DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF

CHEMICAL AND BIOENGINEERING

Course Title: Solid and

Hazardous Waste
management

Course Code:
ChEg5232

By Aman E.(M.Sc.)
 Chapter one
Sources, Classification and Characteristics of Solid Wastes
Introduction
As raw materials flow in a technological society (in mining,
harvesting, or otherwise procuring to generate goods for
consumption), more wastes are generated, i.e. as people search
for a better life and a higher standard of living, they tend to
consume more goods and generate more waste. Consequently,
society is searching for improved methods of waste management
and ways to reduce the amount of waste that needs to be land-
filled. It is apparent that the most effective way to ameliorate the
solid waste disposal problem is to reduce both the amount and
the toxicity of waste that is generated.
 Solid Wastes

Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities that
are normally solid and discarded as useless or unwanted. The term is all-
inclusive, and it encompasses the heterogeneous mass of throw away from the
urban community as well as the more homogenous accumulations of
agricultural, industrial, and mineral wastes. A solid waste is "any garbage,
refuse, commercial, mining, or agricultural operations and from community
activities, a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air
pollution control treatment plant facility ".
 Solid Wastes

However, many of these waste materials can be reused, and thus they can
become a resource for industrial production or energy generation, if managed
properly. Industry, private citizens, and state legislatures are searching for
means to reduce the growing amount of waste that societies discard and to
reuse it or dispose of it safely and economically.
 Sources of Solid Wastes
Sources of solid wastes in a community are, in general, related to land use and
zoning.
Although any number of source classifications can be developed, the
following categories have been found useful:
Residential
Commercial
Institutional
Construction and demolition,
Municipal services,
Treatment plant sites,
Industrial , and
Agricultural.
 Classification/Types of Solid Wastes

Solid wastes are generally classified into four categories:

Municipal,
Industrial,
Agricultural, and
Special Wastes.
 Municipal Solid Wastes

The term municipal solid waste refers to solid wastes from houses, streets and
public places, shops, offices, and hospitals, which are very often the
responsibility of municipal or other governmental authorities.
 Municipal Solid Wastes:
General sources of municipal solid wastes
Source Typical facilities, activities, or locations Types of solid wastes
where wastes are generated

  Singe family and multifamily dwellings, low, Food wastes, rubbish, ashes, special
Residential medium and high rise apartments, etc wastes

  Stores, restaurants, markets, office buildings, Food wastes, rubbish, ashes, demolish
Commercial hotels, motels, print shops, auto repair shops, and construction wastes, special wastes,
medical facilities and institutions, etc occasionally hazardous wastes

  Schools, hospitals, prisons, Same as for commercial

Institutional governmental centers, etc.
 Municipal Solid Wastes:
Classification of materials comprising municipal
solid waste
 
 
Component
Descriptions
Food wastes The animal, fruit or vegetable residue (also called garbage) resulting from the handling, preparation,
cooking, and eating of foods. Because food wastes are putricible, the will decompose rapidly,
especially in warm weather.
 

 
Combustible and non-combustible solid wastes, excluding food waste or other putrescible wastes.
Rubbish
Typically, combustible rubbish consists of materials such as paper, card board, plastics, textiles,
 
  rubber, leather, wood, furniture, and garden trimmings. Non- combustible rubbish consists of items
such as glass and crockery, tin cans, aluminum cans, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, dirt and
construction wastes.
 

Ashes and residues Materials remaining from the burning of wood, coal, coke and other combustible wastes. Residues
 
from power plants are not included in this category. Ashes and residues are normally composed of
 
fine, powdery materials, cinders, clinkers, and small amount of burned and partially burned
materials.
 
