Ce 810

Solid Waste Management
CE 810
Raihan Khan Opu

Assostant Professor & Head
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Faridpur Engineering College, Faridpur
Syllabus and Books
Books:
1. Integrated Solid Waste Management
Engineering Principles and Management Issues
- George Tchobanoglous, Hilary Theisen &
Samuel Vigil
2. Environmental Engineering - Peavy
Learning Objectives
At the end of this course the students will learn about

 Solid wastes and its management
 Different sources of generation of solid wastes
 Classification of solid wastes
 Physical and chemical characteristics
 Functional elements of solid wastes management
 Design of landfill and leachate as well as landfill gas

management
 Recycling and resource recovery
 Ultimate disposal methods
 Causes of soil pollution and its remedial measures
 Industrial solid wastes collection and disposal
 Hazardous waste management
 Faecal sludge management
What is Solid Waste?
Solid wastes are all the wastes arising

from human and animal activities that are
normally solid and that are discarded as
useless or unwanted.
Solid Waste – A Consequence of Life
From the days of primitive society, humans and

animals have used the resources of the earth to
support life and to dispose of wastes.
In early time………….did not pose a significant
problem Amount of wastes …….. Small
Available land ………….. Large
Problem ………………. When human first began to
congregate in tribes, villages, and communities
How does solid waste management become a

great concern for the city authority at present
time?
Effect of Improper Management?
Due to the improper storage, collection and

disposal, rates, flies, and other disease vectors
breed in
open dumps;
Poorly constructed housing;
Poorly maintained housing;
Food storage facilities;
Other places: where food and harborage are

available for rats and insects.
Ecological phenomena: water and air pollution

What is Solid Waste Management?
Solid waste management may be defined as that

discipline associated with
the control of generation,
storage,
collection,
transfer and transport,
processing, and
disposal of solid wastes
with consideration of public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other
environmental considerations, and that also is
responsible to public attitude.
Sources of Solid Waste
Sources of solid wastes are, in general, related to

land use and zoning.
Although any number of source classifications can
be developed, the following categories have been
found useful:
(i) Residential
(ii) Commercial
(iii) Industrial
(iv) Open areas
(v) Treatment plants
(vi) Agricultural
Types of Solid Waste
The term solid waste is all-inclusive and

encompasses all sources, types of classifications,
composition, and properties.
Wastes that are discharged may be of significant

value in another setting, but they are of little or no
value to the possessor who wants to dispose of
them.
Food wastes: Food wastes are the animal, fruit or

vegetable residues resulting from the handling, preparation,
cooking and eating of foods (also called garbage). The
most important characteristic of these wastes is that they are
highly putrescible and will decompose rapidly, essentially in
warm weather. Often decomposition will lead to the development
of offensive odors.
Rubbish: Rubbish consists of combustible and noncombustible
solid wastes of households, institutions, commercial activities,
Typical, combustible
etc., excluding rubbish
food wastes consists
or other highlyofputrescible
materials materials.
such as
paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, rubber, leather, wood,
furniture, and garden trimmings. Noncombustible rubbish
consists of items such as glass, crockery, tin cans, aluminum
cans, ferrous and other nonferrous metals and dirt.
Ashes and Residues:

Materials remaining from the burning of wood,
coal, coke, and other combustible wastes in homes,
stores, institutions, and industrial and municipal
purposesforof heating, cooking, and disposing of
facilities
combustible wastes are categories as and
residues. ashes
Residues from power plants normally are not
included in this category. Ashes and residues
are normally composed of fine, powdery materials,
cinders, clinkers, and small amounts of burned
and partially burned materials. Glass, crockery, and
various metals are also found in the residues from
municipal incinerators.
Demolition and construction wastes:

Wastes from razed buildings and other structures
are classified as demolition wastes. Wastes
from the construction, remodeling, and repairing
of individual residences, commercial building, and
other structures are classified as construction
wastes. These wastes are often classifies as
rubbish.
Special wastes:
Wastes such as street sweeping, roadside litter,
litter from municipal litter containers, catch-basin
debris, dead animals, and abandoned vehicles are
classifies as special wastes.
Treatment plant wastes:

