Unit 2

UNIT - 2
What is Waste?
It is defined as the unwanted or unusable materials or any
substance which is discarded after primary use, or it is worthless,
defective and of no use.
The United Nations environment program defines waste

as “substance or objects, which are disposed of or are
intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of
by the provisions of national law.
KINDS OF WASTES
• Solid wastes: The wastes which are in solid forms and

may result domestic, commercial and industrial wastes
Examples: plastics, Styrofoam containers, bottles, cans,
papers, scrap iron, and other trash.
• Liquid Wastes: the wastes which are in the from of liquid

are called as liquid waste.
Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste water
from ponds, manufacturing industries and other sources
SOLID WASTE
• Any garbage or refuse (Municipal Solid Waste)

• Sludge from a wastewater treatment plant.
water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control
facility
• Other discarded material
• Solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material
from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural
operations, and from community activities.
LIQUID WASTE
• Liquid waste includes sewage as well as wastewater from
industrial processes such as food and agricultural
processing, and manufacturing.
• Liquid waste can be subdivided into other waste types

based on the nature of the liquid waste and the risks it
poses.
• For example, wastewater may contain organic substances

and nutrients that are of value to agriculture, or may be
hazardous due to the chemicals or pathogens it contains.
TOPIC
Waste Characterization
Waste Characterization
• Waste characterization is a methods that is used to
determine the nature or the property of materials
discarded in a waste stream
• Waste characterization is essential for determining the

methods of treatment and disposal to be applied to the
waste.
• It will also help in determining the generation of

energy from the waste material.
Physical characterization of waste
• The physical characterization of the waste
include.
 Moisture content
 Waste density
 Ph
 Temperature
 Field capacity
 Permeability
The characterization is important and significant

because they affect the extent and the rate of
degradation of waste.
Physical characterization of Waste
Moisture content
The moisture content of the Solid waste is generally expressed

as weight of moisture per unit weight of dry or wet material.
In the dry weight method it is expressed as the percentage of

the dry weight of the material as follows
𝑎−𝑏
Moisture content = ∗ 100
𝑏
a= initial weight of the sample as delivered

b= weight of the sample after drying
• By this we can find out how much incineration heat is to

be supplied by the Incinerator for removing the moisture.
Physical characterization of Waste
• Moisture Content also plays an important role in other
processing methods as Composting and Anaerobic Digestion
• Solid waste contains moisture percentage in range of 20-

40%
• It represents a moisture content of waste in a arid and

climate and in region of high precipitation.
Physical Characteristics
DENSITY
• Density of a waste is defined as the mass per unit volume.
• It is important to determine the element of designing solid

waste management system such as
 Waste Collection—type of waste Collection vehicle
required.
 Storage and Transportation
 Designing of landfills
• During the different steps of waste management from

collection to disposal the density of waste changes due to
decomposition, handling, vibration in vehicles, drying by
weather etc .
• In high income countries ,the collected waste is
typically of low density as it contains more of cans,
glasses etc. and compaction causes reduction in 75 % of
Volume.
• In low income countries initial compaction is not

favorable due to high initial density of waste and
compaction vehicles offer little or no advantage.
Particle size and distribution
• Recovery of waste materials is a key element in solid waste
management and it is important to have the knowledge of
size and distribution of waste constituents.
• This knowledge is useful in selecting the waste processing

method such as separators and shedders for size reduction.
• Shredding increases the homogeneity, increases the

surface area/ volume ratio and reduces the potential for
preferential liquid flow paths through waste.
• Particle size will also influence the waste packing densities.

• Shredding (i.e particle size Reduction) increase the biogas
production through the increased surface area available to
degradation by the bacteria.
Particle size and distribution
• On the other hand if the smaller particle allow the high
packing density which decrease the water movement ,
bacterial movement and bacterial access.
• Therefore its is important for the particle size to be in line

with the treatment method to be adopted
Field capacity
• It is critical physical parameter of municipal solid waste
• The field capacity of solid waste is the amount of moisture
that can be retained in a waste sample against the action
of gravitational pull.
• The filed capacity determines the formation of leachate in
landfills.
• Water in excess of the field capacity is also influenced by
• Degree of Applied pressure
• State of decomposition of waste
• The field capacity of uncompact commingled waste from

the residential and commercial sources is in range of 50-60
percent.
Permeability
• It is defined as the hydraulic conductivity of compacted
waste and it is an important physical property.
• The movement of liquid and gases within the landfill is

determined by the permeability of waste
• Permeability of waste depends on the pore size, surface

area, and pore size distribution.
• Permeability is related to density implying that denser

refuse are less permeable.
• The reported range of refuse is 10-1 to 10-5 cm/sec

Porosity
• It is another important physical property like permeability.
• It is defined as the voids per volume of waste.
• Higher the porosity more will be the permeability of the