 Agricultural Solid Wastes

Agricultural wastes include organic materials arising from diverse agricultural

activities-such as planting and harvesting of row, field and tree and vine crops,
production of milk, production of animals for slaughter and operation of
feedlots, particularly manure and slurry and inorganic (non-natural) waste
materials such as packaging, tyres and oil. The types and quantities of wastes
vary between farms. Common agricultural wastes include: packaging; silage
plastics; redundant machinery; tyres; net-wrap; oils; Batteries; old fencing;
scrap metal; and building waste. Other less common wastes include unused
pesticides and veterinary medicines, horticultural plastics and spent sheep dip.
 Manure and slurry

• Manure and slurry can still be spread on a farm on the condition that it is
produced and used to deliver agricultural benefit.
• If a farmer has more slurry or farm yard manure than can be used on their
own farm, for example where there is more than the nutrient needs of the
crops or where the farm is in a nitrate vulnerable, the material can still be
spread on another farm. Excess manure and slurry may be waste if it is not
used for agricultural or ecological benefit, in such circumstances the
material must be disposed of to a suitably licensed site, or utilised in an
exempt activity.
 Special Wastes/Hazardous Wastes

• Special wastes are those types of solid waste that require special handling,
treatment, and/or disposal. The reasons for separate consideration include:
• 1) Their characteristics and quantities (either or both may render them difficult
to manage if they are combined with “typical” municipal solid waste); or
• 2) Their presence will or may pose a significant danger to the health and safety
of workers and/or the public, to the environment, or both.
• Some examples of special wastes are given below. These wastes are very
different from each other, so they should be managed and handled separately if
feasible. Ideally, these wastes should not enter the municipal solid waste
stream, but quite frequently they do, particularly in developing countries.
 General Sources of Special Wastes

.
Source Typical facilities, activities, or
locations where wastes are
Types of solid wastes

generated
Open area Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots,
Special wastes and rubbish as:
play grounds, beaches, high ways, Street sweepings,
recreational areas, construction, roadside litter,
remodelling, and repairing of  catch-basin debris,
residential, commercial, and  dead animals
industrial buildings and similar  abandoned vehicles
structures etc  Discarded tires
 Used oils
 Electronic waste (e-waste)
 Wet batteries
 Construction and demolition debris ( dirt, stones, concrete, bricks, plaster
lumber, shingles, and plumbing, heating, and electrical parts)
Treatment Water, Waste water, industrial Solid and semi-solid treatment plant wastes principally composed of: residual
plant sites sewage treatment processes, etc. sludge, septage, and slaughterhouse wastes.

Hospitals, Medical and miscellaneous socio- Pathological or infectious medical hazardous wastes; Industrial hazardous
clinics, and economic activities (Industrial, waste, and some types of industrial solid waste (e.g., metal cuttings from
laboratories; commercial, institutional and metal processors or cannery waste); and household oil-based paints, paint
Industries; residential) thinners, wood preservatives, pesticides, household cleaners, used motor oil,
Households; antifreeze, batteries.
etc.
 Characteristics of Solid Wastes

Before looking at various waste disposal methods, we need to know

something about their various physical, and chemical properties, because these
will help govern the various disposal methods used.
Information on the properties of solid waste is important to evaluating
alternative equipment needed, system and management program and plant;
especially with respect to implementation of disposal and resource and energy
recovery option.
 Physical composition

Information and data on physical composition of solid waste including:

Identification of individual component that make up municipal solid waste
Analysis of particle size
Moisture content
Density of solid waste
Field capacity and
Porosity
Although we are talking about MSW, it is important to note that the same fundamentals
apply to all types of solid wastes. Sampling techniques used to obtain data on solid
wastes.
 Chemical characteristics

The chemical characteristics of solid waste is important in evaluating

alternative processing and energy recovery option. If solid waste are to be
used as fuel, the four most important properties to be known.
1. Proximate analysis
Moisture content(loss at 1050C for 1hr)
Volatile matter(additional on ignition at 9500C)
Ash content(residue after burning)
Fixed carbon(remainder)
2. Fusing point of ash
3. Ultimate analysis, percent of, C,H,O,N,S, and ash
4. Heating value
 Other Chemical characteristics

Lipid
Carbohydrates

Protein
Natural fiber

Synthetic organic materials

 Methods Used to Estimate Waste Quantities

Waste quantities are usually estimated on the basis of data gathered by

conducting a waste characterization study, using previous waste generation
data or some combination of the two approaches.
 Methods commonly used to assess solid waste
quantities are:

1. load-count analysis,
2. weight-volume analysis, and

3. Materials-balance analysis.
In this discussion, it will be helpful to remember that most measurements of
waste quantities do not accurately represent what they are reported or assumed
to represent. For example, in predicting residential waste generation rates, the
measured rate seldom reflects the true rate because there are confounding
factors (e.g., onsite storage and the use of alternative disposal location) that
make the true rate difficult to assess.
 Factors that affect waste generation rates

1. Effect of source reduction and Recycling

• Source Reduction and Reusing: by designing, manufacturing, and packaging
of products with minimum toxic content, minimum volume of material, and a
longer useful life and selectively buying and reusing of products.