The solid and semisolid wastes from
water, wastewater, and industrial waste treatment
facilities are included in this classification.
The specific characteristics of these materials
vary depending on the nature of the treatment
process.
Agricultural wastes:
Wastes are residues resulting from divers
agricultural activities – such as the planting and
the production of for slaughter, and
harvesting of row, field, and tree and vine crops,
animals operation of collectivel
the are calle
the production of milk,
feedlots – y d
agricultural wastes.
Hazardous wastes:
Chemical, biological, flammable, explosive
or radioactive wastes that pose a substantial
danger, immediately or over time, to human, plant, or
animal life are classified as hazardous.
Typically, these wastes occur as liquids, but they
are often found in the form of gases, solid, or
sludges. In all cases, these wastes must be handled
and disposed of with great care and caution.
Classes of solid waste associated with various source
Source Typical activities, or locations Types of solid wastes
where wastes are generated
Residential Family dwellings, apartments Food wastes, rubbish, ashes, special

wastes.
Commercial/ Stores, restaurants, markets, office Food wastes, rubbish, ashes,
Municipal building, hotels, motels, print shops, auto demolition and construction wastes,
repair shops, medical facilities and special wastes, occasionally and
institutions, etc. hazardous wastes.
Industrial Construction, fabrication, light and heavy Food wastes, rubbish, ashes,
manufacturing, refineries, chemical demolition and construction wastes,
plants, lumbering, mining, power plants, special wastes, and hazardous
demolitions, etc. wastes.
Open areas Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots, Special wastes, rubbish.
playgrounds, beaches, highways,
recreational areas, etc.
Treatment Water, waste water and industrial Treatment plant wastes, principally
plant sites treatment processes etc. composed of residual sludges.
Scope of solid waste management
Solid waste management includes all

administrative, financial, legal, planning, and
engineering functions involved in the whole
spectrum of solutions to problems of solid wastes
thrust upon the community by its inhabitants.
The solutions may involve complex
interdisciplinary relationships among such fields as
political science, city and regional planning,
geography, economics, public health, sociology,
demography, communications, and conservation,
as well as engineering and material science.
Properties of Solid Waste
Information on the properties of solid wastes

is important in evaluating alternative equipment
needs, system, management programs and plans,
especially with respect to the implementation of
disposal and resource and energy recovery options.
The properties of solid wastes are the physical

and chemical composition of solid wastes.
These properties depend upon the source

of generation, location of source, the season,
economic conditions, types of wastes, and many
other factors.
Physical composition: Physical composition is

the identification of the individual components,
particle size, moisture content, and density of wastes.
The size of the component materials in solid wastes
is of important in the recovery of materials, especially
with mechanical means, such as trommel
screens and magnetic separators.
Moisture content of solid wastes usually is
expressed as the mass of moisture per unit mass
of wet or dry material.
Physical composition:
For most municipal solid wastes, the moisture
content will vary from 15 to 40 percent,
depending on the composition of wastes, the
season of the year, and the humidity and weather
conditions, particularly rain.
The moisture content of solid wastes generated

in Dhaka City is about 80% and density varies from
400 to 600 kg/m3.
Physical composition:
Density of solid wastes vary markedly with
geographic location, season of the year, and
length of time in storage.
Great care should be taken in selecting
value. Municipal solid wastes as delivered in
compaction vehicles have been found to vary
from 300 to 700 lb/yd3; a typical value is about 500
lb/yd3.
The density of solid wastes generated in Dhaka
City varies from 400 to 600 kg/m3.
Chemical composition:
Information on the chemical composition of solid wastes is
important in evaluating alternative processing and energy
recovery options.
If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, the four most important
properties to be known. These are:
1. Proximate analysis:
 Moisture (loss at 105o C for 1hr.)
 Volatile matter (additional loss on ignition at 950o C)
 Ash (residue after burning)
 Fixed carbon (remainder)
2. Fusing point of ash.