waste.
• The typical porosity of the waste ranged from 0.4 to 0.67.
• The porosity depends on compaction and composition of

waste
Chemical Characteristics of Solid waste
• Chemical composition of solid waste is important while

evaluating the alternative processing and recovery options.
• Especially while looking at the waste to energy process

where waste is used as a fuel it is important to have the
proximate and ultimate analysis of substrate
• A typical PROXIMATE ANALYSIS includes the moisture, ash,

volatile matter etc.
• ULTIMATE ANALYSIS will be the Elemental Characterizations

Chemical Analysis
Proximate Analysis Ultimate Analysis
Moisture Determination of
percentage of carbon,
hydrogen, Oxygen,
Volatile nitrogen, Sulphur etc.
Ash
Fixed
Carbon
Chemical Characteristics of solid waste
Moisture
Proximate analysis
Volatile matter
Chemical Characteristics of solid waste
Proximate Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste
S.No Components Range (%)
1 Moisture 15-40
2 Volatile matter 40-60
3 Fixed carbon 5-12
4 Glass, Ash and Metal 15-30

Ultimate Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste
• Ultimate analysis of a Waste component is typically involves the
determination of percentage of Carbon (C ), hydrogen (H), Oxygen
(O), nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S) and Ash
• Sometimes due to emission of chlorinated Compounds during

combustion the determination of halogen (cl, fl, Br and I) are also
included in ULTIMATE ANALYSIS.
• The results of the ultimate analysis are used to characterize the

chemical Composition of the organic matter in Solid waste
• Analysis for solid waste for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur
can be done using the CHNS analyzer.
Chemical Characteristic of Solid Waste
HEAT CONTENT
• Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from the combustion

of unit weight of a Substance and expressed as Kcal/Kg.
• The calorific value is determined experimentally by the Bomb

Calorimeter in which the heat generated at the constant temperature
of Combustion of dry sample is measured.
• Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water, the
combustion of water remains in the liquid State.
• However, during the combustion gases remain above the 100’C that
the water resulting from the combustion is in the Vapour State.
Biological Characteristic of Solid Waste
GENERATION OF WASTE
&
THEIR TYPES.
What is WASTE ?
-unwanted or unusable materials.

-any substance which is discarded after primary
use, or it is worthless, defective and of no use.
-the United Nations environment program
defines waste as “substance or objects, which are
disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are
required to be disposed of by the provisions of
national law”.
KINDS OF WASTES
 Solid wastes: wastes in solid forms, domestic,
commercial and industrial wastes
Examples: plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles,

cans, papers, scrap iron, and other trash
 Liquid Wastes: wastes in liquid form
Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste

water from ponds, manufacturing industries and
other sources
SOLID WASTE
 Any garbage or refuse (Municipal Solid
Waste)
 Sludge from a wastewater treatment plant,
water supply treatment plant, or air pollution
control facility
 Other discarded material
 Solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained
gaseous material from industrial,
commercial, mining, and agricultural
operations, and from community activities
LIQUID WASTE
 Liquid waste includes sewage as well
as wastewater from industrial processes
such as food and agricultural processing,
and manufacturing.
 Liquid waste can be subdivided into other
waste types based on the nature of the
liquid waste and the risks it poses.
 For example, wastewater may contain
organic substances and nutrients that are
of value to agriculture, or may be
hazardous due to the chemicals or
pathogens it contains.
Classification of waste
 Biodegradable waste- can be

degraded
 Non-biodegradable waste-cannot be
degraded
Biodegradable waste- Examples
 paper,
 wood,
 fruits and others
Non-biodegradable waste-Examples
 plastics,
 bottles,
 old machines,
 cans etc.
 Hazardous wastes
Substances unsafe to use commercially,
industrially, agriculturally, or economically and
have any of the following properties-
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity & toxicity.
 Non-hazardous
Substances safe to use commercially,
industrially, agriculturally, or economically and
do not have any of those properties
mentioned above. These substances usually
create disposal problems.
 Classification of waste aoccording to
their origin(generation) and type
 Municipal Solid wastes: Solid wastes that include household

garbage, rubbish, construction & demolition debris,
sanitation residues, packaging materials, trade refuges etc. are
managed by any municipality.
 Industrial wastes: Liquid and solid wastes that are generated

by manufacturing & processing units of various industries
like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal gas, sanitary & paper
etc.
 Agricultural wastes:Wastes generated from farming

activities. These substances are mostly biodegradable.
 Fishery wastes: Wastes generated due to fishery
activities. These are extensively found in coastal &
estuarine areas.
 Radioactive wastes: Waste containing radioactive

materials. Usually these are byproducts of nuclear
processes. Sometimes industries that are not directly
involved in nuclear activities, may also produce some
radioactive wastes, e.g. radio-isotopes, chemical sludge
etc.
 E-wastes: Electronic wastes generated from any modern