• Extent of Recycling (determine quantity being collected and disposed):

2. Effect of public Attitudes and legislation on waste Generation

• public Attitudes
• legislation
 Factors that affect waste generation rates

3. Effect of Geographic and physical factors on waste Generation

• Geographic location.

• Season of the year.

• Use of Kitchen Food Waste Grinders (determine quantity being collected
and disposed)
• Frequency of collection. (determine quantity being collected and
disposed)
• Characteristics of Service Area.
 Solid Waste Management System

Waste management approaches can be described as strategies. At the

municipal level these strategies traditionally have relied on disposal practices
(predominantly landfilling and incineration), whereas industry has employed
intermediate steps of treatment and stabilization of the more hazardous wastes,
which are based on end-of-pipe (EOP) treatment technologies that are more
appropriately referred to as control strategies. Their aim is really to control
emissions and wastes to within legally allowable limits of discharge.
 Cont’d…

Both (disposal practices and EOP treatment technologies) strategies have two
disadvantages:

1. They require ongoing costs that are associated with operations and
maintenance and with use of energy, and they carry many hidden and indirect
costs and liabilities.
2. Releases of infectious, toxic, and hazardous components to the environment
continue for many years, posing long-term health risks to the public and
endangerment to the environment simply because waste forms are only
transformed and not entirely eliminated or completely immobilized.
 Cont’d…
Waste/pollution management strategies based on prevention strive to eradicate
both of the above disadvantages because they eliminate the pollution or waste
at the source. They tend to be only partially successful in reducing the first
disadvantage because in a number of cases, strategies rely on technology
investments which have OM&R (operation, maintenance, and repair costs) as
well as other ongoing costs (e.g., labor, energy).
But in general, when properly implemented, they are more cost effective than
disposal and treatment technologies. Minimization strategies tend to reduce
the risks associated with the second disadvantage, but may also offset some of
the costs and liabilities noted with the first disadvantage.
 Cont’d…
Solid waste management is defined as a process including all administrative,
financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions involved in the whole
spectrum of solutions to control the generation, storage, collection, transfer
and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in accordance with the
best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation,
aesthetics, and other environmental considerations. The solutions may involve
complex interdisciplinary relationships among such fields as political science,
city and regional planning, geography, economics, public health, sociology,
demography, communications, conservation, engineering and materials
science, i.e. it includes all activities that seek to minimize the health,
environmental and aesthetic impacts of solid wastes.
 Cont’d…

The problems associated with the management of solid wastes in

today's society are complex because of the quantity and diverse
nature of the wastes, the development of sprawling urban areas,
the funding limitations for public services in many large cities,
the impacts of technology, and the emerging limitations in both
energy and raw materials.
 Functional elements of solid waste management
The activities associated with the management of solid wastes from the point
of generation to final disposal can been grouped into the six functional
elements identified in Fig. below.
 Solid Waste Generation

Solid waste generation encompasses those activities in which materials are

identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown away or gathered
together for disposal. For example, the wrapping of a candy bar usually is
considered to be of little further value to the owner once the candy is
consumed, it is just thrown , especially outdoors.
From the standpoint of economics, the best place to sort waste materials for
recovery purposes is at the source of generation. Homeowners are becoming
more aware of the importance of separating newspaper and cardboard, tinned
steel cans, and aluminum cans and bottles.
 Onsite Storage

The cost of providing storage for solid wastes at the source normally is borne
by the householder or apartment owner in the case of individuals, or by the
management of commercial and industrial properties.
Factors that must be considered in the on-site storage of solid wastes include