3. Ultimate analysis: presence of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H2),
Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2), Sulfur (S), and ash.
4. Heating value (energy value).
Functional Elements of SWM
Waste
Generation
On-site handling,
Separation, Storage
and Processing
Collection
Transfer Separation
& and
Transport Processing
and
Disposal Transformatio
n of solid
waste
Generation of Solid Waste
Waste generation encompasses activities in

which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or
gathered together for disposal.
Waste generation, at present, an activity that is

not very controllable. In the future, however,
more control will be exercised over the
generation of waste.
Generation of Solid Waste
Factors affecting the generation rate of

solid wastes:
 Geographic location
 Season of the year
 Collection frequency
 Use of kitchen waste grinders
 Characteristics of populace and public
attitudes
 Extent of salvage and recycling
 Legislation
On-site Handling and Separation, Storage
and Processing
Handling and Separation
On-site handling and separation refer to the
activities associated with the handling of solid
wastes until they are placed in the containers
used for their storage before collection.
Depending on the type of collection service,
handling may also be required to move loaded
containers to the collection point and to return
the empty containers to the point where they
are stored between collections.
On-site Handling, Separation, Storage and
Processing
On-site Storage
It refers to the keeping of generated wastes in
a container at the point of generation until
collection.
Factors that must be considered in the on-site
storage of solid wastes including
(i) type of container to be used,
(ii) the container location,
(iii) public health and aesthetics, and
(iv) the collection methods to be used.

Processing
Types of containers:
To a large extent, the types and capacities of
the containers used depend on
 the characteristics of the solid wastes to be
collected,
 the collection frequency, and
 the space available for the placement of

containers.
Processing
Container location:
In newer residential areas - by the side or rear of
the house.
In older residential areas - in alleys.
In low-rise multifamily apartments - in specially
designed enclosures.
In high-rise apartments - in a basement or ground-
floor service area.
The location of containers at existing commercial
and industrial facilities depends on both the
location of available space and service access
conditions.
In newer facilities - specific service areas have
been included.
Processing
Processing of solid wastes
On-site processing methods are used to recover
usable materials from solid wastes, in four parts
the type
dealing
(i) of collection services,
with
(ii)
the type of collection systems,
(iii) an analysis of collection systems, and
(iv) the general methodology involved in setting up collection routes.
Grinding, sorting, compaction, shredding, composting,

and hydropulpery are all onsite processing methods
used
(i) to the volume,
reduce
(ii) alter the physical form, or
(iii) recover usable materials from solid wastes.
Typical operations and facilities used for
onsite processing of solid wastes
Source Persons responsible Operations and facilities
Low-rise residence Residents, tenants Grinding, sorting, compaction,
composting, incineration
Medium and high- Tenants Grinding, sorting (paper), compaction

rise residence Building maintenance Composting, incineration,
crews shredding, hydropulping

Commercial and Janitorial services Sorting, compaction, shredding,
industrial incineration, hydropulping
Open areas Owners, park operators compaction, incineration

Treatment plant sites Plant operators Dewatering facilities
Collection of Solid Waste
Collection of solid wastes is not only the gathering

or picking up of solid wastes, but also the
hauling of wastes after collection to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied.
Residential collection services:

 Curb Service
 Alley service
 Setout-setback service
 Setout service
 Backyard carry service
Commercial industrial collection service:

Collection services
Curb Service: The homeowner is responsible
for placing the containers to be emptied at the
curb on collection day and for returning the empty
containers to their storage location until the next
collection.
Alley service: Where alleys the part of the basic
layout of a city or a given residential area, alley
storage of containers used for solid waste is
common.
Setout-setback service: In setout-setback
service, containers are set out from the
homeowner’s property and set back after being
emptied by additional crews that work in
conjunction with the collection crew responsible
Collection services
Setout service: Setout service is essentially the
same as setout-setback service, except that the
homeowner is responsible for returning the
containers to their storage location.
Backyard carry service: In backyard carry service,
the collection crew is responsible for entering
the homeowner’s property and removing the wastes
from their storage location.
Commercial industrial collection service

