Solid Waste Management

1. General
· Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human activities and are normally solid as opposed to liquid or
gaseous and are discarded as useless or unwanted. Focused on urban waste (MSW) as opposed to
agricultural, mining and industrial wastes.
· Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is the term applied to all the activities associated with the
management of society's wastes.
· Solid wastes have a great potential to pollute the air and water, wastes discarded in the streets led to the
breeding of rats and the associated fleas.
· Materials Flow - The best way to reduce solid wastes is not to create them in the first place. Other methods
include: decrease consumption of raw material and increase the rate of recovery of waste materials.
· Technological advances - Increased use of plastics and fast, pre-prepared foods.

2. Solid Waste Management

· Solid waste management is the control of :
- generation, materials are identified as being no longer value
- storage, management of wastes until they are put into a container
- collection, gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials and the transport of these materials where the
collection vehicle is emptied. 50% or higher of the total cost.
- processing, source separated (at the home) vs. commingled (everything together) is a big issue. Includes:
physical processes such as shredding and screening, removal of bulky material, and chemical and biological
processes such as incineration and composting.
- transfer and transport, small trucks to the biggest trucks allowable
- disposal of solid waste, landfilling with or without attempting to recover resources.
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in a manner that is in accord with:

- public health
- economics
- engineering
- conservation
- aesthetics
- public attitudes
· Final disposal at the turn of the century included:
- dumping on land
- dumping in water
- plowing into soil
- feeding to hogs
- incineration
· Modern landfilling was begun in the 1940's in NYC under Major LaGuardia and in Fresno, Ca under Dir. of
Public Works, Jean Vincenz

3. Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)

· ISWM – This is the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management
programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals.
· Hierarchy - adopted by EPA to rank actions:
- source reduction, most useful, may involve design of packaging with minimum toxic content, minimum
volume or a longer useful life.
- recycling
- waste combustion (transformation), physical, chemical and biological alteration of the waste for the purposes
of:
improving efficiency
recovering reusable material, glass
recover conversion products, compost
- landfilling, material that:
- cannot be recycled
- has no further use
- residual matter attendant to another process, ash left over after combustion

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 Sources, Composition, and Properties of Solid Waste

1. Sources of Solid Waste

· MSW, Municipal Solid Waste, is the primary focus of this course, which excludes industrial, mining and
agricultural wastes.
A. Residential and Commercial
· Residential:Generated by me and you: Organic (combustible) and inorganic (non-combustible), food,
paper, garden trimmings, glass, white goods, waste oil, spent cans of insecticide.
· Commercial: stores, restaurants, hotels, car repair: paper, plastic.
· Commingled. Mixed wastes, not separated at the source.
· Putrescible, wastes that will decompose rapidly primarily food.
· Plastics,
- Polyethylene terephthalate (PETE/1)

- High-density polyethylene (HDPE/2), milk bottles

· Special Wastes:
- Bulky items: furniture, lamps.
- Electronics
- Major appliances (white goods)
- Batteries, oil and tires

· Household hazardous wastes:

- paint
- cleaners
- bug and garden sprays
B. Institutional and others
· Generated by government buildings, schools, prisons and hospitals.
· Does not include medical wastes which are typically incinerated and manufacturing wastes from prisons.
· Construction and Demolition. Road repair, sewer jobs, renovations: wood, concrete, steel, shingles,
electrical parts.
· Municipal Services. Street cleaning, parks, catch basins: trimmings, food, paper, sweepings, dead animals,
abandoned vehicles.
· Treatment Plant Sludges.

C. Industrial Wastes
· SIC (Standard Industrial Classification) codes. Excludes process and hazardous wastes.
· SIC 32 - Stone, clay and glass products from the manufacture of flat glass etc., yielding glass, gypsum
(sulfur source) abrasives, etc.
D. Agricultural Wastes
· Enormous quantities from planting, harvesting from row, field, tree and vine crops and animal husbandry,
feedlots.

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2. Composition of Solid Waste
· Composition describes the individual components that make up solid waste and the distribution of these
components by weight.
· Knowing the composition is becoming critical:
- Selection and operation of equipment and facilities
- Feasibility of resource and energy recovery
- Design of disposal facilities
· The residential and commercial component is typically 62% of MSW.
· Components of MSW excluding specials, recycled materials and food wastes:
- Organic, combustible, paper and yard wastes are predominate.
- Inorganic, non-combustible, glass and tin cans.
· Composition with and without food wastes, with and without recycling.

3. Variation in Distribution
· Highly variable, local studies should be considered, collected data is expensive and of limited value; make
sure that collected data is useful before collecting.
· Location, warmer more affluent communities generate more wastes.
· Season, More food wastes in the dry season; more glass and metals in the wet season.
· Economics and others.

4. Materials Recovered from MSW

· Aluminum: cans and others, window frames, lawn furniture.
· Paper: 4 categories: newspaper, cardboard, high-quality, mixed(magazines). Defined by fiber, source,
homogeneity, printing etc.
· Plastics: Mostly PETE/1, soda and HDPE/2, milk. Less than 5% being recycled.
· Glass: Often separated by colors.
· Ferrous metals: cars and appliances and steel (tin) cans.
· Yard wastes: Needs to be collected separately. Uses include use as compost or intermediate cover at
landfills.
· Construction and Demolition: Directly recoverable such as used brick or plumbing fixtures, gross material
may serve to construct temporary roads at landfills.

Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties of MSW

1. Physical Properties of MSW

A. Specific Weight
B. Moisture Content
C. Particle Size and Distribution
D. Field Capacity (FC)

· The amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample subject to the downward pull of gravity.
Water in excess of FC will flow out of the waste as leachate.
· 50-60% for uncompacted, commingled waste from residential and commercial sources.
E. Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of Compacted MSW
· Measures the movement of gasses and liquids in landfills.
K = Cd2 = k eq. 4-7, p.76
· k= 10-11 to 10-12 m2 in the vertical and 10-10 in the horizontal.
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2. Chemical Properties of MSW
A. Proximate Analysis
· Includes the following tests:
- Moisture
- Volatile combustible matter
- Fixed carbon (combustible residue after volatile matter is removed)
- Ash (weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible
· Fusing point of ash - temperature at which the ash forms a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration.
2000-2200°F.
· Magazines are:
- 4.1% moisture
- 66.4% volatile matter
- 7.0% fixed carbon
- 22.5% non-combustible
- energy content, 4600 Btu/lb as collected.
- Note: rubber as in tires and plastics have a very high energy content.
B. Ultimate Analysis of SW Components
· Determination of the percent C, H, O, N, S, and ash.
· Opportunity to calculate chemical formula, which then can be used in various chemical and biological
reactions.
· Magazines are:
- 32.9 % C
- 5.0 % H
- 38.6 % O
- .1 % N
- .1 % S
- 23.3 % ash
C. Energy Content of SW Components
· Potentially critical element in incineration. Can be measured or calculated.
· DuLong Formula:

Btu/lb = 145C +610(H2 - O2/8) + 40S +10N eq.4-10, p.86

Constituents are % by weight
· Plastics have:
- An inert residue of 10.0%
- An energy value of 14,000 Btu/lb
D. Essential Nutrients
· Potentially critical element in composting.