establishments. They may be described as discarded
electrical or electronic devices. Some electronic scrap
components, such as CRTs, may contain contaminants
such as Pb, Cd, Be or brominated flame retardants.
 Bio-medical wastes: Solid or liquid wastes including

containers, intermediate or end products generated during
diagnosis, treatment & research activities of medical
sciences.
WASTE DISPOSAL
 Dilute and disperse(Attenuation): throw it in the
river/sea/burn it.
 Basically this involves spreading trash thinly over a

large area to minimize its impact.
 Works for sewage, some waste chemicals, when

land-disposal is not available
 Concentrate and contain (Isolation):waste

dumps/landfills.
 This is how mostly of the solid waste gets treated.

USEFUL OPTIONS
 Vermicomposting-the use of earthworms to convert
organic waste into fertilizer.
 Composting-nature's process of recycling decomposed
organic materials into a rich soil known as compost
 Resource recovery
 Incineration -the destruction of waste material by
burning.
 Pyrolysis -decomposition brought about by
high temperatures.
 Gasification
 Energy recovery
 Bio methanation-process to convert waste into biogas
with the help of anaerobic microorganism like bacteria.
Benefits of Vermicompost
• The worm castings contain higher percentage of both
macro and micronutrients than the garden compost.
• Apart from other nutrients, a fine worm cast is rich in
NPK which are in readily available form and are released
within a month of application.
• Vermicompost enhances plant growth, suppresses disease
in plants, increases porosity and microbial activity in soil,
and improves water retention and aeration.
• Vermicompost also benefits the environment by reducing
the need for chemical fertilizers and decreasing the
amount of waste going to landfills.
• Vermicompost production is trending up worldwide and it
is finding increasing use especially in Western countries,
Asia-Pacific and Southeast Asia.
Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is a process of chemically decomposing organic
materials at elevated temperatures in the absence of
oxygen.
• The process typically occurs at temperatures above 430 °C
(800 °F) and under pressure.
• It simultaneously involves the change of physical phase

and chemical composition and is an irreversible process.
• The word pyrolysis is coined from the Greek words "pyro"

which means fire and "lysis" which means separating.
What are the Advantages of Pyrolysis?
The key benefits of pyrolysis include the following:

• It is a simple, inexpensive technology for processing a wide
variety of feedstocks.
• It reduces waste going to landfill and greenhouse gas emissions.
• It reduces the risk of water pollution.
• It has the potential to reduce the country’s dependence on
imported energy resources by generating energy from domestic
resources.
• Waste management with the help of modern pyrolysis
technology is inexpensive than disposal to landfills.
• The construction of a pyrolysis power plant is a relatively
rapid process.
• It creates several new jobs for low-income people based on the
quantities of waste generated in the region, which in turn provides
public health benefits through waste clean up.
Biomethane
The biomethane produced by methanation has numerous
advantages for communities, the circular economy, and agriculture,
such as:
• The local recycling of residual materials, which become
resources reused in a circular economy approach
• Local renewable energy production
• The creation of local activity that can’t be outsourced, with
three to four direct jobs, the creation and maintenance of about
ten indirect jobs, and the creation of a new economic
contribution that benefits the communities
• The return of digestate to the soil as an amendment and natural
fertilizer, leading to savings for farmers and preserving the
agronomic quality of the soil
• Removing carbon from energy and agricultural systems, and
revitalizing exurban and rural areas
 Impacts of waste on health
 Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation
 Uncollected waste can obstruct the storm water runoff
resulting in flood
 Low birth weight
 Cancer
 Congenital malformations
 Neurological disease
 Nausea and vomiting
 Increase in hospitalization of diabetic residents living
near hazard waste sites.
 Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of
mercury.
 Effects of waste on animals
and aquatics life
 Increase in mercury level in fish due to disposal of
mercury in the rivers.
 Plastic found in oceans is ingested by birds.
 Resulted in high algal population in rivers and sea.
 Degrades water and soil quality.

 Impacts of waste on
Environment
 Waste breaks down in landfills to form methane, a
potent greenhouse gas.
 Change in climate and destruction of ozone layer due
to waste biodegradable.
 Incinerating waste also causes problems, because
plastics tend to produce toxic substances, such as
dioxins, when they are burn.
 Gases from incineration may cause air pollution and
contribute to acid rain, while the ash from incinerators
may contain heavy metals and other toxins.
 THE 3 R’s OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT
 REDUCE
The best way to manage waste is to not produce it.
• Avoid disposable goods, such as paper plates, cups,
napkins, razors, and lighters.
• Avoid over-packaged goods, especially ones packed with

several materials such as foil, paper, and plastic. They are
difficult to recycle.
• Use cloth napkins instead of paper napkins.
• Use a dish cloth instead of paper towels.