The collection service provided to large
apartment buildings and commercial activities
typically is centered around the use of large
moveable and stationary containers and large
stationary compactors.
In commercial-industrial service where the use
of containers provided with rollers or castors is
common, loaded containers are rolled manually to
the collection vehicle and emptied mechanically.
Otherwise, because of the weight involved,
direct pickup methods are used.
Where large drop-box containers are used, the
entire loading operation is done by mechanical
Collection Systems:
Solid waste collection system may be classified
from several points of view, such as the mode
of operation, the equipment used, and the
types of wastes collected.
 Community collection system
 Block collection system
 House to house collection system
 Hauled container system
 Stationary container system

Community collection
The householders carry their wastes to solid waste
bins or similar facilities situated at specific
locations and deposit wastes there.
Solid waste collection truck visits these locations
at regular intervals and collect and haul the
accumulated wastes to treatment or disposal sites.
The principal advantage of this method of collection
is that it reduces considerably the number of
collection points.
Community collection
Success of this method, however, depends on the following factors:
 The communal bins should be placed within reasonable
distances so that the public is willing to carry their waste to the bin
location.
The wastes should be collected frequently to avoid accumulation of
wastes, odor, and fly nuisance.
 The solid waste bins and surrounding areas should be cleaned
properly.
 Design of bins should prevent ingress of rainwater that leads to
leachate pollution, and minimize scavenging by birds and animals.
In most of the developing countries including Bangladesh this

collection method is commonly used.
Block collection
In the block collection system, a collection
vehicle travels over a selected route at a specific
time of the day, usually two or three days a week.
The householders bring their wastes and hand
them over to the truck laborer, who collects the
waste in the vehicle and returns containers to the
householders.
The success of this method depends on the
punctuality of vehicle and the attitude of people.
This method is not suitable for
people who will not be available
when the vehicle comes.
House to house collection

In this service, the householders store wastes in a bin, basket or bag
within their house premises.
Waste collection workers collect the bin, basket or bag, empty into the
collection vehicle and return containers to the premises.
The collection vehicle may be a hand/push cart, rickshaw van or a small
vehicle that may be used to transport wastes to a temporary storage site,
or large trucks that may be used for transporting the wastes to a disposal
site.
This type of service is aesthetically and
environmentally more satisfactory but
comparatively more expensive than
other type of service.
Hauled container system

Collection system in which the containers used for
the storage of wastes are hauled to the
processing, transfer, or disposal site, emptied, and
returned to either their original location or some other
location are defined as hauled container system.
Hauled container systems are ideally suited for

the removal of wastes from sources where the
rate of generation is high because relatively large
containers are used.

The use of large containers eliminates handling time
as well as the unsightly accumulations and
unsanitary conditions associated with the use of
numerous smaller containers.
Another advantage of hauled container systems is
their flexibility: containers of many different size and
shapes are available for the collection of all types of
wastes.
Because containers used in this system usually must
be filled manually, the use of very large containers
often leads to low-volume utilization unless loading
aids, such as platforms and ramps, are provided.

In this context, container utilization may be defined
as the fraction of the total container volume actually
filled with wastes.
While hauled container systems have the advantage
of requiring only one truck and driver to accomplish
the collection cycle, each container picked up
requires a round trip to the disposal site (or other
destination point).
Therefore container size and utilization are of
economic importance.
great
Further, when highly compressible wastes are to
be collected and hauled over considerable
distances, the economic advantage of compaction are
obvious.
Wastes Collection Systems
Pickup loaded Deposit empty

container container
Container Truck to dispatch
location Drive to next station
container
Truck from
dispatch station
Haul empty container

to original pickup
location
Haul loaded
container Transfer station,
processing station, or
disposal site
Conventional Mode of Hauled container system

Deposit empty container

from previous location and
Container pick up loaded container
location
1 2 3 4
Truck with empty

container from
dispatch station
Truck with empty
Haul loaded container to dispatch
station
container
Haul empty Transfer station, processing

container station, or disposal site
Exchange Container Mode of Hauled container system