3. Biological Properties of MSW

· VS, volatile solids, ignition at 550°C is often used as a measure of the biodegradability of the organic
fraction.
· An alternative is the lignin content which can be used to determine biodegradability:
BF = 0.83 - 0.028 LC eq.4-11, p.88
BF is the biodegradable fraction and LC is the lignin content
· Odors typically result from the anaerobic decomposition of the organic fraction.
- Sulfate is reduced to sulfides

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- Organic compounds containing a sulfur radical can lead to the formation of methyl mercaptan and
aminobutyric acid.
· Breeding of flies takes 9-11 days.

4. Physical, Chemical and Biological Transformations

A. Physical Transformations
· Component separation
- Separating identifiable matter from the commingled MSW.
- Used to:
- Recover usable material
- Remove contaminants
- Improve specifications for the separated material
- Remove hazardous waste
- Recover energy and conversion products
· Mechanical Volume Reduction (Densification)
- The initial volume is reduced usually by force or pressure.
- Compaction, baling.
· Mechanical size reduction
- Purpose:
- reduce size
- create a more uniform product
- Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume reduction, shredded paper occupies more volume than the
parent material
- Shredding, grinding, milling
B. Chemical Transformations
1.) Combustion (Incineration)
· Combustion is the chemical reaction of oxygen with organic materials, to produce oxidized compounds
with the emission of light and heat.
· Results in gasses, ashes and heat, highly exothermic.
2.) Pyrolysis (Destructive Distillation)
· The splitting of organics by thermal cracking and condensation in an oxygen-free atmosphere into gaseous,
liquid and solid fractions.
· Highly endothermic.
· Equation
3(C6H10O5) ® 8H2O + C6H8O + 2CO +CH4 + H2 + 7C
In which:
- C6H10O5 is cellulose
- the gases are CO +CH4 + H2
- the tar and/or oil stream is C6H8O
- and the char is C
3.) Gasification
· Partial combustion of a carbonaceous fuel to generate a combustible fuel gas rich in carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and methane. The fuel gas can then be combusted.
· Results in low-BTU gas, char and oil.

C. Biological Transformations
· Used to:
- Reduce weight and volume
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- To produce compost
- To produce methane
· Principal MOs:
- bacteria
- fungi
- yeasts
- actinomycetes
· Aerobic composting, biological decomposition
· Anaerobic digestion yields methane.

Sources, Types and Properties of Household Hazardous Wastes

1. Properties and Classification of Hazardous Waste

A. General
· Wastes are hazardous to humans if such wastes:
- Are non-biodegradable or persistent in nature
- Can be biologically magnified
- Lethal
- Cause detrimental cumulative effects
· Safety-related problems:
- Corrosivity
- Explosivity
- Flammability
- Ignitability
- Reactivity
· Health-related problems
- Carcinogenicity
- Infectivity
- Irritant
- Mutagenicity
- Toxicity
- Radioactivity
- Teratogenicity (Causes monstrosities or abnormal formations)
· Municipalities usually go with:
- Ignitability
- Corrosivity
- Reactivity
- Toxicity
- Carcinogenicity

2. Sources, Types and Quantities of Hazardous Wastes in MSW

· Residential: cleaners, paint, nail polisher remover, antifreeze, photographic chemicals, pesticides.
· Commercial: solvents from dry cleanings, oil from automotive.
· Hazardous waste is typically .1% (.01-1% range) by weight of MSW. 75-85% residential sources.

3. Significance of Hazardous Waste in MSW.

· In conversion products. Trace amounts of HHW have been found in separated components and compost and
have rendered these materials and products unusable.

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· In combustion products. Have been found in emission gases and residual material (ash) especially heavy
metals, barium, chromium, silver.
· In landfill. Trace organic constituents have been found in atmosphere, in extracted gases and in leachate.
Source may be direct or derived.

4. Physical, Chemical and Biological Transformations of HHW in MSW

A. Physical Transformations
· Volatilization- produces gas.
· Phase Distribution- Used to access the bioaccumulation potential of a compound.
B. Chemical Transformations
1.) Combustion.
· If the combustion is complete, the hazardous organic compounds should be destroyed. However, if chlorine
containing compounds such as chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl), HCl is formed, Vulcan, ocean going incinerator
that spews HCl all over the oceans.
· If the combustion is not complete, toxic PICs (Products of Incomplete Combustion) are formed.
2.) Reactions in Landfills
· Simple substitution
· Dehydrogenation (hydrolysis)
· Oxidation
· Reduction
C. Biological Transformations
1.) Metals
· Chromium, mercury, etc. can be biologically converted to toxic compounds such as methymercury, or
dimethylselenide
2.) Non-Persistent Organic Compounds
· Same reactions as B.2. above
3.) Persistent Organic Compounds
· Biodegradable but at extremely slow rates involving processes such as Dehalogenation and double bond
reduction.

5. Management of HHW in MSW

· Most effective way to handle HHW is to eliminate them at the point of separation, in the household.
· HHW collection programs.

Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates

1. Importance of Waste Quantities

2. Measures and Methods Used to Assess Quantities

· MSW should be measured as a weight as opposed to a volume because the weight measurements are
consistent and reproducible while the volume can vary considerably attendant to compaction. Ultimately,
however, the capacity of a landfill is a volume consideration.
· Units - lb/capita.day for residential and commercial, a repeatable measure of production for industry and
agriculture e.g. lb of manure/chicken.
· Estimation of Waste Quantities -

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- Load-count analysis - A landfill without scales may estimate the vehicular capacity and the number of
vehicles of that capacity.
- Material Balance
Accumulation = inflow - outflow + generation
= SMin - SMout + rw
Note: Always write rw as positive in the parent equation and make a negative substitution as required in the
final analysis.
1. Material Flow Diagram

2. Amount of solid waste disposed of during the day.

a. Waste produced = 20lb in the door -7lb food consumed -5lb food stored
Waste produced = 8 lb/day
b. Bottles and Cans recycled = 8lb/day x .20
Bottles and Cans recycled = 1.6lb/day
c. Paper goods = 8lb/day x .32
Paper goods = 2.56lb/day
d. Magazines stored = 2.56lb/day x .05
Magazines stored = .13lb/day
e. Paper good combusted = 2.56lb/day x .20 (20% burned)
Paper good combusted = .51lb/day
f. solid waste disposed of = 8 lb/day - 1.6lb/day -.51lb/day -0.13lb/day
solid waste disposed of = 5.76 lb/day
· Statistical Analysis - First determine if the data are normally distributed or skewed by plotting on log
normal, probability paper. Arithmetic probability paper is arithmetic on the ordinate axis, logarithmic
probability paper is logarithmic on the ordinate axis. If the data plots as a straight line on arithmetic paper ,
it is normal; departure from a straight line is an indication of skewness. If it is skewed, plot the data on
logarithmic paper; the implication being that the log of the values is normally distributed which may or may
not be the case. If the data is distributed normally, normal statistics such as mean, standard deviation,
variance can be applied.

