Solid Waste Chapters 2 - 4

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Solid wastes produced by communities—municipal solid waste or MSW,
including mixed household waste, recyclables, household hazardous waste, commercial waste, yard
waste, litter, bulky items, and construction and demolition waste.

Recyclables: Materials such as newspapers, aluminum cans, milk cartons, plastic soft drink bottles, steel
cans, corrugated cardboard, and other materials collected by the community.
Example: "Recyclables, such as newspapers, aluminum cans, milk cartons..."

Household Hazardous Waste: Waste materials from households that are considered hazardous, requiring
special handling and disposal.
Example: "Household hazardous waste..."

Commercial Waste: Waste generated by commercial establishments.

Example: "Commercial waste..."

Yard (or Green) Waste: Organic waste from yards, gardens, and landscaping activities.
Example: "Yard (or green) waste..."

Litter and Waste from Community Trash Cans: Waste materials found in public areas such as streets,
parks, and community trash cans.
Example: "Litter and waste from community trash cans..."

Bulky Items: Large items that do not fit into standard waste containers, such as refrigerators, rugs, and
furniture.
Example: "Bulky items (refrigerators, rugs, etc.)..."

Construction and Demolition Waste: Waste materials generated from construction, renovation, and
demolition activities.
Example: "Construction and demolition waste..."

Refuse: Solid waste generated by households, including mixed non-sorted waste, recyclables, household
hazardous wastes if not collected separately, yard waste originating from individual households, and litter
and community trash.
Example: "For many reasons, it is convenient to define refuse as..."

Diverted Refuse: The fraction of refuse that is generated but not collected.
Example: "The fraction of refuse that is generated but not collected is called diverted refuse..."

Diverted MSW (Municipal Solid Waste): That fraction of MSW that is generated but does not find its way
to the landfill, often achieved through recycling programs.
Example: "When defined in this way, diverted MSW is that fraction of MSW that is generated but does
not find its way to the landfill..."
Materials Recovery Facility (MRF): Facility where recyclable materials are processed and sorted for
recycling.
Example: "The recyclables are collected separately and processed at a materials recovery facility..."

Combustion with Energy Recovery: Process of burning waste materials to generate energy.
Example: "Combustion with energy recovery..."

Per Capita Waste Generation: The amount of waste generated per person, often measured in pounds per
capita per day.
Example: "On a per capita basis, waste generation in 2008 is at the same level as in 1990..."

Seasonal Variation in Waste Generation: Fluctuations in waste generation throughout the year due to
seasonal factors.
Example: "The generation of refuse in a community also varies throughout the year..."

Collection Frequency: The frequency of waste collection services, affecting the amount of waste
produced.
Example: "Collection frequency also affects the production of refuse..."

Affluence and Waste Generation: The relationship between household income and the amount of waste
generated.
Example: "Income and affluence tend to have a positive effect on refuse generation..."

Population Density and Waste Generation: The impact of population density on the amount of waste
generated.
Example: "The effect of population density on solid waste generation is still uncertain

Sample Problems:
A community produces the following on an annual basis:
Mixed household waste: 210 tons per year
Recyclables: 23 tons per year
Commercial waste: 45 tons per year
Construction and demolition debris: 120 tons per year
Leaves and miscellaneous: 36 tons per year
Calculate the diversion.

Solution:
If the calculation is based on MSW (Municipal Solid Waste), the total waste generated is 434 tons per
year. If everything not going to the landfill is counted as having been diverted, the diversion is calculated
as follows:
If the diversion is calculated as that fraction of the refuse (mixed household and commercial waste) that
has been kept out of the landfill by the recycling program, the diversion is calculated as follows:

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Solid waste generated by households, commercial establishments,
institutions, and industries within a municipality.
Tipping Fee: The fee charged for the disposal of waste at a landfill or waste transfer station.
Retail Sales: The total sales of goods to consumers by retail establishments in a specific area.
Value Added by Manufacturing: The total value of goods produced by manufacturing industries in a
specific area, excluding the cost of materials.
Construction (in regions): The value of construction activities, including new construction, renovations,
and infrastructure development, in a specific area.
Refuse: Waste material, especially household waste, that is to be disposed of.
Waste Diversion: The process of diverting waste away from landfills through methods such as recycling,
composting, and waste-to-energy programs.

MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture Content: The amount of water present in a material, expressed as a percentage of the material's
weight.
Wet Basis: Moisture content calculated based on the initial (wet) weight of the sample.
Dry Basis: Moisture content calculated based on the final (dry) weight of the sample.
Estimate the moisture concentration of residential waste using typical moisture values for its
components.
Given the composition of residential waste:
Paper: 50%
Glass: 20%
Food: 20%
Yard waste: 10%

PARTICLE SIZE
Particle Size Analysis: The process of determining the size distribution of particles in a sample, typically
expressed as a curve showing the percentage of particles versus particle size.
Particle Diameter: The size of a particle, which can vary depending on the shape and definition used.
Uniformity Coefficient (UC): A measure of the uniformity of particle sizes in a sample, calculated as the
ratio of the particle size at 60% passing to the particle size at 10% passing in a sieve analysis.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Proximate Analysis: Proximate analysis is a method used to determine the composition of solid fuels,
particularly coal. It aims to define the fractions of volatile organics, fixed carbon, moisture, and
noncombustibles in the fuel. This analysis provides insights into the fuel's combustion characteristics and
energy content.
Ultimate Analysis: Ultimate analysis, on the other hand, is based on the elemental composition of the
material. It determines the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements
present in the sample. Ultimate analysis provides fundamental information about the chemical makeup of
the material.
Data from EPA: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) publishes data on both proximate and
ultimate analyses of refuse. These analyses offer valuable information for understanding the chemical
composition and energy potential of municipal solid waste (MSW).
Proximate Analysis Parameters: The parameters typically measured in proximate analysis include
moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and noncombustibles. Additionally, the higher heat value
(HHV), which represents the energy content of the fuel, is determined.
Ultimate Analysis Parameters: Ultimate analysis provides data on the elemental composition of refuse,
including percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and total noncombustibles.
Limitations: The data provided by proximate and ultimate analyses have limitations due to the
heterogeneous nature of refuse. MSW composition varies widely based on geography, time, and other
factors, making it challenging to obtain accurate and representative data for design purposes.
Sampling and Analysis: Obtaining accurate information about the chemical composition of a specific
refuse sample requires careful sampling and analysis. Concerted efforts are needed to collect
representative samples and perform comprehensive analyses to account for the variability inherent in
MSW.
Given:
Moisture content of refuse: 10% (by weight)
Heat value of entire mixture: 4000 Btu/lb
Ash remaining after combustion: 0.2 g
Moisture-Free Heat Value:
The moisture-free heat value can be calculated by subtracting the heat value lost due to moisture from the
total heat value.

Moisture- and Ash-Free Heat Value:

To calculate the moisture- and ash-free heat value, both moisture and ash contributions need to be
subtracted from the total.

BULK DENSITIES
Bulk Density Variation:
Loose MSW, as it might be placed into a garbage can, typically has a bulk density ranging from 150 to
250 lb/yd³ (90 to 150 kg/m³).
When pushed into the can, the bulk density may increase to around 300 lb/yd³ (180 kg/m³).
In collection trucks that compact the refuse, the bulk density typically ranges between 600 and 700 lb/yd³
(350 and 420 kg/m³).
After deposition in a landfill and compaction, MSW can achieve bulk densities of about 1200 lb/yd³ (700
kg/m³).
Including covering soil, total landfill densities can range from about 700 lb/yd³ for poorly compacted
landfills to as high as 1700 lb/yd³ (1000 kg/m³) for densely compacted landfills.
Density Comparison:
The density of water is 1690 lb/yd³ (1000 kg/m³), serving as a reference point for comparison.
MSW densities are expressed in terms of bulk density, which considers void spaces within the waste
material.
Expression of MSW Quantities:
Due to the highly variable density, MSW quantities are typically expressed in mass terms, such as pounds
or tons in the American standard system, or kilograms or tonnes in the SI system.
Volumes are less commonly used to express MSW quantities due to the variability in bulk density.
Material Densities:
Material densities, which represent the density of materials without void spaces, differ from bulk
densities.
For instance, while the material density of a steel can is approximately 7.7 g/cm³, the bulk density of an
uncrushed empty steel can is much lower due to the presence of air.
Compressive Strength (Figure 2-13):

