiency and 10.1108/JGM-11-2020-
Spanish self- identity: Spanish self- 0074/full/html
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nurses in Global Mobility, Vol. 9 No.
Germany 2, pp. 217-
240. https://doi.org/10.1108
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4 An outline for Vulchanov, I.O. (2020), https://www-emerald-

an integrated "An outline for an com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
language- integrated language- my/insight/content/doi/
sensitive sensitive approach to global 10.1108/JGM-06-2020-
approach to work and mobility: cross- 0037/full/html
global work fertilising expatriate and
and mobility: international business and
cross- management
fertilising research", Journal of
expatriate and Global Mobility, Vol. 8 No.
international 3/4, pp. 325-
business and 351. https://doi.org/10.1108
management /JGM-06-2020-0037
research

5 Host country Paulus, P. & Muehlfeld, https://www-emerald-

language K. (2017), "Host country com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
skills and language skills and my/insight/content/doi/
expatriates’ expatriates’ cross-cultural 10.1108/JGM-11-2016-
cross-cultural adjustment in the presence 0062/full/html
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the presence Global Mobility, Vol. 5 No.
of fear of 4, pp. 418-
terror 442. https://doi.org/10.1108
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6 Cross-cultural Tahir, R. (2022), "Cross- https://www-emerald-

training: a cultural training: a study of com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
 study of European expatriates in my/insight/content/doi/
European New Zealand", European 10.1108/EJTD-01-
expatriates in Journal of Training and 2021-0013/full/html
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9, pp. 894-
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7 Revisiting the Wu, J., Yang, J., McIntyre, https://www-emerald-
influence of J.R. & Zhang, X. (2022), com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
cultural "Revisiting the influence of my/insight/content/doi/
novelty and cultural novelty and 10.1108/CCSM-05-
emotional emotional stability on 2021-0085/full/html
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8 Cross-cultural Kour, S. & Jyoti, https://www-emerald-

training and J. (2022), "Cross-cultural com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
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9 Exploring the Zhang, Y. & Oczkowski, https://www-emerald-

potential E. (2016), "Exploring the com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
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Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 158-
183. https://doi.org/10.1108
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10 Cross-cultural Vijayakumar, https://www-emerald-

adjustment P.B. & Cunningham, com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
and C.J.L. (2016), "Cross- my/insight/content/doi/
expatriation cultural adjustment and 10.1108/JGM-05-2016-
motives expatriation motives among 0019/full/html
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No. 3, pp. 326-
344. https://doi.org/10.1108
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11 The Pinto, L.H., Fernandes, E. https://www-emerald-

community of & Xinyan, L. (2023), "The com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
Chinese community of Chinese my/insight/content/doi/
“expat- “expat-preneurs”: 10.1108/JEC-07-2022-
preneurs”: understanding the 0098/full/html
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of doing Enterprising Communities:
business People and Places in the
abroad Global Economy, Vol.
ahead-of-print No. ahead-
of-print.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JEC
-07-2022-0098

12 Organization Oseghale, R.O., Pepple, D., https://www-emerald-

culture types Ifere, S.E. & Amaugo, com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
and the A.N. (2022), "Organization my/insight/content/doi/
replication of culture types and the 10.1108/ER-04-2021-
transferred replication of transferred 0134/full/html
human human resource
resource management practices in
management multinational subsidiaries in
practices in Nigeria", Employee
multinational Relations, Vol. ahead-of-
subsidiaries in print No. ahead-of-print.
Nigeria https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-
04-2021-0134

13 “Whether you Christiansen, T.H. & https://www-emerald-

like my skin Kristjánsdóttir, E.S. (2022), com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
or not, I am "“Whether you like my skin my/insight/content/doi/
here”: skilled or not, I am here”: skilled 10.1108/JGM-05-2022-
racial racial minority migrant 0019/full/html
minority women's experiences of
migrant navigating career
women's challenges in the White
experiences of Icelandic labor market",
navigating Journal of Global Mobility,
career Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 496-514.
challenges in https://doi.org/10.1108/JG
the White M-05-2022-0019
Icelandic
labor market

14 Lack of Alanazi, M.S. (2022), https://www-emerald-

 interpretation "Lack of interpretation com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
services for services for limited English my/insight/content/doi/
limited and Arabic proficiency 10.1108/SJLS-09-2022-
English and patients in Saudi hospitals: 0069/full/html
Arabic challenges and
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challenges https://doi.org/10.1108/SJL
and S-09-2022-0069
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15 Expatriate Brown, C.A. & Busman, https://www-emerald-

health‐care M. (2003), "Expatriate com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
workers and health‐care workers and my/insight/content/doi/
maintenance maintenance of standards of 10.1108/095268603105
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of practice service delivery in Saudi
factors Arabia", International
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service Quality Assurance, Vol. 16
delivery in No. 7, pp. 347-353.
Saudi Arabia https://doi.org/10.1108/095
26860310500014
16 Telling tales: Harry, T.T., Dodd, N. & https://www-emerald-
Using Chinyamurindi, W. (2019), com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
narratives and "Telling tales: Using my/insight/content/doi/
story-telling narratives and story-telling 10.1108/JGM-05-2018-
to understand to understand the 0024/full/html
the challenges challenges faced by a
faced by a sample of self-initiated
sample of expatriates in South
self-initiated Africa", Journal of Global
expatriates in Mobility, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp.
South Africa 64-87.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JG
M-05-2018-0024
17 Dangerous Pinto, L.H.F., Bader, B. & https://www-emerald-
settings and Schuster, T. (2017), com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
risky "Dangerous settings and my/insight/content/doi/
international risky international 10.1108/JGM-10-2017-
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4, pp. 342-347.
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M-10-2017-0042

18 How do you Faeth, P.C. & Kittler, https://www-emerald-

fear? M.G. (2017), "How do you com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
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expatriates’ expatriates’ perception of 10.1108/JGM-11-2016-
perception of danger and its 0063/full/html
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4, pp. 391-417.
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M-11-2016-0063

19 Female Shortland, S. (2018), https://www-emerald-

expatriates’ "Female expatriates’ com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
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20 Expatriates' Sarfraz, M., Nisar, Q.A. & https://www-emerald-

adjustment Raza, A. (2022), com.ezproxy.unisel.edu.
and "Expatriates' adjustment my/insight/content/doi/
performance and performance in risky 10.1108/PR-05-2021-
in risky environments: the role of 0309/full/html
Environments organizational support and
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