 RE-USE
It makes economic and environmental sense to
reuse products.
 Reuse products for the same purpose. Save paper

and plastic bags, and repair broken appliances,
furniture and toys.
 Sell old clothes, appliances, toys, and furniture in
garage sales or ads, or donate them to charities.
 Use resealable containers rather than plastic wrap.
 Use a ceramic coffee mug instead of paper cups.
 Reuse grocery bags or bring your own cloth bags to
the store. Do not take a bag from the store unless
you need one.
 RE-CYCLE
Recycling is a series of steps that takes a used material and
processes, remanufactures, and sells it as a new product.
• Buy products made from recycled material. Look for the

recycling symbol or ask store managers or salesmen
• Use recycled paper for letterhead, copier paper and
newsletters.
• Check collection centers and curbside pickup services to
see what they accept, and begin collecting those materials.
These can include metal cans, newspapers, paper products,
glass, plastics and oil.
• Buy products made from material that is collected for
Recycling.
 Few other things that can be
done
 Donate/exchange old books, clothes ,
computers , excess building material, old
quipment to local organizations
 Employee education-education campaign
on waste management that includes an
extensive internal web site, quarterly
newsletters, daily bulletins, promotional
signs and helpful reference labels within the
campus of an institution.
 Conduct outreach program adopting an
ecologically sound waste management
system which includes:
 waste reduction
 segregation at source
 composting
 recycling and re-use
 more efficient collection
 more environmentally sound disposal
Unit 2
CHEMICAL TREATMENT METHODS
of Waste Water
CONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION
 CHEMICAL TREATMENT
 COAGULATION
 NEUTRALIZATION
 PRECIPITATION
 OXIDATION
INTRODUCTION
●Industries use water that obtained from the water treatment system for a
variety of purposes, such as:
-For manufacturing goods.

-For heating.
-For cooling.
-As carrier of raw material.
-As carrier of waste matter.
-As a solvent.
The resulting water is then classified as a wastewater.

●The indiscriminate discharge of these wastewater streams into the environment can
-Render soils "sick "
-Pollute the receiving bodies of water.
-Cause air pollution by generating obnoxious gases.
●Discharge untreated wastewater into the domestic sewer system makes the task of treating
domestic sewage, a very difficult and costly exercise.
●To prevent any health hazards caused by discharging wastewater into the environment
and protect domestic sewage , the wastewater must be treated before discharge.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
• Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion
of contaminants is brought about by the addition of chemicals or by
other chemical reactions.
• Precipitation, adsorption, and disinfection are the most common

examples used in wastewater treatment.
• Basically the treatment includes:

- Coagulation
- Precipitation
- Disinfection
- Oxidation
- Neutralization, scale control
COAGULATION
Very fine suspended particles present in wastewaters cannot be removed in
sedimentation due to settling velocity is very low.
Fine colloidal or dispersed particles contain electric charges and continuously in

motion known as Brownian motion and they are not settled down by gravity force.
Very fine suspended particles can be removed by increasing their size(flocculated

particles). Certain chemical compounds called coagulants are added to the wastewater
which on thorough mixing form a gelatinuous precipitate called floc is formed.
• After which they pass through sedimentation tank and settle down.
• It takes place in rapid mix, or flash mix basins which are very rapid. The primary
function of rapid mix basin is to disperse the coagulant so that it contacts all of the
wastewater.
• Over the years a number of different substances have been used as coagulants.
The most common ones
-Alum(Al2(SO4)3.18H2O).
-Ferrous Sulfate(FeSO4.7H2O).
-Lime Ca(OH)2.
-Ferric Chloride (FeCl3).
-Ferric Sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3).
Principle of Coagulation
In coagulation, individual particles combine together. When a coagulant is used in
water, it forms a spongy gelatinous precipitate which absorbs fine size particles in
water and binds them together. The whole process results into bigger particles which
are heavier and easily settle able.
Properties of common coagulants
•React quickly
•Cheap •Electrolyte ( positively charged)
•Easy to handle and •High valance ions for high efficiency

store •Not deteriorates
•React in longer range
of pH
Coagulation & Flocculation Process
ALUM [Al2(S04)3 18H2O]:
Alum is the most widely used coagulant in water treatment. It reacts quickly giving excellent
stable flocs. It is cheap and can be easily stored and handled. The alum when added to raw water,
reacts with natural alkalinity in water (if that is insufficient, lime may be added) so as to form a
gelatinuous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. It increases the sulphate hardness and
corrosiveness of water to a small extent.
NEUTRALIZATION
 If a waste stream is found to be hazardous due to corrosivity, neutralization is the
primary treatment used. It is used as a pretreatment system before a variety of
biological, chemical, and physical treatment processes.
 It is the process of adjusting the pH of water through the addition of an acid or a

base, depending on the target pH and process requirements. Some processes such as
boiler operations and drinking water standards need neutral water at a pH of 7.
Water or wastewater is generally considered adequately neutralized
if:
(1) its damage to metals, concrete, or other materials is minimal;