3. Generation and Collection Rates

· Most studies prior to 1990 reflect the amount of waste collected as opposed to the amount of waste
generated. The difference may be in recycling, garbage disposal, composting, fireplaces, donations to the
Salvation Army etc. The variation may be from 4-15%.

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· »One ton/capita.year »2000 lb/365days/year = 5.48 lb/capita.day. More precisely, 3.82 lb/capita.day for
residential and commercial and 6.16 lb/capita.day total. The total is augmented by hazardous, institutional,
construction and demolition, municipal services wastes and treatment plant sludges. Residential and
commercial is typically 60% of the total.
· Special Wastes
- batteries - 10household batteries/capita.year
- used oil - .80 gal/capita.year
· Rate Variation
- The larger the data base, the less the variation.
- For a residence, peak day factor of 3.0, minimum day factor of .20

4. Factor that Effect Generation Rates

· Source Reduction and Recycling. Design with disposal in mind.
· Public Attitudes and Legislation. If not reimbursed, the public must be recruited to a "tree saving"
mentality. Legislation includes bottle laws, green waste pick-ups.
· Geographic and Physical Factors. The bigger the yard and the longer the growing season, the more the
waste. Seasonal, fall leaves, Christmas gifts, spring cleanup. Kitchen grinders contribute a minimal
reduction.
· Frequency. More waste is collected if the frequency is increased. Note that more wastes are not generated.

5. Materials Recovered from MSW

· 12-16% overall total based on weight.

6. Household Hazardous Wastes

· paint, pesticides, batteries
· Small amounts but contaminate a potentially salable product.

7. Waste Characterization and Diversion Studies

· Identify the sources, characteristics and quantities of generated
· The survival of MRF may be dependent on knowing what will actually come into the facility.

Waste Handling and Separation

Storage and Processing at the Source

1. Handling and Separation at the Source

· Handling refers to activities associated with MSW before they are placed in a collection container
· May also include handling the collection container to and from the collection point
· Source recovery is one of the most effective ways to recycle: aluminum cans, newspaper, plastic soda and
milk bottles.

2. Handling
Low rise < stories; medium rise 4-7 stories; high rise > 7 stories
A. Low Rise
· Single family detached and attached
· Single family detached
- separate recyclables at the MRF, not at the home
- variety of storage containers and mixed waste: plastic bags, 32 gallon galvanized or plastic, cardboard boxes
-90 gallons containers equipped with wheels, mixed waste

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B. Low and Medium Rise
· Basement storage by residents and moving of the container by maintenance personnel.
· Large outdoor containers, located in special areas that are emptied mechanically by the collection truck.

C. High Rise Apartments

· Porters pick up the waste at the apartment door.
· Wastes are taken to the SW area by tenants
· Chutes on each floor (12-36")
· Use
· 1-2lbs/tenant.day
· Vacuum transport systems have been used most notably at Disney World.
D. Commercial and Industrial Facilities
· Commercial - removed from work area by wheeled containers or blanket wrapped and transported via the
service area to a disposal/processing area. Compaction would not be unusual.
· Industrial area - May be more susceptible to the profit motive e.g. can order employees to recycle cans.

3. Storage of SW at the Source

A. Effects of Storage
· Putrefaction - Microbial decomposition via bacteria and fungi leading to vermin and odors.
· Adsorption of Fluids - If more than a week, the water will become equally distributed, primarily moisture
from food and garden material moving into the paper.
· Contamination - A small volume of paint had great potential to contaminate a great deal of plastic, an
argument for source separation of recyclables.
B. Types of Storage Containers
· For residential containers, manually collected, the max. weight should be 40-65lbs so as not to injure the
collector.
· 32 gallons galvanized or plastic is the most common.
· Temporary and disposable containers such as cardboard boxes, plastic bags and paper bags are common. A
problem with these is that animals are attracted by the food and tear them open and spread the material
around.
· Low rise - trend towards 1 man collection crews with vehicles with mechanical, articulated arms and 90
gallon containers, (75-120)
· Low and medium rise - Demsey dumsters, portable or not, galvanized or plastic
· High rise - more proned to have processing equipment: compaction, shredding, baling and in the old days
incineration.
· Container Locations: side or rear of house, alleys, common location identified for that purpose.
· Public health and aesthetics - Potential for odors and vermin. Randy and his maggots....

4. Processing at Dwellings
· Incineration of food - No significant decrease in the weight or volume of the MSW,
· Separation - very effective if you can engender meaningful participation.
· Compaction - individual units under the counter, collection and processing by large units. Potentially
counterproductive if the wastes are to sorted at a MRF; also, compaction may foster contamination.

5. Composting
· The biological conversion of the biodegradable organic fraction of the MSW resulting in a volume
reduction and producing a useful by-product
· Isolate a 3ft square area with chicken wire and dump the yard wastes. Food wastes may be stirred into the
mix if odor and vermin problems can be obviated.
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· Water and turn occasionally, once/week. Perhaps ready to use after 1 year, put in at top, take out at bottom.
· Produces a humus-like material which is a soil conditioner, not a fertilizer.