The compressive strength of MSW constituents varies widely, with different materials requiring different
amounts of energy for volume reduction.
Curves depicting compressive characteristics tend to be mostly linear, indicating that greater energy
expenditure in compaction can lead to substantial volume reduction.
Solid waste balers utilize this understanding to achieve effective volume reduction.
Tensile Stress-Strain Curves (Figure 2-14):
Tensile stress-strain curves for several refuse components, including steel, aluminum, cardboard, PVC,
polyethylene, and others, are shown.
Steel exhibits the greatest ultimate strength, followed by aluminum, while materials like PVC have much
lower strength.
The curves illustrate the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain (deformation) for
different materials under tensile loading.
Biodegradability of MSW (Table 2-11):
Table 2-11 presents the calculation of the biodegradable fraction of MSW based on the percentage of each
component.
Only about 45% of MSW is potentially biodegradable, with components like paper, food waste, and yard
trimmings contributing to the biodegradable fraction.
Treatment techniques, such as composting, need to consider the non-biodegradable fraction of MSW and
dispose of it through other means.
Solid Waste Collection Process:
The solid waste collection process involves multiple phases, including the transfer of waste from
individual households to collection trucks, the movement of waste from the can to the truck, the
collection of recyclables and yard waste, transportation to disposal or transfer sites, and final disposal.
The efficiency of the collection process is crucial in gathering waste effectively and minimizing costs.
House to Can Phase:
Waste generated by households needs to be transferred to refuse cans, either inside or outside the home.
The system may involve either backyard collection (done by collection crews) or curbside collection
(where waste generators move cans to the street).
Can to Truck Phase:
Waste cans are emptied into collection trucks, typically rear-loaded compactors known as packers.
Compaction mechanisms within the trucks compress waste to increase capacity before disposal.
Traditional collection methods involved manual handling by collection crews, which posed safety risks
and injury rates were high.
Innovations such as semi-automated collection with waste wheelers or fully automated collection with
can snatchers have improved safety and efficiency.
Phase 3: Truck from House to House:
Once waste is collected, trucks move from house to house, compacting waste as they go.
The compaction ratio affects the amount of waste a truck can carry before requiring disposal.
Estimation of Collection Efficiency:
The efficiency of collection crews can be estimated based on various factors such as time spent at each
stop, travel time between stops, breaks, and other factors.
Travel times can be estimated based on driving representative routes and regressing the data against
distances.
Use of Plastic Bags:
Plastic bags have become widely used for waste collection, reducing the risk of injuries associated with
heavy lifting.
However, they also have drawbacks such as susceptibility to tearing and attracting animals.
Collection Frequency (F): The number of collections per week or per specified time period in a particular
area.
Collection Vehicle: A vehicle used for the collection of waste and recyclable materials from households,
businesses, or other locations.
Commingled Collection: A waste collection method where different types of recyclable materials (e.g.,
paper, plastic, glass) are mixed together in a single container for collection.
Dumpster: A large steel container used for the temporary storage and collection of waste and recyclable
materials, commonly found in commercial and industrial settings.
Live Bottom (Walking Floor): A mechanism in waste transfer vehicles where the floor of the vehicle
moves back and forth, allowing the waste to be discharged from the vehicle without the need for tipping.