(2) it has little effect on fish and aquatic life;
(3) it has no effect on biological matter (i.e., biological treatment systems).
PARAMETERS WHICH AFFECT NEUTRALIZATION:

-pH
-alkalinity/acidity
-Hardness
-Buffers
Fig showing Continuous Neutralization
tank
PRECIPITATION
•It is used for removing dissolved metals from waste water solution containing toxic
materials.
•To convert this dissolved metal into solid particles, a precipitation reagent is added. A
chemical reaction occurs where dissolved metals form solid particles.
•Filtration can be used to remove the particles from the mixtures. How much well the process
takes place depends on the types of metal present, its concentration, and reagent used.
• Example : In hydroxide precipitation, calcium or sodium hydroxide is used as a reagent to
create solid metal hydroxides.
• But the main difficulty being the mixture of metals in wastewater making it difficult to
precipitate.
OXIDATION
•It is a waste water treatment which involves the use of oxidizing agents such as ozone,
hydrogen peroxide, permanganate, chloride, chlorine, oxygen etc.
•The electrons move from the oxidant to the pollutants in waste water. They undergo
structural modification becoming less destructive compounds.
•Alkaline chlorination uses chlorine as oxidizing agent against cyanide. But it can lead to
production of toxic chlorinated compounds hence require further steps.
APPLICATIONS:
•Reduce concentration of the residual organics
•Controls odors
•Remove ammonia
•Reduce microbial content
Common oxidation agents used in wastewater treatment:

-Oxygen(O2).
-Chlorine (Cl2).
-Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO).
-Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2).
-Potassium permanganate(KMnO4).
-Hydrogen peroxide(H2O2).
Treatment by
Equalisation Method
Unit 2
Equalization
Equalization is the operation aimed at eliminating or

minimizing the problems associated with fluctuations in
wastewater flow and characteristics.
Basic Operation Schemes for Equalization tanks
Purpose of Equalization Basin for Industrial
Treatment Facilities
• To minimize fluctuations in flow rate to the
treatment plant.
• To provide reduction of organic fluctuations in order to
prevent shock loading of biological systems.
• Reduce fluctuations in wastewater ph.
• To minimize chemical requirements necessary for
neutralization.
• To minimize flow surges to physical-chemical treatment
systems and permit chemical feed rates compatible with
feeding equipment.
Purpose of Equalization Basin for Industrial
Treatment Facilities
• To provide continuous feed to biological systems over
periods when the manufacturing plant is not
operating.
• To provide capacity for controlled discharge of wastes

to municipal systems in order to distribute waste loads
more evenly.
• To prevent high concentration of toxic materials from

entering the biological treatment plant.
Classification of Equalization Operations
•Flow Equalization (elimination or dampening of
wastewater flow variations)
•Concentration Equalization (dampening of

concentration fluctuations in wastewater)
• Flow and Concentration Equalization

Classification of Equalization Operations
• Equalization may be either online or offline as shown
in figure below:
Equalization
Mixing
• To ensure adequate equalization and to prevent
settleable solids from depositing in the basin
• Reduction in BOD may be achieved through mixing and
aeration
Methods
• Distribution of inlet flow and baffling
• Turbine mixing
• Diffused air aeration
• Mechanical aeration
• Submerged mixers
Flow Equalization
Flow Equalization
Principle Design Parameter:
• Size and type of basin varies with quantity of waste

and the variability of the wastewater stream
Flow Equalization
Design Consideration
Qin Qout
Qin= Qout
Constant Volume
Flow Equalization
Design Consideration
High level
Low level
Qin Qout
Qin= Variable
Qout= Constant
Variable Volume
Flow Equalization
Thickened sludge equalization tank
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kMXS1pu5lnc
Unit 2
Environmental Sampling Techniques-

General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling
Techniques
Sequence of Sampling Matrices and Analyses
 Project deals with multimedia and/or multiple parameters use
following sequence:
 Collect from least to most contaminated sampling locations
 If sediment and water is being collected, collect water first to
minimize effects from suspended bed materials
 For shallow streams, start downstream and work upstream to
minimize sediment effects due to sampling disturbances
 Ifsampling at different depths, collect surface samples first and
then proceed deeper
 Always collect VOCs first, followed by SVOCs (e.g. pesticides, oil,
etc.), then total metals, dissolved metals, microbiological samples,
and inorganic nonmetals
Environmental Sampling Techniques
General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling Techniques
Sample Amount
 Minimum sample required depends on the

concentration of the analyses present.
 Should take enough for all analyses and additional
for any QA/QC work required
 Heterogeneous samples generally require larger
amounts to be representative of sample variations
 Taking too much sample can lead to problems with
storage and transportation
Sample Amount – Water Sample Amount –