Collection of Solid Waste

1. Waste Collection
A. General
· Major cost element of solid waste disposal - typically 50-70% of the total and therefore, demands major
attention especially with final disposal getting so much press.
· Collection includes:
- picking up MSW from sources
- hauling to the emptying location
- emptying of the truck or container
B. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Low Rise, Detached:
· The waste is commingled or heaped together as opposed to source separation e.g. picking out class,
cardboard
· Collection services:
- curb - (manual or mechanical) most common, homeowner moves the container back and forth between the
curb from the storage location. Larger 90 gallon containers require placement in the street, perhaps at a
precise angle in cul-de-sacs.
- alley - Narrow utility thoroughfare in the rear of residences; not uncommon in older communities,
Claremont, Pomona.
- backyard carry - collectors retrieve the container from the storage location, empty it and return the
container to the storage location.
· Manual methods of collection:
- direct lifting and carrying
- rim roll
- small lifting devices
- satellite vehicles, Cushmans
C. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Others.
· Low and medium rise apartments, high rise apartments, commercial industrial facilities. Smaller containers
handled by maintenance personal for curb side collection, larger containers done mechanically.
· Much collection is done at night and very early morning to avoid the traffic.
D. Collection of Waste at the Source
· The generator separates the waste as opposed to commingled wastes.
· Methods include:
- Curbside collection using standard or specially designed vehicles.
- Standard vehicles can be used to pick up just newspaper or just can on some kind of appropriate time cycle;
perhaps every other week or the third Thursday of the month for glass.
- Specially designed vehicles include:
- closed body recycling trucks
- recycling trailers
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 - modified flatbed trucks
- open-bin recycling trucks
- compartmentalized trailers

2. Types of Collection Systems

· The major dichotomy is between HCS and SCS. In HCS the container is carried to and from the disposal
area. With SCS, the container is emptied into a truck and the truck travels to and from the disposal area.
A. Hauled Container Systems
· The container is sited at a location. In accordance with some cycle, the container is picked up and hauled off
to the disposal area where the container is emptied and returned to the original location. The truck had no
container, per se; the container is carried by the truck. A variation is start with an empty container.
· Advantages:
- Useful when the generation rate is high and the containers are large.
- May eliminate spillage associated with multiple smaller containers.
- Flexible. Need more capacity, use a larger container.
· Disadvantage:
- If the containers are not filled, low utilization rate.
· Types:
- Hoist truck - similar to an AAA emergency truck, but dumsters are picked up or hoisted instead of cars,
smaller volumes, bulky items.
- Tilt-frame - assembly on truck allows sliding of large containers on and off the truck.
- Trash-trailer The slider assembly is not part of the truck, but part of the trailer.
B. Stationary Container System
· The waste container remains in the vicinity of where the waste is generated. The waste is unloaded into a
bigger truck. A large container is an integral part of the truck. When fully loaded from multiple waste
containers, the truck travels to and from the landfill as opposed to the waste container.
· Types:
- Manually loaded. Small containers. Residential pickup.
- Mechanically loaded. Larger containers. Wheeled residential pickup and commercial pickup
- Almost all contain internal compaction equipment
· The major advantage is that the vehicle does not travel to the disposal area until it is full yielding higher
utilization rates.
· The major disadvantages include:
- The system is not flexible in terms of picking up bulky goods.
- Wastes e.g. demolition, that make damage the relatively delicate mechanisms.
- Large volume generations may not have room for storing large containers

3. Analysis of Collection Systems

A. Definition of Terms
1.) Pickup (Phcs or scs)
· Phcs: The time spent:
- driving to the next container after an empty container has been deposited.
- the time spent pickup the loaded container.
- the time required to redeposit the container after it has been emptied.
· Pscs: Refers to the time spent loading the vehicle, beginning with the stop to load the first container and
ending when the last container has been loaded.
2.) Haul (h)

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· Does not include actually picking up the loaded container or redepositing the empty container nor the time
spent at the location where the waste is unloaded.
· HCS- The time required to reach the location where the waste will be emptied, starting when the container has
been loaded on the truck and continuing through unloading until the truck arrives at the location where the
empty container is to be redeposited.
· SCS - The time required to reach the location where the full vehicle will be emptied and continuing until the
truck arrives at the location where the first container will be emptied for the next route.

3.) At-Site (s)

· The time spent at the site (landfill, MRF, transfer station) where the system is unloaded including waiting
time.
4.) Off-Route (W)
· Non-productive activities
- Necessary - Check in, check out, meeting, breaks.
- Unnecessary - Personal errands, extended coffee breaks
· Typically 15%
B. Hauled Container System
· Equations
Thcs = (Phcs + s + h)
The time required for a trip is the sum of the pickup time, the time on site and the haul time. The haul
time may be expressed as:
h = a + bx
and is essentially a function of the distance traveled. The pickup time may be expressed as follows:
Phcs = pc + uc + dbc
In plain English, the pickup time is th
e sum required to pickup the container, to unload the container and drive between containers (p+u+d).
C. Stationary Container System
· Equations
Tscs = (Pscs + s + h)

Pscs = Ct(uc) + (np-1)(dbc)

The pickup time depends upon the number of containers multiplied by the unit loading time plus the
number of locations times the driving time between the locations.

4. Collection Routes
A. General
· Use a heuristic (common sense), trial and error approach consistent with the philosophy of collecting the
most waste with least resources in the context of constraints such as equipment breakdowns, holidays and
vacations, good labor practices and the following guidelines:
- Crew size and vehicles must be known and coordinated.
- Routes should begin and end near arteries
- Topographic and physical boundaries should be route boundaries.
- Start at the top of a hill and work downward.
- Last collection point should be near disposal site.
- Traffic problems should be dealt with early in the morning.
- Extremely large load should be dealt with early in the morning.
B. Layout of Collection Routes
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· Location maps showing data concerning the sources including location, collection frequency, number of
containers
· Data analysis, try to balance the routes in accordance with pickups and time.
· Preliminary layout of routes, start at the depot and do a route. An idea of truck capacity vs. loads is in order.
· Fine tune the preliminary design.

Transfer and Transport

1. Need for Transfer Operations

A. General
· Used when:
- Direct hauling to the processing center or disposal site is no long economically feasible.
- When the disposal site or processing center is in a remote location and cannot be reached directly by highway.
· Integral part of MRFs.
· Becoming popular at landfills for individuals and other non-commercial haulers.
B. Excessive Haul Distances
· Originally horse drawn smaller carts transferred their waste to larger vehicles.
· The internal combustion engine and cheap fuel fostered direct haul to dumps.
· Considering NIMBY and the economy of scale of larger sites, the current trend is to mega-facilities in
remote locations once again necessitating transfer stations.
· Decision between transfer and direct haul is usually an economic one.

2. Types of Transfer Stations

· Three types: direct-load, storage-load, combined direct-load and discharge load.
A. Direct-Load Transfer System
· The wastes in the collection vehicles are emptied directly into:
- the vehicle that will transport the wastes to the final disposal side
- into facilities to compact the wastes into transport vehicles or
- into waste bales.
· Surge - volume of waste that can be stored temporarily on the loading platform
· Large capacity - Direct from collection to transport vehicle typically employing a two level operation.
Compaction and moving the waste within the transfer vehicle is using done by some kind of back hoe with
clamshell tip stationed on the top ramp. An alternative is to direct load into a compactor which in turn
moves the waste directly into the haul trailer.
· Medium and small capacity - Generally small with less equipment and concrete to the point where Demsey
Dumsters are placed on a patch of ground. Alternately, a dual level system can be made by raising the
dumpers or lowering the dumsters, such that the waste is thrown down into the containers. Individuals seem
to like this system.
B. Storage-Load Transfer System
· Wastes are dumped into a pit or unloading area as opposed to the transfer vehicle. The pit is typically a
larger area and thus facilitates unloading of collection vehicles and shortens waiting time. Auxiliary
equipment such as payloaders move the material from the storage area into the transfer vehicle. The storage
time is typically 1-3 days.

