SOLID WASTE

What is solid waste?

Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned materials. Solid wastes can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized
gaseous material. Examples of solid wastes include the following materials when discarded: waste tires, septage,
scrap metal, latex paints, furniture and toys, garbage, appliances and vehicles, oil and anti-freeze, empty aerosol
cans, paint cans and compressed gas cylinders and construction and demolition debris, asbestos etc.
Basic terms related to solid waste
1. Ash: the non-combustible solid by-products of incineration or other burning process.
2. Bulky waste: large wastes such as appliances, furniture, and trees and branches, that cannot be handled by normal
MSW processing methods.
3. Co-disposal: the disposal of different types of waste in one area of a landfill or dump. For instance, sewage
sludges may be disposed of with regular solid wastes.
4. Biodegradable material: any organic material that can be broken down by microorganisms into simpler, more
stable com-pounds. Most organic wastes (e.g., food, paper) are biodegradable.
5. Compost: the material resulting from com posting. Compost, also called humus, is a soil conditioner and in some
instances is used as a fertilizer.
6. Composting: biological decomposition of solid organic materials by bacteria, fungi, and other organisms into a
soil-like product.
7. Disposal : the final handling of solid waste, following collection, processing, or incineration. Disposal most often
means placement of wastes in a dump or a landfill.
8. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) : an evaluation designed to identify and predict the impact of an action
or a project on the environment and human health and well-being. Can include risk assessment as a component,
along with economic and land use assessment.
9. Environmental risk assessment (EnRA) : an evaluation of the interactions of agents, humans, and ecological
resources. Comprised of human health risk assessment and ecological risk assessment, typically evaluating the
probabilities and magnitudes of harm that could come from environmental contaminants.
10. Garbage : in everyday usage, refuse in general. Some MSWM manuals use garbage to mean "food wastes,"
although this usage is not common.
11. Landfilling : the final disposal of solid waste by placing it in a controlled fashion in a place intended to be
permanent. The Source Book uses this term for both controlled dumps and sanitary landfills.
12. Leachate : liquid that has seeped through a landfill or a compost pile and has accumulated bacteria and other
possibly harmful dissolved or suspended materials.
13. MSW : municipal solid waste.
14. MSWM : municipal solid waste management.

Characteristics of solid waste

Physical characteristics:- The following physical characteristics are to be studied in detail.
Density
Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a critical factor in the design of a solid waste management
system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection and transport vehicles, etc. To explain, an
efficient operation of a landfill demands compaction of wastes to optimum density. Any normal compaction
equipment can achieve reduction in volume of wastes by 75%, which increases an initial density of 100 kg/m3 to
400 kg/m3. In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the weight of waste in its compacted state
than when it is uncompacted. Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves from source
to disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by the weather, vibration in the collection vehicle and
decomposition
Moisture content
Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet weight - dry weight) to the total wet weight of
the waste. Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of collection and transport. In addition,
moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration, because wet
waste consumes energy for evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of water vapour. In the main, wastes
should be insulated from rainfall or other extraneous water. We can calculate the moisture percentage, using the
formula given below
\[Moisture content(%)=\frac{Wet\cdot weight-Dry\cdot weight}{Wet \cdot weight}x 100\]
A typical range of moisture content is 20 to 40%, representing the extremes of wastes in an arid climate and in the
wet season of a region of high precipitation. However, values greater than 40% are not uncommon. Climatic
conditions apart, moisture content is generally higher in low income countries because of the higher proportion of
food and yard waste.
Size of Waste constituents
The size distribution of waste constituents in the waste stream is important because of its significance in the design
of mechanical separators and shredder and waste treatment process. This varies widely and while designing a system,
proper analysis of the waste characteristics should be carried out.
Calorific Value
Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance, expressed as
kcal/kg. The calorific value is determined experimentally using Bomb calorimeter in which the heat generated at a
constant temperature of 25OC from the combustion of a dry sample is measured.
The physical properties that are essential to analyse of wastes disposed at landfills are:
Field capacity
The field capacity of municipal solid waste is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste sample
subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of field capacity will form leachate, and
leachate can be a major problem in landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state
of decomposition of the wastes.
Permeability of compacted wastes
The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an important physical property because it governs the movement
of liquids and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the other properties of the solid material include pore size
distribution, surface area and porosity. Porosity represents the amount of voids per unit total volume of material.
The porosity of municipal solid waste varies typically from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and
composition of the waste.
Compressibility
It is the degree of physical changes of the suspended solids or filter cake when subjected to pressure.
Chemical characteristics
Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is essential for the proper
understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the waste management system. The products of
decomposition and heating values are two examples of chemical characteristics. If solid wastes are to be used as
fuel, or are used for any other purpose, we must know their chemical characteristics, including the following
Chemical: Chemical characteristics include pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (N-P-K), total Carbon, C/N
ratio, calorific value.
Bio-Chemical: Bio-Chemical characteristics include carbohydrates, proteins, natural fibre, and biodegradable
factor.
Toxic: Toxicity characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides, Toxicity test for Leachates (TCLP),
etc.