The type of container to be used

The container location

Public health and aesthetics, and

The collection method to be used
 Cont’d…

To large extent, the types and capacities of the containers used depend on the
characteristics of the solid wastes to be collected, the collection frequency, and
the space available for the placement of container. The types of containers
commonly used for onsite storage of solids include the following:

Plastic or metal containers

Barrel: plastic, aluminum, or fiber

Disposable paper bags

Disposable plastic bags
 Cont’d…

On-site processing methods can be used to recover usable materials from solid
wastes, to reduce the volume, or to alter the physical form. The most common
on-site processing operations include
 Manual sorting
 Compaction, and
 Incineration
 Collection
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid
wastes, but also the hauling of wastes after collection to the location where the
collection vehicle is emptied. In small cities where final disposal sites are
nearby, the hauling of wastes is not a serious problem. In large cities, however,
where the haul to the point of disposal is often high, the haul may have serious
economic implications.
The solution to the problem of long-distance hauling is complicated by the
fact that the motor vehicles that are well adapted to long-distance hauling are
not well suited or particularly economical for house-to-house collection.
Consequently, in most cases, supplemental transfer and transport facilities and
equipment are needed.
Solid waste collection may be provided under various management
arrangements, ranging from municipal services to franchised services
conducted under various forms of contracts.
 Types of collection systems

Hauled Container Systems (HCSs) these are collection systems in which the
containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to a materials recovery
facility (MRF), transfer station, or disposal site, emptied, and returned to
either their original location or some other location. There are three main types
of vehicles used in hauled container systems: (1) hoist truck, (2) tilt frame
container, and (3) truck tractor trash-trailer

Hauled container systems are ideally suited for the removal of wastes from
sources where the rate of generation is high because relatively large containers
are used.
 Cont’d…

The use of large containers eliminates handling time as well as the unsightly
accumulations and unsanitary conditions associated with the use of numerous
smaller containers. Another advantage of hauled container systems is their
flexibility: Containers of many different sizes and shapes are available for the
collection of all types of wastes.

Stationary Container Systems (SCSs) in the stationary container system, the

containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the point of generation, except
when they are moved to the curb or other location to be emptied. Stationary
container systems may be used for the collection of all types of wastes.
 Cont’d…

The systems vary according to the type and quantity of wastes to be handled
as well as the number of generation points. There are two main types:
(1)Systems in which manually loaded collection vehicles are used and
(2) systems in which mechanically loaded collection vehicles are used.
The major application of manual loading collection vehicles is in the
collection of residential source-separated and commingled wastes and litter.
Manual loading is used in residential areas where the quantity picked up at
each location is small and the loading time is short. In addition, manual
methods are used for residential collection because many individual pickup
points are inaccessible to mechanized mechanically loaded collection vehicles.
 Collection Frequency

The frequency of collection will depend on the quantity of solid waste, time of
year, socioeconomic status of the area served, and municipal or contractor
responsibility. In residential areas, twice-a-week solid waste collection during
warm months of the year and once a week at other times should be the
maximum permissible interval. In business districts, solid waste, including
garbage from hotels and restaurants, should be collected daily except Sundays.
Depending on the type of collection system, the containers used for the on-site
storage of solid waste should be either emptied directly into the collection
vehicle or hauled away emptied and returned or replaced with a clean container.
 Cont’d…

Solid waste transferred from on-site storage containers will invariably cause
spilling, with resultant pollution of the ground and attraction of flies. If other
than curb pickup is provided, such as backyard service, the cost of collection
will be high. Nevertheless, some property owners are willing to pay for this
extra service. Bulky wastes should be collected every three months. Most
cities have also instituted ongoing programs for the collection of household
hazardous wastes, typically every three months.
 Personnel Requirements

In most hauled container systems, a single collector-driver is used. The

collector-driver is responsible for driving the vehicle, loading full containers
on to the collection vehicle, emptying the contents of the containers at the
disposal site (or transfer point), and re depositing (unloading) the empty
containers. In some cases, for safety reasons, both a driver and helper are
used. The helper usually is responsible for attaching and detaching any chains
or cables used in loading and unloading containers on and off the collection
vehicle; the driver is responsible for the operation of the vehicle. A driver and
helper should always be used where hazardous wastes are to be handled.
 Cont’d…