15
· Large capacity - San Francisco model. A large pit at a lower level is surrounded by unloading collection
vehicles. Two bull dozers break up the wastes and push the wastes into hoppers which discharge into the
transfer vehicles.
C. Combined Direct-Load and Discharge Load Transfer Stations.
· Usually a multipurpose facility: perhaps a transfer station and a MRF.

3. Transport Means and Methods

A. Motor Vehicle Transport
· Used where roads are available and include:
- trailers
- semi-trailers
- compactors
· Vehicles should satisfy the following requirements:
- minimum cost
- wastes must be covered during haul operations
- must be designed for highway travel
- do not exceed allowable weight limits
- unloading must be simple and dependable
· Open top semi-trailers are popular. A recent innovation is the drop-bottom trailer in which the bottom of
the center portion of the trailer is lowered which yields additional capacity without increasing the length.
· Maximum volume, axle weight, number of vehicles and outside dimensions are a consequence of state
regulations.
· Unloading methods:
- self-emptying
- hydraulic dump beds
- powered internal diaphragms, most common
- moving floors,
- auxiliary equipment
- pull-off type - wastes are pulled out of the truck by either a movable bulkhead or wire cables placed
forward (nearer the cab) of the truck.
- hydraulically operated tipping ramps.
- The advantage of self-emptying units is the speed because no additional equipment or workers are required.
The advantages of auxiliary units is lower capital costs and the relatively simple and dependable methods
used.
B. Rail Transport
· Seattle to Columbia Ridge model. A distance of 300 miles in which 25-28 tons are compacted into a 40'
shipping container.
· Probably the wave of the future for LA.
· Interesting modifications possible:
- Special fork lifts to load the containers.
- rail cars also equipped with set down tires which will allow road transport.
C. Water Transport
· Barges, scows and special boats have been around a long time.
· Ocean disposal is no longer legally practiced.
· Can not be moved during high seas.
D. Pneumatic, Hydraulic etc.

16
· Largest pneumatic system at Disney World in Florida. May be suitable for high density areas feeding a
central collection point. Complex control valves and isolation equipment. Difficult to imagine a half eaten
ice cream bar being moved along. Easy to imagine health and odor problems.
· Hydraulic system - Macerate the waste and pipe it to a remote location. Potential for great economies
except scarcity of water in LA. Ocean water? Must the transport water be treated?

4. Transfer Station Design Requirements

· Type - The key element is: will the waste be merely taken from one truck to another or will waste recovery
operations such as recycling, composting, diversion be incorporated into the design.
· Capacity - Waiting time for unloading vehicles vs. capital costs of a larger facilities.
· Equipment - rubber tired or tracked to push the waste around, scales.

5. Location of Transfer Stations

· Near as possible to the center of the service area.
· Near highways, close access avoid houses.
· Minimum public environmental objections
· Economical construction and operation.

Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste

1. General
· Methods used to recover source separated material:
- Curbside collection
- Homeowner delivery to drop-off centers
· Further separation of source separated material as well as separation of commingled waste
- MRF's Material Recovery Facilities
- MR/TFs Material Recovery/Transfer Facilities, a facility of the future which may include:
-drop-off center
-materials separation facility
- composting
- bioconversion
- production of refuse derived fuel (DRF)
- transfer and transport facility

2. Reuse and Recycling Opportunities

A. Opportunities for reuse include:
· Direct reuse as a raw material, 55 gal. drums, furniture, bicycles. Thrift shops.
· Raw material for re manufacturing. Must meet material specifications, e.g.
- glass: color, no label or metal, degree of cleanliness
- plastics: type (PETE/1, HDPE/2 etc.) moisture content
· Feed stock for the production of compost and other processes. If used as an intermediate cover the compost
can be fairly contaminated. However, compost for sale must be free of contaminants.
· Fuel Source: (perhaps the greatest value of MSW)
- Direct burn of the organic fraction. Dirt, ashes, metal, refrigerators will not burn and perhaps other
constituents such as plastics and tires should not be burned.
- Converting MSW to fuel.
· Land reclamation. Enormous opportunity to reclaim land such as strip-mines or areas below sea level as in
the Netherlands, or create new green areas such as golf courses, ball fields, equestrian centers.
B. Drop-off, Buy-back Centers
17
· Drop-off centers may be a wooden bin for newspapers to a thrift shop. Participation can be low because the
material must be stored by the homeowner and there is not an economic incentive. Convenience, next to a
supermarket, may be critical.
· Buy-back centers may be a vending type machine in front of Lucky's to a large commercial venture, such as
the Holt Boulevard operation.

3. Unit Operations for Separation and Processing

A. Purpose
· Modify the physical characteristics to facilitate removal of desired component.
· Remove specific components or contaminants.
· Prepare the material for subsequent uses.
B. Size Reduction
· Size reduction is the process by which as collected materials are mechanically reduced in size.
· Object is to obtain a uniform final product that is reduced in size potentially reducing storage and shipping
course. Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume reduction. Shredded paper occupies more space
than the parent stock.
· Shredders include hammer mill, flail mill and shear shredder and usually involve metal parts revolving
against one another.
· Glass crushers.
· Wood grinders include chippers, such as local tree cutters use, to reduce the branches to chips and tub
grinders. Once the wood is broken up, the finer pieces can be used as raw material for composting and the
larger pieces can be used as a fuel.
C. Screening
· Screening is a unit operation used to separate mixtures of materials of different sizes into two or more size
fractions by means of screen surfaces.
· Object is to:
- Remove oversized material
- Remove undersized material
- Separate into light (combustible, paper) and heavy (non-combustible, glass) fractions.
- Screening devices include:
- Vibrating screens
- Rotary screens
- Disc screens
D. Other Processes
- Density Separation (Air Classification) is the unit process used to separate light materials such as paper and
plastic from heavy materials such as metals based on weight difference in the air stream. In solid waste the light
fraction is typically organic while the heavy fraction is typically inorganic. Used to separate glass from plastic
in a commingled situation.
- Magnetic Separation is the operation by which ferrous metals are separated from the waste stream utilizing
magnetic principals. Used to separate tin cans from aluminum in a commingled situation.
- Densification (compaction) is a unit operation used to increase the density of the material so that it can be
stored and transported more cheaply and as a means of preparing densified refuse-derived fuels (dRDR) and
include balers and can crushers.