Soil/Sediment/Solid Waste
• 5 mL for total petroleum • For physiochemical properties
hydrocarbons (TPHs), (particle size, texture etc.) requires a
100 mL for metals, 1 L minimum of 200 g soil
for trace organics • For contaminant analysis 5-100 g is
(pesticides) sufficient
• As a general rule the • More samples are required if the goal
minimum volume is to detect low solubility
collected should be 3-4 (hydrophobic) organic contaminants
times the amount • Sample volume of waste samples
required for analysis should be kept small to reduce
(EPA, 1995) disposal costs
Sample Amount – Air Samples Sample Amount –

Water/Sediment Samples for
Toxicity Testing
• Volume of air required depends • 20-40 L Water for an effluent
on the minimum chemical toxicity test
concentration that can be • 15 L sediment for
detected and the sensitivity of bioaccumulation tests
the measurement • 8-16 L sediment for benthic
• Concentration range may be macro invertebrate
unknown – sample size assessments (EPA, 2001)
determined by trial and error
Sample Preservation and Storage
 Purpose – minimize physical, chemical and biological changes
 3 approaches:
 Refrigeration
 Use of proper sample container
 Addition of preserving chemicals

 Refrigeration is a universally accepted method to slow down loss
processes
 Container choice (material type and headspace) is critical to
reduce
 Volatilization
 Adsorption
 Absorption
 Diffusion
 Photodegradation
 Addition of preservatives is critical to reduce losses due to
chemical reactions and bacterial degradation

 Maximum Holding Time (MHT) is the length of time a sample can

be stored after collection and prior to analysis
 MHTs vary by agency
 Immediate: pH, temperature, salinity, DO
 W ithin 1-2 days: careful pre-planning is required to avoid
sampling on Friday, Saturday or near holidays
 American Public Health Association (APHA) MHTs:
Selection of Sample Containers
Water
 Glass vs. Plastics:
 Glass may leach boron and silica, metals may stick to walls
 Glass is generally used for organics and plastic for metals, inorganics
and physical properties
 For trace organics cap and liner should be made of inert materials
(teflon)
 Headspace vs. no Headspace:
 No headspace is allowed for VOC samples
 40 mL vial with a teflon-lined septum
 Oil and grease should only be half-filled in wide mouthed glass bottles
 Special containers:
 e.g. BOD/DO bottles and VOC vials
Standard Methods (1998)

Soil Biological
• Low temperature storage • Aluminum foil (shiny side
• No preservatives except out) and closed glass
ethanol or sodium bisulfite containers with inert seals
for VOC analysis (Popek, or cap liners
2003)
Air
 Various collection media:
 Filter cassettes
 Adsorbent tubes
 Bags
 Canisters
Reeve, 2002
Selection of Sampling Equipment
Surface Water and Wastewater Sampling

 Grab sampler, weighted bottle sampler,
Kemmerer bottle
Selection of Sampling
Equipment
Groundwater Sampling
 Collected from wells using a
by pumps (peristaltic and
bladder)
 Samples do not come into
contact with mechanical
components of the pump

Soil Sampling
 Soil
depth and whether or not each soil horizon is necessary to sample
are main considerations
 Scoops and trowels, tube sampler, augers, split spoon sampler (drilling)
Equipment
Sediment Sampling
 Dredges (Ekman dredge,
Peterson dredge,
Ponar dredge)
 Core samplers (Livingstone,
Kullenberg, and
Mackereth)
Equipment
Sediment Sampling
 Dredges (Ekman dredge,
Peterson
dredge, Ponar dredge)
 Core samplers
(Livingstone,
Kullenberg,)
Glew et al, 2001