Heating value
An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for incineration requires a determination of its heating
value, expressed as kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg). The heating value is determined experimentally using the Bomb
calorimeter test, in which the heat generated, at a constant temperature of 25°C from the combustion of a dry sample
is measured. Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water (100°C), the combustion water remains
in the liquid state. However, during combustion, the temperature of the combustion gases reaches above 100°C, and
the resultant water is in the vapour form. While evaluating incineration as a means of disposal or energy recovery,
one has to consider the heating values of respective constituents.

Overview of solid waste generation

solid waste management techniques
Hazardous wastes; definition
• Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or
the environment.
• It may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids

Hazardous wastes; classification

1. Characteristic Wastes
 a) Ignitability
A solid waste is said to exhibit the characteristic of ignitability if a representative sample of the waste has any of the
following properties:
1. It is a liquid, other than an aqueous solution containing less than 24 percent alcohol by volume, and has a flash
point less than 60°C.
2. It is not a liquid and is capable, under standard temperature and pressure, of causing fire through friction,
absorption of moisture, or spontaneous chemical changes; and, when ignited, bums so vigorously and persistently
that it creates a hazard.
3. It is an ignitable, compressed gas.
4. It is an oxidizer.
5. Examples include waste oils and used solvents, paint wastes etc
A solid waste that exhibits the characteristic of ignitability is given an EPA Hazardous Waste Number of DOO 1.
b) Corrosivity
A solid waste is said to exhibit the characteristic of corrosivity if a representative sample of the waste has either of
the following properties:
1. It is aqueous and has a pH less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5.
2. It is a liquid that corrodes steel at a rate greater than 6.35 111m per year at a test . temperature of 55°C.
3. Battery acid is an example.
A solid waste that exhibits the characteristic of corrosivity is given an EPA Haz. ardousWasteNlll11ber ofD002.
c) Reactivity

d) Toxicity
• Toxic waste is waste material that can cause death, injury or birth defects to living creatures. It spreads
quite easily and can contaminate lakes, rivers and the atmosphere.
• Examples Of Toxic Waste
a) Dioxins: Produced by burning chlorine containing substances, plastics; the manufacture of iron and steel,
and some organic chemicals.
b) Heavy metals: Widespread industrial use, such as in cadmium and nickle plating. Found in batteries
(mercury, cadmium, lead) and leaded petrol.
2. Listed Wastes
a) F-list
• wastes from common manufacturing and industrial processes.
• non-specific source wastes.
• Examples are Wastewater treatment sludges from electroplating and Quenching bath sludge from metal
heat treating operations

b) K-list
• Wastes from specific industries such as petroleum refining or pesticide manufacturing wastes.
• Examples are Wastewater treatment sludges from the production of chlordane and Ammonia still lime
sludge from coking production

c) P- and U-lists
• Wastes from commercial chemical products such as specific commercial chemical products in an
unused form, some pesticides and some pharmaceutical products when discarded.
• Examples are arsenic trioxide, tetraethyl lead, mercury etc.

3. Nuclear Waste
Nuclear waste is the material that nuclear fuel becomes after it is used in a reactor. From the outside, it looks
exactly like the fuel that was loaded into the reactor — typically assemblies of metal rods enclosing fuel pellets.

High-level Waste
• High-level nuclear waste is spent fuel that is still present after it has been used inside of nuclear reactors.
• High level waste accounts for 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the nuclear reactor.
• This type of nuclear waste is very dangerous.
Intermediate-level Waste
• This type of waste typically includes refurbishment waste, ion-exchange resins, chemical sludges and
metal fuel cladding.
• The intermediate level waste contains 4% of all the radioactivity.
• This type of waste typically requires shielding during handling and interim storage.
Low-level Waste
• Most of the radioactive waste that is around today is considered to be low level. In fact, about 90% of all
nuclear waste is low level.
• Nuclear reactors, hospitals, dental offices, and similar types of facilities often use low-level nuclear waste
materials.
• Low-level nuclear waste is not dangerous