4. Facilities for Handling, Moving and Storing MSW

· Conveyors. Transfer wastes from one location to another and include hinge, belt drag and pneumatic.
Conveyors are used in the manual sorting of MSW. Belt is 4' wide and move at 15-90 ft./min. with a
thickness of waste of 6".
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· Movable Equipment - front end loaders, fork lifts
· Weighing facilities
· Storage facilities

5. Development and Implementation of MRF's

A. Engineering Considerations
· Function of MRF. Depends on role of MRF, type of materials, how the material will be delivered and how
it will be presented to the buyer.
· Selection of materials to be separated. Depends on the program set up in the community, e.g. commingled,
3 recycle containers and 1 for waste.
· Material specifications.
· Flow diagrams. Would consider:
- Characteristics of the waste material to be processed.
- Material specifications.
- Available equipment.
- Example: Refrigerators must be removed, plastic bags must be burst open, brown bags are moved from the
paper to the cardboard section where they command a higher price. Paper may be baled which weigh 1400
lb. and are 30x40x60 inches.
· Estimate Quantities and Loading rates. Mass balance. Usually expressed in tons/hour. Based on 1820
operating hours year.
Loading rate, ton/h =
· Layout and design. Would consider:
- Waste deliveries, ingress.
- Material delivery rates.
- Loading rates including storage for peak times.
- Material flow and handling patterns
- Performance criteria for equipment selection
· Equipment
· Environmental controls
· Aesthetics

B. Planning and Design Process for MRF's

· Feasibility analysis. Technical and economic merits.
- The coordination of the MRF into the overall IWM (integrate waste management) plan.
- What kind of MRF and what kind of materials will it process.
- Economics, capital and operating costs. A sensitivity analysis of the effects of fluctuating prices is
particularly important.
- Ownership and Operation. Public, private, combination.
· Preliminary design.
· Final design.
C. Issues for MRFs
· Siting. Remote locations, as much buffer as possible, NIMBY inevitable.
· Environmental issues. Traffic, noise, dust, odor, vector control, airborne litter, looks terrible.
· Public health and safety. General public and employees. For the employees, protective clothing, puncture-
proof gloves, air filters, showers, perhaps a radio.
· Economics. Sensitive to market prices. Must be environmentally correct or be shut down.

6. Combustion
A. General
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· Object:
- Reduce the volume (85-95% reduction) and weight of wastes.
- Recover conversion products and energy.
· Major concerns:
- Air pollution.
- Siting, NIMBY.
B. Description of Combustion Process
- Unload into a storage pit, usually a 2 day volume. The tipping area should minimize unloading waiting time
with reason.
- An overhead crane drops material into a charging chute which directs the wastes to the furnace. The operator
tries to get an even mix and remove non-combustible items such as mattresses or engine blocks.
- The waste falls on grates and is mass fired. Air is typically introduced.
- Gases and small particles rise to the combustion chamber and burn at 1600°F.
- Heat is recovered from the gases using water-filled tubes in the combustion chamber and a boiler that
produces steam which is converted to electricity in a generator.
- Air pollution is controlled including NOx, SO2 and particulates.
- Clean gases are discharged to the stack.
- Ash and unburned material are quenched (cooled with water). The water and residue must be properly
disposed of. See p.641 for an excellent discussion of air pollution systems.
C. Types of Combustors
· Mass fired. Use unseparated, commingled MSW. Predominate in US, 68%. Pick out the bicycles and
refrigerators, burn the rest. The energy content is probably extremely variable.
· RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) fired. 23%. Produced from the organic fraction and can be made with
consistency to meet energy, moisture, ash content specifications. Forms include: shredded, fluff, pellets or
cubes. Also, since metals, plastics etc. are not burned, air emissions are cleaner.
D. Volume Reduction
· Typically 90% volume reduction of the materials that were combusted. Demolition wastes, white goods,
cars etc. were never considered.
· Always a residue and ash left over after combustion consisting of glass, tin cans, iron and steel.
E. Issues With Combustion Facilities
· Siting. As with MRF's, a remote location with plenty of buffer zone.
· Air Emissions. May exceed the cost of the combustion facilities. Most pressing issue in the LA area.
Important consideration in the decision between mass-fired and RDF systems.
· Disposal of residues, bottom ash, fly ash, scrubber product. Typically disposed of in land fill.
· Liquid Emissions. Sources: ash removal, wet scrubbers.
· Economics. Standardized life cycle costing.

7. Composting
A. General
· The organic fraction of MSW (less plastic, rubber and leather) is converted into an earthy, humus-like,
material by the action of bacteria and other microbes.

20
 P ro te in s
A min o a c id s
Lip id s
C a rb o s + O 2 +N u trie n ts + M O s C o mp o s t + N e w C e lls + D e a d C e lls +
C e llu lo s e
Lig n in C O 2 + H 20 + N O 3 + S O 4 + h e a t
A sh

· Objectives:
- Convert the MSW into a biologically stable material which is reduced in volume.
- Destroy unwanted biologicals: pathogens, weeds, insect eggs.
- Retain the maximum nutrient (N, K, pH).
- To produce a valuable, soil amendment product. Not a fertilizer. Lousy C:N ratio.
B. Process Description
· Howard et al in India in 1930.
· Three basic steps:
- Preprocessing MSW
- Segregating degradable matter, removing engine blocks, tin cans.
- moisture content.
- fertilizer content perhaps by adding sewer sludge
- Decomposition
- windrow
- static pile
- in-vessel
- Preparation for market.
- grinding
- screening
- blending
- additives
- bagging
C. Design and Control
- Particle size
- Seeding, mixing and turning
- Oxygen requirement (aerobic process)
- Moisture content
- C:N ratio
D. Composting Techniques
· Agitated and Static. With agitated, the material is turned; with static, air is blown through the material.
· Windrow composting.
- Most common agitated method.
- The material to be composted is shredded into 1-3" pieces and the moisture is adjusted between 50-60%.
-The material is formed into triangular shapes called windrows which may be 6-7' high and 1`4-16' at the base.
- The windrows are tuned twice a week to maintain aerobic decomposition and the temperature is maintained at
131°F (55°C).
- Takes 3-4 weeks and cured for an additional 3-4 weeks without turning.
· Aerated Static Pile (also Beltville or ARS process)
- MSW is placeed on top of exhaust piping in mounds 7'-8' high.
- Each pile has its own blower to deliver air, oxygen.
- 3-4 weeks of processing with an equal period for curing.
· In-Vessel. Inside an enclosed vessel. Proprietary.
21
- Plug flow and dynamic systems.
- Takes 1-2 weeks and 4-12 weeks of curing.
E. What Can Be Composted (Applications)
· Yard wastes. Ranges from minimal which may take 3 years to high level in container which can be done in
several weeks.
· MSW (organic fraction). Metals or household hazardous waste can easily contaminate the compost. If a
high quality product is desired, source separation is a must.
· MSW (commingled, partially processed). Not suitable as a gardener's compost; use as an intermediate cover
if allowed.
· MSW (with sewer sludge). May avoid sludge dewatering. Increases the nutrient and moisture contents of
the mix; may also contain heavy metals. A 2:1, MSW: sludge is recommended as a starting point.
F. Issues With Composting Facilities
· Odors. Usually caused by:
- Low C:N ratios
- Poor temperature control
- Excessive moisture
- Poor mixing
- Can be controlled with various towers and facilities and odor-masking agents and enzymes.
· Pathogens. Usually destroyed by normal composting parameters of 55°C for 15-20 days
· Heavy metals. Particles are created when the waste is shredded and these particles may become attached to
the lighter fractions.
· Definition of acceptable compost