Materials Recovery Facility (MRF): A facility where recyclable materials are sorted, processed, and
prepared for recycling.
Recycling: The process of converting waste materials into reusable materials to prevent their disposal as
waste and reduce the consumption of raw materials.
Transfer Station: A facility where waste is transferred from smaller collection vehicles to larger transfer
vehicles for transport to disposal sites or recycling facilities.
Unicursal Network: A network of roads or routes where each node (intersection or collection point) has an
even number of links (roads) connected to it, allowing for continuous travel without the need for
backtracking.
Waste Reduction: The process of minimizing the amount of waste generated through practices such as
source reduction, reuse, and recycling.
Commingled Waste Collection: A waste collection method where different types of recyclable materials
are mixed together in a single container for collection.
Recycling Rate: The percentage of waste that is diverted from disposal in landfills or incinerators and
recycled instead.
Yard Waste: Organic waste such as grass clippings, leaves, and branches generated from yard
maintenance activities.
Materials Recovery Facility (MRF): A facility where recyclable materials are sorted, processed, and
prepared for recycling.
Curbside Collection: A waste collection service where waste and recyclables are picked up directly from
residential curbsides.
Per-Ton Basis: Refers to costs or revenues calculated based on the weight of materials collected or
processed.
Cost Recovery: The process of recouping expenses associated with waste collection or recycling through
the sale of recycled materials.
Travel Time: The time it takes for a collection vehicle to travel between consecutive stops.
Sorting Time: The time required to separate recyclable materials from the collected waste.
Waiting Time: The time spent waiting at traffic lights and stop signs during collection routes.
Litter: Solid waste that is not properly disposed of in designated receptacles and is often found in public
places.
Litter Surveys: Studies conducted to assess the amount and composition of litter in a particular area.
Litter Rating: A measure of the amount of litter observed in a specific location, often expressed as a
percentage.
Sampling Size: The number of locations or sites selected for conducting litter surveys to ensure
representative data.
Commingled Waste Wheeler for Recyclables: A waste wheeler used for recycling where different
recyclable materials are mixed together instead of being separated.
Yard Waste Program: A program for collecting and diverting yard waste, such as grass clippings and
leaves, from the regular waste stream for composting or mulching.
Curbside Used Motor Oil Collection: A service where residents can place their used motor oil at the curb
for collection and recycling into new oil.
Curbside Collection of Batteries: A service where residents can dispose of their used batteries at the curb
for recycling.
Cost of Collection: The expense incurred in collecting recyclable materials or mixed refuse, including
labor, equipment, and operational costs.
Travel Time: The time taken to travel between two consecutive stops during waste collection.
Sorting Time: The time required to sort recyclable materials at the collection truck into various individual
components.
Waiting Time: The time spent waiting at stop signs or traffic lights during waste collection.
Litter: Solid waste that is not properly disposed of and is often found in public places.
Litter Survey: A systematic method of assessing the amount and type of litter in a given area.
Probability of Littering: The likelihood that an individual will improperly dispose of waste, often
influenced by factors like age, convenience of trash cans, and cleanliness of the area.
Community Litter Surveys: Surveys conducted by communities to assess litter levels and plan litter
control measures.
Photometric Technique: A method of measuring litter based on photographs taken at designated locations.
Adopt-a-Street Program: A program where community organizations volunteer to keep specific sections
of roadways clean by conducting periodic litter pick-ups.
Mechanical Litter Collection Machines: Devices designed to mechanically collect litter, such as rotating
brushes or vacuum arms.
Landfill: An engineered method for the disposal of solid or hazardous wastes on or in land, designed to
protect the environment by promoting waste degradation and managing leachate and gases.
Leachate: Polluted water that results from the decomposition of waste within a landfill and emanates from
its base.
Subtitle D (of RCRA): Part of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), enacted in 1976,
which regulates the management of solid waste, including MSW landfills, in the United States.
Bioreactor Landfill: A type of landfill that aims to optimize waste degradation processes through
controlled addition of liquids (leachate or other amendments), temperature control, and nutrient
supplementation.
Fatal Flaw Analysis: An evaluation process used in landfill siting to identify unsuitable locations based on
specific criteria or regulations, such as flood plains, seismic zones, or endangered species habitats.
Performance Standards: Regulatory requirements that specify desired outcomes or results, allowing
flexibility in how those outcomes are achieved.
Design Standards: Regulatory requirements that prescribe specific design elements or features, leaving
little flexibility in implementation.
Biodegradable Waste: Waste material capable of being broken down by microorganisms into simpler
substances under specific environmental conditions.
Methanogenesis: The biological process by which microorganisms produce methane gas from organic
matter in anaerobic (oxygen-free) environments, such as landfills.