Labor requirements for mechanically loaded stationary container systems are

essentially the same as for hauled container systems. Where a helper is used,
the driver often assists the helper in bringing loaded containers mounted on
rollers to the collection vehicle and returning the empty containers.
Occasionally, a driver and two helpers are used where the containers to be
emptied must be rolled (transferred) to the collection vehicle from inaccessible
locations; such as in congested downtown commercial areas. In stationary
container systems, where the collection vehicle is loaded manually, the
number of collectors varies from one to four, in most cases, depending on the
type of service and the collection equipment. While the aforementioned crew
sizes are representative of current practices, there are many exceptions. In
many cities, multiperson crews are used for curb service as well as for
backyard carry service.
 Transfer and Transport

Transfer and transport involves two steps:

(1) The transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger
transport equipment, and
(2) The subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to the
disposal site.
The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station. Although motor vehicle
transport is most common, rail cars or barges can also be used to transport
solid wastes. For example, in San Francisco the collection vehicles, which are
relatively small because of the need to manoeuvre in city streets, haul their
loads to a transfer station at the southern boundary of the city. At the transfer
station, the wastes unloaded from the collection vehicles are reloaded into
large tractor-trailer trucks. The loaded trucks are then driven to a disposal site
located about 40 mi away in another county.
 Types of Transfer Stations

Transfer stations are used to accomplish transfer of solid wastes from

collection and other small vehicles to larger transport equipment. Depending
on the method used to load the transport vehicles, transfer stations, may be
classified into three general types:
direct load ,
storage load and
Combined direct-load and storage-load transfer stations have also been
developed.
Transfer stations may also be classified with respect to throughput capacity
(the amount of material that can be transferred and hauled) as follows: small,
less than 100 tons/day; medium, between 100 and 500 tons/day; and large,
more than 500 tons/day.
 Cont’d…

Direct-Load Transfer Stations (Direct discharge)

At direct-load transfer stations, the wastes in the collection vehicles are emptied
directly into the vehicle to be used to transport them to a place of final
disposition or into facilities used to compact the wastes into transport vehicles
or into waste bales that are transported to the disposal site. In some cases, the
wastes may be emptied onto an unloading platform and then pushed into the
transfer vehicles, after recyclable materials have been removed. The volume of
waste that can be stored temporarily on the unloading platform is often defined
as the surge capacity or the emergency storage capacity of the station.
 Cont’d…

Storage-Load Transfer Station (Storage discharge).

In the storage-load transfer station, wastes are emptied directly into a storage
pit from which they are loaded into transport vehicles by various types of
auxiliary equipment. The difference between a direct-load and a storage-load
transfer station is that the latter is designed with a capacity to store waste
(typically one to three days). 
Combined direct-Load and Storage-Load Transfer Station 
• When both can be used on the station
 Transfer Station Sitting Issues

A transfer station, resource recovery facility, or processing facility should be

located and designed with the same care as described for an incinerator.
Drainage of paved areas and adequate water hydrants for maintenance of
cleanliness and fire control are equally important. Other concerns are
landscaping, weigh scales, and traffic, odor, dust, litter, and noise control. Rail
haul and barging to sea also involve the use of transfer stations. They may
include one or a combination of grinding, baling, or compaction to increase
densities, thereby improving transportation efficiency.
 Vehicles for Uncompact Wastes

Motor vehicles, railroads, and ocean-going vessels are the principal means
now used to transport solid wastes. Pneumatic and hydraulic systems have
also been used. However, in recent years, because of their simplicity and
dependability, open-top semitrailers have found wide acceptance for the
hauling of uncompacted wastes from direct-load transfer stations
 Processing and Recovery
Processing and recovery includes all the techniques, equipment, and facilities
used both to improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to
recover usable materials, conversion products, or energy from solid Wastes.
In the recovery of materials, as an example, separation operations have been
devised to recover valuable resources from the mixed solid wastes delivered to
transfer stations or solid waste processing plants. These operations include
size reduction and density separation by air classifiers. Further separation may
include magnetic devices to pull out iron, eddy-current separators for
aluminum, and screens for glass. Flotation, inertial separation, and other
metallurgical industry unit operations may also be used.
The selection of any recovery process is a function of economics i.e. cost of
separation versus value of the recovered-materials products.
 Typical Methods and Equipment Used for
Processing and Recovery of Individual Waste
Components from MSW
Manual sorting
Size reduction
Size separation
Magnetic field separation
Densification (compaction)
Materials handling
Automated sorting
 Disposal