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 DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES AND RESIDUAL MATTER

1. Overview
· Solid wastes are components identified for disposal including residues:
- not recycled
- that remain after processing at a MRF
- that remain after recovery of conversion products and/or energy
· Landfilling, by far, is the most common disposal method.

2. Landfills - General
A. Definitions
· Landfills are physical facilities perhaps encompassing several hundred acres used for the disposal of
residual solid wastes in the surface soils of the earth. Landfills are engineered facilities involving a daily
cover material typically 6" of soil.
· A cell is the volume of MSW material placed in a day plus the cover material. The cover controls the
following functions:
- blowing debris
- vectors
- water seepage
· A lift consists of one or more cells over the active area of the landfill and considered with over material
represents the height of the landfill.
B. Site Preparation
· Important considerations include:
- drainage-away from landfill
- excavation and preparation of bottom and sides
- stockpiling of cover material
- placement of monitoring equipment
C. Placement of Wastes
· The waste is placed in cells continuing upward and outward from the compaction face.
· spread in 18-24" layers from the delivery vehicle and compacted. It is important to compact in thin layers.
· heights from 8-12'
· widths (in and out distance) 10-30'
· length of working face, perhaps 100'

D. Landfill Classification

Classification Waste
I Hazardous Waste
II Designated Waste
III MSW
E. Landfilling Methods
1.) Excavated Cell/Trench
· A depression is dug in the earth and subsequently filled:
· plenty of cover material and water table not near the surface
· Cells are typically square up to 1000', side slopes 1.5:1 to 2:1
· trenches 200-1000' long, reflects volume of daily operation
· 3-10'deep, not too deep as to present a safety hazard for burial
· 15-50' wide, turn equipment around
23
 2.) Area
· used when pre-excavation is not appropriate perhaps because of high ground water
· limited cover material perhaps using imported soils
· liners and leachate control systems are installed
· a berm, earthen embankment, is constructed and serves as a starting point for cells and lifts
3.) Canyon/Depression
· filling in a hole, ravine, quarry that already exists
· drainage is critical

3. Landfill - Siting Considerations

· Haul Distance - Close to waste generation from an engineering point of view; a long distance away from a
political, NIMBY, point of view.
· Location Restrictions - airports, flood plains, wetlands
· Available Land - perhaps 25 years
· Site Access - easy ingress egress for arterial roads, freeways; minimize passing of residences; proximity to
railroad lines for long hauls.
· Soil Conditions and Topography - cover material and excavation
· Climatological - precipitation for drainage and leachate control, prevailing winds for litter and dust control,
winter conditions for cover and overall ops.
· Surface water - minimized on site
· Geologic and Hydrogeologic Conditions - Most important environmental considerations. Protect ground
water aquifers from leachate, local buildings from methane gas.

4. Landfill Gases
A. Overview

organic matter + H2O ®(bacteria) biodegraded organic matter + CH 4 + CO2 + other gases
(water is required for this reaction to go forward)
B. Composition and Generation of Gases
· Primarily CH4 (methane) and CO2 (carbon dioxide); methane (.7167 g/L) has a density less than air
(1.2928 g/L) and will rise perhaps to building basements where it may collect and be explode; CO 2 is
heavier than air (1.9768 g/L) and will sink to the GWT and perhaps cause chemical problems.
· Also N, O, Sulfides (odors) etc. and trace gases.
· Trace gases such as acetone, toluene etc. are associated with the deposition of hazardous wastes, more in
older landfills.
· Generation takes place in four phases:
- Phase I - Initial Adjustment - aerobic phase, mainly N2 and O2 being generated.
- Phase II - Transition- going anaerobic, pH of leachate (if any) will drop.
- Phase III - Acid -
24
 - hydrolysis - a chemical reaction, higher molecular compounds (proteins, lipids etc.) are transformed
into simpler compounds that the MO's can metabolize.
- acidogenesis - microbial conversion of above compounds into lower mass compounds such as acetic
acid.
- Phase IV - Methane Fermentation -A second group of microbes (strict anaerobes) converts the phase III
material into CH4 (methane) and CO2 (carbon dioxide).
- Phase V - Maturation - die off
· Volume - 14.0 ft3/lb of biodegradable organic solids destroyed (see eq 11-2). Function of lignin content.
Lignin is the organic glue that binds trees and plants together.
C. Movement of Landfill Gas
· Mechanisms include diffusion, migration of a gas from a higher to a lower concentration and convection,
the internal pressure of the landfill is greater than atmospheric pressure.
· Convection velocity 1-15 cm/d.
· Most methane (lighter than air) is vented to the atmosphere, however, both CH4 (methane) and CO2
(carbon dioxide) have been found in concentrations of up to 40% at lateral distances of up to 400' from the
edges of unlined landfills. CO2 is heavier than air and sinks perhaps to the GWT where it is readily soluble
in water and forms carbonic acid. The carbonic acid lowers the pH which increases the hardness and
mineral content via solubilization.
D. Control of Landfill Gases
Passive and active controls. With passive systems, the pressure of the gas that is generated serves as the
driving force for the movement of gas. Active systems used an induced vacuum to control the flow of gas.
1.) Passive Control
· Vents
· Trenches (interceptor to collect)
· Trenches/walls (barrier to redirect)
2.) Active
· Extraction wells
· Extraction trenches
· Air dams

E. Management of Landfill Gas

· Flaring - thermal destruction, 1500°F and a residence time of .3-.5s.
· Energy Recovery Systems - direct use of gas in turbines to produce electricity, heat water/steam for
traditional steam electrical generating plant.