4. Biomedical Waste
Medical waste is any kind of waste that contains infectious material (or material
that’s potentially infectious). Examples include microbiological, animal, human blood and blood products,
pathological, sharps.
 • Sharps. This kind of waste includes anything that can pierce the skin, including needles, scalpels, lancets,
broken glass, razors, ampules, staples, wires, and trocars.
• Infectious Waste. Anything infectious or potentially infectious goes in this category, including swabs,
tissues, excreta, equipment, and lab cultures.
• Pharmaceuticals. This grouping includes all unused, expired, and/or contaminated vaccines and drugs. It
also encompasses antibiotics, injectables, and pills

5. Electronic Waste
Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices.
The rapid expansion of technology and the consumption driven society results in the creation of a very large amount
of e-waste in every minute.
E-waste is considered the “fastest-growing waste stream in the world” with 44.7 million tonnes generated in 2016-
equivalent to 4500 Eiffel towers. In 2018, an estimated 50 million tonnes of e-waste were reported.

6. Chemical Waste
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste Exchange
Waste minimization by consignment of excess unused materials to an independent party for resale to a third party,
saves both in waste production and in the cost (environmental and financial) of production from new raw material-
s. Waste exchanges serve as information clearinghouses through which the availability and need for various types
of materials can be established.

Recycling
The definition says that a material is recycled if it is used, reused, or reclaimed. A material is "used or reused" if it
is either (1) employed as an ingredient (including its use as an intermediate) to make a product (however, a
material will not satisfy this condition if distinct components of the material are recovered as separate end
products, as when metals are recovered from metal-containing secondary materials); or (2) employed in a
particular function as an effective substitute for a commercial product. A material is reclaimed if it is processed to
recover a useful product or if ids regenerated. Examples include the recovery of lead from spent batteries and the
regeneration of spent solvents.

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
1. Biological Treatment
In contrast to naturally occurring compounds, anthropogenic compounds (those created by human beings) are
relatively resistant to biodegradation. One reason is that the organisms that are naturally present often cannot produce
the enzymes necessary. to bring about transformation of the original compound to a point at which the resultant
intermediates can enter into common metabolic pathways and be completely mineralized.
Many environmentally important anthropogenic compounds are halogenated, and halogenation is often implicated
as a reason for their persistence. The list of halogenated organic compounds includes pesticides, plasticizers, plastics,
solvents, and trihalomethanes. Chlorinated compounds are the best known and most studied because of the highly
publicized problems associated with DDT and other pesticides and numerous industrial solvents. Hence, chlorinated
compounds serve as the basis for most of the information available on halogenated compounds.
The first step in biodegradation, then, is sometimes dehalogenation, for which there are several biological
mechanisms.
2. Chemical Treatment
Chemical detoxification is a treatment technology, either employed as the sole treatment procedure or used to reduce
the hazard of a particular waste prior to transport, incineration, and burial. The following paragraphs describe a few
of these techniques.
3. Physical/Chemical Treatment

Ion Exchange. Metals and ionized organic chemicals can be recovered by ion exchange. Ion exchange chemistry
was discussed in Section 4-3. In ion exchange, the
In the solvent extraction process, the solvent and the waste stream are mixed to al-: low mass transfer of the
constituent(s) from the waste to the solvent. The solvent, immiscible in water, is then allowed to separate from the
water by gravity. The solvent solution containing the extracted contaminant is called the extract. The extracted waste
stream with the contaminants removed is called the raffinate.

❖ Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities

Hazardous waste management refers to a carefully organized system in which wastes go through appropriate
pathways to their ultimate elimination or disposal in ways that protect human health and the environment. It
involves generation, treatment, and disposal of hazardous wastes, as illustrated in Fig 17.2.

Treatment means any method, technique, or process, including neutralization, designed to change the physical,
chemical, or biological character or composition of any hazardous waste to neutralize such waste, or to render such
waste nonhazardous, or less hazardous; safer to transport, store, or dispose of; or amenable for recovery, amenable
to storage, or reduction in volume. There are many options for the treatment of hazardous wastes, and these include
industrial waste water treatment, hazardous waste incinerators, industrial furnaces and boilers, and resource recovery
such as solvent reclamation. The ideal treatment process reduces the quality of hazardous waste material to a small
fraction of the original amount and converts it to a nonhazardous form. However, most treatment processes yield
material, such as sludge from waste water treatment or incinerator ash, which requires disposal and which may be
hazardous to some extent. Direct disposal of minimally treated hazardous wastes is becoming more severely limited
with new regulations being imposed. Fig 17.3 represents a scheme for the treatment of hazardous wastes.