Sample Problems:
Volume Reduction Calculation:
Given the following bulk densities of refuse components:
Miscellaneous paper: 3.81 lb/ft^3
Garden waste: 4.45 lb/ft^3
Glass: 18.45 lb/ft^3
And assuming a landfill compaction of 1200 lb/yd^3, calculate the percent volume reduction achieved
during compaction of the waste.
Landfill Capacity Calculation:
Using population projections, per capita waste generation rates, and diversion rates, calculate the required
20-year landfill capacity for a community. Assume a soil daily cover that accounts for 25% of the landfill
volume.
Siting Analysis:
Conduct a fatal flaw analysis for potential landfill sites, considering criteria such as flood plains,
wetlands, seismic zones, and population density. Identify suitable sites and develop a ranking system
based on additional qualitative features for further investigation.
Biological Degradation Pathways:
Summarize the predominant biodegradation pathways for the decomposition of major organic classes in
solid waste, highlighting the involvement of microbial groups and key physiological processes like
fermentation and methanogenesis.
Amylolytic bacteria: Microorganisms that break down starches.
Proteolytic bacteria: Microorganisms that break down proteins.
Cellulolytic bacteria: Microorganisms that break down cellulose.
Hemicellulolytic bacteria: Microorganisms that break down hemicellulose.
Hydrogen-oxidizing methanogenic bacteria: Bacteria that produce methane from hydrogen.
Acetoclastic methanogenic bacteria: Bacteria that produce methane from acetic acid.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria: Bacteria that reduce sulfate to sulfides.
Percolation: The process by which water moves downward through soil or other porous materials.
Landfill: A designated area for the disposal of waste materials by burying them under layers of soil.
Precipitation (P): The amount of water (in millimeters) that falls to the ground in the form of rain, snow,
sleet, or hail within a specific period, usually measured annually.
Runoff coefficient (R): The proportion of rainfall that runs off as surface water rather than infiltrating into
the soil.
Evapotranspiration (E): The combined process of water evaporation from soil and transpiration from
plants into the atmosphere.
Soil Field Capacity (Fs): The maximum amount of water that soil can hold against gravity after excess
water has drained away, usually expressed in millimeters per meter of soil depth.
Refuse Field Capacity (Fr): Similar to soil field capacity but specifically referring to the capacity of
refuse or waste materials to hold water.
Landfill Design Components:

Liner: Prevents migration of leachate from the landfill and facilitates its removal. Can consist of multiple
layers of natural materials (clay) or synthetic materials (geomembranes).
Leachate-Collection and Management System: Consists of pipes and systems to collect and manage
leachate that drains from the landfill.
Gas Management Facilities: Manage the collection and treatment of gases (such as methane) produced by
decomposing waste.
Stormwater Management: Systems to manage stormwater runoff and prevent contamination.
Final Cap: The top cover placed over the landfill to minimize water infiltration and control gas emissions.
Liners:
Single Liner: Can be constructed of clay or a geomembrane.
Composite Liner: Consists of two layers, with a bottom layer of clay and a top layer of geomembrane.
Double Liner: Can be two single liners or two composite liners, providing additional protection against
leachate migration.
Leachate Collection:
Leachate is directed to low points at the bottom of the landfill using efficient drainage layers and
perforated pipes.
Collection systems typically include protective and drainage layers, perforated collection pipes, pump
stations, and force mains or gravity sewer lines.
Leachate Treatment and Disposal:
Leachate treatment is necessary to minimize environmental impact.
Treatment options include biological, physical/chemical, and emerging technologies like reverse osmosis
and vapor compression distillation.
Disposal options include on-site treatment, off-site transport to treatment facilities, or land treatment
systems such as constructed wetlands or composting.
Emerging Technologies:
Reverse Osmosis: Removes dissolved solids by forcing leachate through a semipermeable membrane.
Evaporation: Disposes of water component by reducing leachate volume.
Vapor Compression Distillation: Produces a clean effluent by boiling leachate under vacuum conditions.
Mechanical Vapor Recompression: Utilizes falling film principle in a vacuum to evaporate leachate.

Introduction to Leachate Recirculation:

Landfills can function as biological reactors for leachate treatment by implementing containment, waste
sorting, leachate collection, and gas management systems.
Leachate recirculation involves reintroducing collected leachate back into the landfill, transforming it into
an active anaerobic bioreactor.
Advantages of Leachate Recirculation:
Accelerated biochemical conversion of wastes and effective leachate treatment.
Compression of waste stabilization time from years to as little as two to three years.
Enhanced microbial activity due to routine exposure to leachate constituents.
Implementation Techniques:
Leachate can be reintroduced through various methods such as wetting waste upon disposal, spraying
leachate over the landfill, or injecting leachate into vertical columns or trenches.
Other landfill components like gas management systems and covers must be compatible with bioreactor
operation.
Operational Considerations:
Control of waste moisture levels through leachate recirculation rate is essential.
Empirical data provide guidance for moisture input rates, but field experimentation is necessary for site-
specific capacity determination.
Contingency plans for off-site leachate management during peak generation events or other
circumstances.
Technical Issues in Landfill Gas Use:
Gas composition, corrosives, and particulates can affect equipment and energy recovery.
Various applications of landfill gas include direct use, electricity generation, conversion to synthetic fuels,
and purification for pipeline-quality gas.
Nontechnical Issues:
Economic factors, tax incentives, regulatory guidelines, and return on investment considerations impact
the feasibility of landfill gas projects.