Hazardous Waste
 Sludges: Dredges, scoops, trowels, buckets
 Composite liquid waste: coliwasa, Thief and Trier samplers
Biological Sampling
 Very unique and diverse range of equipment
 Mammals - Trapping(live and kill)
 Fish - Electrofishing, gill nets, trawl nets, sein nets, minnow
traps
 Benthic macroinvertebrates - Petersen and Ekman dredges
Air Sampling
 Many direct-reading instruments for monitoring (real-time)
levels
 Sampling still needed for trace level analysis (expensive and
complex)
e.g. High volume total suspended particulate samplers (TSP),
PM-10 samplers, PM-2.5 samplers, personal sampling pumps,
canister samplers
Selection of Sampling Equipment -Air Sampling
Polyurethane Foam Sampler (PUF) SUMMA canister
• For organics need both solid and vapor • Electroplated with Ni and Cr
phases oxides to prevent adsorption of
• Vapor cartridge is placed in-line with
VOCs
quartz fiber filter for semi-volatile
organics • Low-ultra low ppt-ppb range
• PUF plug concentrations
• Adsorbent resin (XAD-2)
Selection of Sampling Equipment -Air Sampling
Palmes diffusion tubes (PDTs) TSP/ PM10
-Techniques for Sampling
Surface Water and Wastewater Sampling
 Fresh surface waters: flowing waters, static waters and estuaries
 Wastewaters: mine drainage, landfill leachate, industrial effluents etc.
 Differ in their characteristics, samples collection is specific for each
 Streams and rivers – size and amount of turbulence impact
representativeness of samples
 Small streams (<20 ft wide) possible to select a location where a grab
sample represents the entire cross-section
 Larger streams and rivers multiple samples across the channel width
are required
(Also at least one vertical composite (surface, middle, bottom))
 Fast moving rivers and streams difficult to collect mid-channel sample
 Ponds and impoundments use a single vertical composite at deepest
point
 Estuaries inland fresh water mixes with oceanic saline water have
specific sampling routines
- Techniques for Sampling
 Requires installation of a sampling well
 Well must not change integrity of surrounding waters
 Routine groundwater sampling tasks:
 Characterize flow
 Purge and stabilize groundwater prior to sampling
 Minimize cross-contamination due to well materials and sampling
devices
Groundwater Flow Direction
 Hydraulic gradient – slope of water table measured from high point to low
point across a site
 Flow is proportional to gradient, in direction of gradient
 Hydraulic head is a vertical measurement from sea level to the water
table
Hydraulic gradient = Difference in Hydraulic Head/Distance between two
wells
Well Purging
 Used to remove stagnant water in the well borehole and
sandpack for representative sample
 USGS stabilization parameters:
 DO ± 0.3 mg/L
 Turbidity ± 10 % (for samples > 10 NTUs)
 Specific conductivity ± 3%
 ORP ± 10 mV
 pH ± 0.1 unit
 Temp. ± 0.1 oC
Cross Contamination
Soil and Sediment Sampling
 Soil sampling at shallow depths relatively easy
 Sediments are treated similarly with regard to post-sampling
pretreatment (homogenizing, splitting, drying and sieving)
 Horizontal (grab) or vertical (core) sampling
 Composite sampling is common (except for VOCs)
 Non-soil/sediment or no sieved materials should be noted and
not discarded
 Sediments from lakes, ponds and reservoirs should be collected
at the deepest point (contaminants tend to concentrate in fine
grained material in depositional zones)
Hazardous Waste Sampling
 Sources: drums, storage tanks, lab packs, impoundments, waste
piles, debris
 Sampling approach varies considerably
 Requires HAZW OPER training
Drums etc.
 Research documentation (labels etc.) for health and safety
precautions
 Use proper protective equipment
 Unknown wastes should be opened remotely
 Should not be moved since some chemicals are shock-sensitive,
explosive or reactive
 Sample each phase separately
Biological Sampling
 Biological samples difficult to collect

 Species availability - Insufficient sample size may result in
invalid statistical inference
 Sampling protocol needs to account for size differences
between species, tissue differentiations, growth stage, and
habitat
 Susceptible to decomposition of organic analyses
Air and Stack Emission Sampling
 Ambient air, indoor workplace air and stack/emission exhausts

 Concentrations for most atmospheric pollutants are very low
 Analysis of organic compounds requires huge volumes
 Large variation in analyze concentration due to changes in
meteorology
 Meteorological parameters must be noted
Indoor Air
 Ventilation systems can alter air flow and add pollutants
 Sampler location will influence the results obtained
 Household chemicals can add compounds to the air
Water sampling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qoSvbbId18o&t=2s
Variation in the Quality and Quantity of Waste
Water generation
Introduction Industrial (including agro-industrial) wastewaters

have very varied compositions depending on the type of
industry and materials processed. Industry and materials
processed. Some of these wastewaters can be organically very
strong, easily biodegradable, largely inorganic, or potentially
inhibitory. This means TSS, BOD5 and COD values may be in the
tens of thousands mg/lit.
Introduction
• Industrial (including agro-industrial) wastewaters have very

varied compositions depending on the type of industry and
materials processed.
• Some of these wastewaters can be organically very strong,

easily biodegradable, largely inorganic, or potentially
inhibitory. This means TSS, BOD5 and COD values may be in
the tens of thousands mg/lit.
• Unlike sewage, pH values well beyond the range of 6–9 are

also frequently encountered. Such wastewaters may also be
associated with high concentrations of dissolved metal salts,
metal salts.
• Since the flow of industrial wastewater would be
influenced by the nature of the operations within a
factory rather than the usual activities encountered in
the usual activities encountered in the domestic setting.
• Wastewater characteristics within a waste water

characteristics within a factory can also vary with time
because it may practice batch manufacturing, or it may
practice slug discharges.
• Apart from these events which occur on a regular basis,