Stationary Container System

Collection system in which the containers used for the
storage of wastes remain at the point of
waste generation,movedexcept
for collection
when are
defined as stationary collection system.
Stationary container systems may be used for
the collection of all types of wastes. The system
varies according to the type and quantity of
wastes to be handled, as well as the number of
generation points.
There are two main types: (i) system in which
self- loading compactors are used, and (ii) system in
which manually loaded vehicles are used.
Load contents from containers at

Solid wastes
pickup location into collection vehicle
pickup location
Drive to next pickup location
Empty collection vehicle

from dispatch station
Collection route
Drive empty collection vehicle to
beginning of next collection route
or return to dispatch location Transfer station,
processing Drive loaded collection
station, or vehicle to disposal site
disposal site
Stationary Container Collection

System
Analysis of Collection Systems
Term Hauled container system (HCS) Stationary container system (SCS)
Pickup The time spent picking up the loaded The time spent loading the collection vehicle,
container, the time required to redeposit the beginning with the stopping of the vehicle prior to
(p)
container after its contents have been loading the contents of the first container and
emptied, and the time spent driving to the ending when the content of the last container to be
next container. emptied have been loaded.
Haul (h) Time required to reach the disposal site, Time required to reach the disposal site, starting
starting after a container whose contend are after the last container on the route has been
to be emptied has been load on the truck, plus emptied or the collection vehicle is filled, plus the
the time after leaving the disposal site until time after leaving the disposal site until the truck
the truck arrives at the location where the arrives at the location of the first container to be
empty container is to be redeposit. emptied on the next collection route.
At-site Time spent at the disposal site, including the time spent waiting to unload as well as
(s) the time spent unloading.
Off- Times spent for checking in and out in the morning and at the end of the day plus time lost due to
unavoidable congestion and time spend on equipment repairs and maintenance.
route (w)
Pickup loaded Deposit empty

container container
Container Truck to dispatch
location Drive to next station
container
Truck from
dispatch station
Haul empty container

to original pickup
location
Haul loaded
container Transfer station,
processing station, or
disposal site
Conventional Mode of Hauled container system
Deposit empty container

from previous location and
Container pick up loaded container
location
1 2 3 4
Truck with empty

container from
dispatch station
Truck with empty
Haul loaded container to dispatch
station
container
Haul empty Transfer station, processing

container station, or disposal site
Exchange Container Mode of Hauled container system

The time required per trip (HCS):

Thcs = (Phcs + s + h)
Considering the off-route factor
Thcs = (Phcs + s + h)/(1-w) ……………………… (i)
Where, Thcs = Time per trip for hauled container system, h/trip
hcs
s = at-site time per trip, h/trip
h = haul time per trip, h/trip
w = off-route factor, expressed as a fraction
h = a + bx ....................................................... (ii)
where, a = empirical constant, h/trip
b = empirical constant, h/mi
x = round-trip-haul distance, mi/trip
Substituting equation (ii) in equation (i) the time per trip can be
expressed as follows:
Thcs = (Phcs + s + a + bx)/(1 – w) ………………
(iii)The pickup time per trip Phcs for the hauled container system is then
equal to
Phcs = pc + uc + dbc ……………………………..

(iv)
Where, Phcs = pickup time per trip for hauled container system, h/trip
pc = time required to pick up loaded container, h/trip
uc = time required to unload empty container, h/trip
dbc = time required to drive between container locations, h/trip
The number of trips that can be made per vehicle per day with a hauled
container system can be determined by using following equation:
Nd = (1 – w)H/(Phcs + s + a + bx) ……………….. (v)
Where Nd = number of trips per day, trips/day
H = length of work day, h/day
In some cases where especially long distances are involved, the time spent
driving from and to the dispatch station at the beginning and end of the day is
subtracted from the length of the workday in equation (v).
Nd = [H(1 – w) – (t1 + t2)]/(Phcs + s + a + bx) …………..
(vi)
where, t1 = time to drive from dispatch station to first container location to be
serviced for the day
t2 = time to drive from last container location to be serviced for
the day to the dispatch station
In other way the number of trip in a day