5. Leachate
Leachate is defined as the liquid that has percolated through solid waste and has extracted dissolved or
suspended materials. The liquid usually enters the landfill from external sources such as drainage, precipitation
and ground water.
A. Composition of Leachate
· Function of the time i.e. landfill phase: BOD/COD ratio .5 initially, .05-.2 in mature landfills. The BOD is
consumed and the mature landfills contain humic and fuvic acids which are not readily biodegradable.
· Mature landfill: BOD 100-200 mg/l, pH 6.6-7.5, Total Iron 20-200 mg/l

B. Water Balance
· Water entering as precipitation
· Water entering in solid waste - typically MSW is 20% moisture

25
· Water entering in cover material. Field Capacity(FC) is the maximum amount of moisture that can be
contained in the cover material: 6-12% for sands, 23-31 for clay loams. FC is the quantity of water than can
be held against the pull of gravity, eq. 11-17
· Water consumed in the formation of gas. (Rapidly Biodegradable Volatile Solids)
Water consumed = = 0.0119 lbH2O/ft3
· Water lost as water vapor pV=nRT, .0022lb H2O/ft3 landfill gas
· Water balance equation:
DSsw=Wsw+WTS+WCM+WA(R)-WLG-WWV-WE+WB(L) eq 11-18
· The FC is compared to the amount of water present calculated in part by using the water balance
equation. If the amount of water present > FC, leachate will be formed.
C. Movement of Leachate
· Darcy's Law predicts the rate of seepage of leachate from the bottom of the landfill.
Q = -KA
K is the coefficient of permeability also and is 1333ft/day for uniform coarse sand and .000003ft/day for
colloidal clay.
· Breakthrough Time is the time in years for leachate to penetrate a clay liner.
t=
D. Fate of Constituents of Leachate in Subsurface Migration
· The constituents, of course, are the main reason for concern.
· heavy metals - Removal is a function of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil and defined as meq
of cations/100 grams of soil e.g. 100 meq/100g for organic colloids and 10meq/100g for clays. Should not
be a problem.
· trace organics - adsorption (the process of collecting soluble substances that are in solution on a suitable
surface) is the most common removal mechanism.
E. Control of Leachate
· As the leachate travels through the soil many of its harmful characteristics will be lessened by filtration and
adsorption, however, best practice calls for elimination or containment.
· Liner Systems: geomembrane, clay, geosynthetic clay, combinations

The geotextile is a thin synthetic material which minimizes the intermixing of different soil layers. The
geonet is a thin synthetic material which serves as a drainage layer, instead or sand. The geomembrane is a
thin synthetic material which serves as an impervious barrier.
· Collection Systems sloped terraces and piped bottoms.
F. Management Options
· Recycle

26
· Evaporate (possible air quality problems in LA area)
· Treatment
· Integrated systems including wetlands etc.

6. Surface Water Management

· Drainage facilities
· Storm water storage basins
· Intermediate cover perhaps using waste material from an old part of the landfill or freshly processed.
· Final cover
· Percolation rates through cover soils eq 11-29 and tables p.456
DSLC = P - R - ET -PERSW
· The amount of water that can be stored in a soil is the FC(field capacity) - PWP (permanent wilting
percentage). FC is the amount of moisture left after draining by gravity PWP is the amount of water that a
plant can suck out of the soil.

7. Settlement of Landfills
· Nominal angle of repose for waste material is 1.5 to 1. 3:1 most commonly used for side slope.
· If height is over 50', use benches which not only help slope stability but serve as roadways, places to put gas
and water pipes.
· Settlement occurs as the material decomposes and weight is lost as gas and leachate (as much as 40% of
original mass).
· As the overburden increases, compaction and settlement occurs. Maximum specific weight from 1750 to
2150 lb/yd3. Eq. 11-30. 90% of the ultimate occurs in the first 5 years.

8. Environmental Quality Monitoring

A. Vadose Zone Monitoring
· The vadose zone is from the ground surface or bottom of the landfill until where the permanent ground
water begins. The soil pores are not filled with water.
· The pressure of the water within the soil particles is always below atmospheric pressure, therefore, to
remove this moisture, a negative pressure, vacuum, is required. A suction device or lysimeter is required.
· Gases may move laterally in the vadose zone.
B. Ground water Monitoring
· Wells
C. Air Quality Monitoring
· Ambient Air Quality - gases leaking from the landfill into the surrounding air.
· Extracted Landfill Gases - looking for trace constituents
· Off Gases from Treatment and Processing Facilities

9. Preliminary Design of Landfills

· Site Layout
- access roads permanent and temporary
- land area, 25 years the more the better
- landfilling method, cell/trench, area, canyon
- completed characteristics, 3:1 side slopes, 50-75' height to bench, 3-6% slope of final cover.
· Type of Waste - typically Class III for MSW.
· Estimation of Capacity
- Nominal Volume, determined by multiplying the average area between two adjacent contours by the height of
the lift and summing the volume of the successive lifts. The volume capacity of the landfill must be
27
 adjusted for cover material e.g. if the cover is 3:1 and the calculated volume is 100,000 yd3, the adjusted
nominal volume is 100,000 x 3/4 = 75,000 yd3.
- Initially 550 to 1200 lb/yd3 depends upon the waste, the distribution of waste and operation.
- Impact of cover material. Daily 6"-1'; intermediate several feet; final 3-6'. Waste:soil ratios range from 4:1 to
10:1. Cells usually are approximate parallelepipeds with cover material on 3 sides.
- Decomposition and Overburden Height.
· Geology and Geohydrology. Core samples are required to yield information on ground water movement.
· Leachate Management - Do NOT produce any in the first place. Trend is towards composite liners
including a geomembrane and clay layer
· Aesthetics
- Screening with berms, plantings and other landscaping. Hydorseeding. Buy much more land than you need.
- Bird control - String monofilm
- Blowing dust, etc. - portable backstops, snow fencing, cover with earth ASAP.
- Vectors - Cover ASAP
· Equipment - expensive capital expenditure

10. Landfill Operation

· Operating Schedules: Weekends? Heavy periods?
· Filling Plan - Define working acreage, create first cell by working against berm, continue creating cells in a
logical manner by working against previous cells until the working acreage is covered over which is the
completion of the first lift, continue with subsequent lifts until the design height is attained.
· Records - truck count or scales, credit cards
· Hazardous waste - spot inspections

11. Closure and Postclosure

· Closure - come up to permitted height, fine-tune slopes, seal it off, plant it.
· Postclosure - repair surfaces due to erosion, differential settlement; continuing running gas and leachate
facilities, continuing monitoring.

28