The final functional element in the solid waste management system is

disposal. Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solids, whether they are residential
wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, semisolid wastes
(sludge) from municipal and industrial treatment plants, incinerator residue,
compost, or other substances from the various solid waste processing plants
that are of no further use to society.
Thus, land-use planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection,
design, and operation of landfill operation Environmental impact statements
are required for all new landfill sites to ensure compliance with public health,
aesthetics, and future use of land.
 Cont’d…

A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump. It is a method of disposing of solid

waste on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health, such as
the breeding of rats and insects and the contamination of groundwater, or
public safety.

Engineering principles must be followed to confine the wastes to the smallest

possible area, to reduce them to the lowest practical volume by compaction at
the site, and to cover them after each day's operation to reduce exposure to
vermin.
 Cont’d…
One of the most important concepts is to plan for the final use of the reclaimed
land. For example
Many golf courses have been established on old landfills.
Parks, open storage areas and athletic fields occupy the sites of many
former landfills.
These must be planned properly so that no buildings are located over the
decomposing solid wastes. Planning must take place ahead of filling so that
any building areas will be filled with earth only.
To remove the stigma of filling lowlands with solid wastes, the City of New
York has placed large signs adjacent to highways and landfill sites.
 Cont’d…

These signs indicate that land is being filled for a future golf course under the
direction of the Department of Parks (the planners), the Department of
Sanitation (the solid waste disposers), and the Department of Public Works
(which furnishes the sludge from its sewage treatment plants). Thus, three
agencies of the city are "killing three birds with one stone" and benefiting the
public by careful planning and operation.
Land filling is, therefore, the method of disposal used most commonly for
municipal wastes.
Land farming and deep-well injection have been used for industrial wastes.
Although incineration is often considered a disposal method, it is, in reality, a
processing method.
 Integrated Waste Management

Integrated waste management is a frame of reference for designing and

implementing new waste management systems and for analyzing and
optimizing existing systems. Integrated waste management is based on the
concept that all aspects of a waste management system (technical and non-
technical) should be analyzed together, since they are in fact interrelated and
developments in one area frequently affect practices or activities in another
area.
Integrated waste management (IWM) can be defined as the selection and
application of suitable techniques, technologies, and management programs to
achieve specific waste management objectives and goals.
 Cont’d…

Because numerous state and federal laws have been adopted, IWM is also
evolving in response to the regulations developed to implement the various
laws. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified four
basic management options (strategies) for IWM:

source reduction,
recycling and composting,

combustion (waste-to-energy facilities), and

landfills
 Waste management hierarchy as a key element of
integrated solid waste management (ISWM)

The waste management hierarchy is a widespread element of national and

regional policy and is often considered the most fundamental basis of modern
MSWM practice. The hierarchy ranks waste management operations
according to their environmental or energy benefits.
 Cont’d…

Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

 Prevent the production of waste, or reduce the amount, toxicity or negative impacts
of the waste that is generated.
 Reuse in their current forms the materials recovered from the waste stream.

 Recycle, compost, or recover materials for use as direct or indirect inputs to new
products.
 Recover energy by incineration, anaerobic digestion, or similar processes.

 Reduce the volume of waste prior to disposal.

 Dispose of residual solid waste in an environmentally sound manner, generally in

landfills.
 Waste Hierarchy

The concept of a waste hierarchy was enshrined in legislation internationally. The

following is an interpretation of this hierarchy.
The Waste Management Hierarchy
 waste minimization (waste reduction and prevention)
 reuse
 materials recycling and composting
 incineration (with and without energy recovery)
 landfill (with and without energy recovery)