Nd = Vd/(cf) ………………………………………………..
(vii)
where, Vd = average daily quantity of waste collected, yd3/d c =
average container size, yd3/trip
f = weighted average container utilization factor
The container utilization factor may be defined as the fraction of the
container volume occupied by solid wastes.
If the weekly number of trips is unknown, it can be estimated by using the

following equation:
Nw = Vw /(cf) ……………………………………………..
(viii)
where, Nw = number of trips per week, trips/wk
Vw = weekly waste generation rate, yd3/wk
Assuming that the number of containers to be emptied per week is known,

the time required per week can be computed by using equation:
Dw = tw(Phcs + s + a + bx)/[(1 – w)H] ……………………… (ix)
where, Dw = time required per week, days/wk
tw = integer number of trips per week, trips/wk
50
Maximum allowable speed limit, m/h
40
Note:
30
Haul-speed constants
20 Speed limit (mile/h) a (h/trip) b (h/mile)
55 0.016 0.018
10 45 0.022 0.022
35 0.034 0.029
25 0.050 0.040
0 15 0.060 0.067
5 10 15
Load contents from containers at

Solid wastes
pickup location into collection vehicle
pickup location
Drive to next pickup location
Empty collection vehicle

from dispatch station
Collection route
Drive empty collection vehicle to
beginning of next collection route
or return to dispatch location Transfer station,
processing Drive loaded collection
station, or vehicle to disposal site
disposal site
Stationary Container Collection

System
Stationary container system

The time required per trip:
Tscs = (Pscs + s + a + bx) …………………………….
(x)
The only difference between Eq (x) and Eq (iii) for HCS is the pickup
term. For SCS system, the pickup time is given by
Pscs = Ct(uc) + (np – 1)dbc ………………………..…
(xi)
where, Ct = number of container emptied per trip, containers/trip
uc = average unloading time per stationary container,
h/container
np = number of container pickup location per trip,
locations/trip
dbc = average time spend for driving between containers
locations, h/location

Number of container that can be emptied per collection trips:
Ct = vr/cf ………………………………………………
(xii)
v = volume of collection vehicle, yd3/trip r =
compaction ratio
c = container volume, yd3/container
f = weighted container utilization factor
The number of trip required per day can be estimated by

Nd = Vd/(vr) ……………………………………………
(xiii)
Vd = average daily quantity of waste collected, yd3/d

Time required per day, taking into account the off-route factor, w
H = [(t1 + t2) + Nd(Pscs + s + a + bx)]/(1-w) …..…...
(xiv)
where, t1 = time to drive from dispatch station to first container
location to be serviced on the first route of the day, hr
t2 = time to drive from the approximate location of the last
container location to be serviced on the last route of the day
to the dispatch station, hr
Wastes Collection Route
In general, the layout of collection routes is a trial-

and- error process. There are no fixed rules that
can be applied to all situations. Factors that should
be taken into consideration when laying out routes
are as follows:
 Existing company policies and regulations related to
such items as the point of co lection and frequency of
co lection must be identified.
 Existing system conditions such as crew size and
vehicle types must be coordinated.
they begin and end near arterial usin
 Whenever possible, routes should be laid out so
streets, topographical and physical g
that
barriers as boundaries. rout
e
 In hilly areas, routes should start at the top of the