there would be spillages and dumping which may occur
within the factory infrequently but can have very
adverse impacts on the performance of the wastewater
the performance of the wastewater treatment plant.
Industrial wastewater characteristics which would
require consideration include the following:
i. Biodegradability
ii. Strength
iii. Volumes
iv. Variations
v. Special characteristics which may lead to operational
difficulties
Biodegradability
For an industrial wastewater to be successfully treated by

biological means it should have quantities of organics
requiring removal and these (and any other constituents
present in the wastewater)constituents present in the
wastewater) should not inhibit the biological process. The
quantity of organics in a wastewater is indicated by the
wastewater’s BOD5 and COD (dichromate) values.
Strength
Industrial wastewaters often have organic strengths which

are very much higher than those encountered in sewage.
Agro-industrial wastewaters are among those which may
have very high organic strengths.
E.g.- sugar- molases, distillery-spentwash
Typically the biological processes address the dissolved and
colloidal organic components in a wastewater since the
particulate can be easily removed using physical treatment
options.
Volumes
It can be a common misconception that industrial

wastewater treatment plants handle volumes which are
smaller. While this may be so when compared with
sewage flows received by sewage treatment sewage flows
received by sewage treatment plants serving metropolitan
areas, not all sewage treatment plants serve large
communities and not all industrial wastewater flows are
small.
The range of industrial wastewater volumes to be treated

can be very large, not only from one industry to the next
but also from factory to the next but also from factory to
factory within an industry , than sewage flows
Variations
The study of wastewater characteristics show that the wastewaters

generated by different factories vary even within the same industry
group or same industry group. This is so for every parameter indicated
and particularly so in the case of the volumes of wastewater
discharged.
In part the variation would have been the result of different quantities
of materials processed at different locations but even in terms of unit
quantity of materials processed there are still variations and this is due
to differences in housekeeping practices therein.
Special Characteristics
Industrial wastewaters may have certain characteristics, the

effect of which may not be apparent from the sort of
wastewater data usually provided.. These may, however, have
significant adverse impact on the equipment or unit process
performance, and aesthetics of a wastewater treatment plant.

Unit 2

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Unit 2

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UNIT - 2

The United Nations environment program defines waste

• Solid wastes: The wastes which are in solid forms and

• Liquid Wastes: the wastes which are in the from of liquid

• Any garbage or refuse (Municipal Solid Waste)

• Liquid waste can be subdivided into other waste types

• For example, wastewater may contain organic substances

• Waste characterization is essential for determining the

• It will also help in determining the generation of

The characterization is important and significant

The moisture content of the Solid waste is generally expressed

In the dry weight method it is expressed as the percentage of

a= initial weight of the sample as delivered

• By this we can find out how much incineration heat is to

• Solid waste contains moisture percentage in range of 20-

• It represents a moisture content of waste in a arid and

• It is important to determine the element of designing solid

• During the different steps of waste management from

• In low income countries initial compaction is not

• This knowledge is useful in selecting the waste processing

• Shredding increases the homogeneity, increases the

• Particle size will also influence the waste packing densities.

• Therefore its is important for the particle size to be in line

• The field capacity of uncompact commingled waste from

• The movement of liquid and gases within the landfill is

• Permeability of waste depends on the pore size, surface

• Permeability is related to density implying that denser

• The reported range of refuse is 10-1 to 10-5 cm/sec

• It is defined as the voids per volume of waste.

• Higher the porosity more will be the permeability of the

• The typical porosity of the waste ranged from 0.4 to 0.67.

• The porosity depends on compaction and composition of

• Chemical composition of solid waste is important while

• Especially while looking at the waste to energy process

• A typical PROXIMATE ANALYSIS includes the moisture, ash,

• ULTIMATE ANALYSIS will be the Elemental Characterizations

S.No Components Range (%)

2 Volatile matter 40-60

3 Fixed carbon 5-12

4 Glass, Ash and Metal 15-30

• Sometimes due to emission of chlorinated Compounds during

• The results of the ultimate analysis are used to characterize the

• Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from the combustion

• The calorific value is determined experimentally by the Bomb

-unwanted or unusable materials.

Examples: plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles,

 Liquid Wastes: wastes in liquid form

Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste

 Biodegradable waste- can be

 Municipal Solid wastes: Solid wastes that include household

 Industrial wastes: Liquid and solid wastes that are generated

 Agricultural wastes:Wastes generated from farming

 Radioactive wastes: Waste containing radioactive

 E-wastes: Electronic wastes generated from any modern

 Bio-medical wastes: Solid or liquid wastes including

 Basically this involves spreading trash thinly over a

 Works for sewage, some waste chemicals, when

 Concentrate and contain (Isolation):waste

 This is how mostly of the solid waste gets treated.

• It simultaneously involves the change of physical phase

• The word pyrolysis is coined from the Greek words "pyro"

The key benefits of pyrolysis include the following:

 Plastic found in oceans is ingested by birds.