grade and proceed downhill as the vehicle become
loaded.
 Routes should be laid out so that the last container to
be collected on the route is located nearest to the
disposal site.
 Wastes generated at traffic-congested locations
should be collected as early in the day as possible.
 Sources at which extremely large quantities of
wastes are generated should be serviced during the
first part of the day.
 Sca tered pickup points where sma l quantities of solid
wastes are generated should, if possible, be serviced during
one trip or on the same day, if they receive the same co
lection frequency.
Layout of Routes
The layout of collection routes is a four-step process:
 First, prepare location maps. On a relatively large
map of the area to be serviced, the location,
number of containers, collection frequency and if
a stationary- container system with self-loading
compactor is used, the estimated quantity of waste to
collected at each pickup location should be plotted for
each pick-up point.
 Second, prepare data summaries. Estimate
the quantity of waste to be collected from pickup
locations serviced each day that the collection
operation is to be conducted. Where a stationary-
container system is used, the number of locations that
will be serviced during each pickup cycle must also be
Layout of Routes
The layout of collection routes is a four-step process:
 Third, lay out preliminary collection routes starting from the
dispatch station or where the collection vehicles are parked. A route
should be laid out that connects all the pickup locations to be serviced
during each collection day. The route should be laid out so that the last
location is nearest the disposal site.
 Fourth, develop balanced routes. After the preliminary
collection routes have been laid out, the haul distance of each route should
be determined. Next, determine the labor requirements per day and
check against the available work times per day. In some cases it may be
necessary to adjust the collection routes to balance the work load and the
distance traveled. After the balanced routes have been established, they
should be drawn on the master map.
Transfer and Transport
Transfer and transport operation:

In the field of solid wastes management, transfer
and transport refers to the means, facilities,
and appurtenances used to effect the transfer of
wastes from relatively small collection vehicles
to large vehicles and to transport them over
extended distances to either processing centers or
disposal sites.
It is noted that transfer stations may be either in
the same location as processing stations or in
entirely separate locations.
The need for transfer operation

Transfer operations can be used successfully with almost any type of
collection system. Factors that tend to make the use of transfer
operations attractive include:
(i) the presence of illegal dumps and large amounts of litter
(ii) the location of disposal sites relatively far from collection routes
(typically more than 10 miles)
3
(iii) the use of small capacity collection trucks (generally under 20yd )
(iv) the existence of low-density residential areas
(v) the widespread use of medium-size containers for the collection of
wastes from commercial sources, and
(vi) the use of hydraulic or pneumatic collection systems.
Suitable location of transfer station:

Whenever possible, transfer stations should be located
(i) as near as possible to the weighted center of the individual
solid waste production areas to be served,
( i) within easy access to major arterial highway routes as well as
near secondary or supplemental means of transportation,
(iii) where there will be a minimum of public and environmental
objection to the transfer operations, and
(iv) where construction and operation will be most economical.
Additionally, if the transfer station site is to be used for
processing operations involving materials recovery and/or
energy production, the requirements for those operations
must also be assured.
Types of transfer station

Based on capacity:
Small: Less than 100 tons/day
Medium Between 110 and 500
: tons/day More than 500
Large: tons/day
Based of operation:
Direct discharge transfer station
Storage discharge transfer station
Combined direct and storage discharge transfer

station
Direct discharge transfer station:

In a direct discharge transfer station, wastes from
the collection vehicles usually are emptied directly
into the vehicle to be used to transport them to a
place of final disposal. To accomplish this, these
transfer stations usually are constructed in a two-level
arrangement. The unloading dock or platform from which
wastes from collection vehicles are discharged into the
transport trailers is elevated, or the transport trailers are
located in a depressed ramp.
Discharge Platform
Compactor
Trailer Loading Platform

Storage discharge transfer station:

In the storage-discharge transfer station, wastes
are emptied either into a storage pit or into a
platform from which they are loaded into vehicles by
various types of auxiliary equipment. In a storage-
discharge transfer station, the storage volume
varies from about one-half to two days’ volume of
wastes.
Combined direct and storage discharge transfer station:

In some transfer stations, both direct-discharge and storage-discharge
methods are used. Usually, these are multipurpose facilities designed to
service a broader range of users than a single-purpose facility. In addition
to serving a broader range of users, a multipurpose transfer station can also
use a materials-salvage operation.
Chain pulley Truss roof
for demountable container truck

Container
Truck with
Typical Community Transfer
Unloading
Office
Elevation
Containe
r stack Way
Way
Station
Way
Store Toilet
Out
V a n & Truck
In Containe In
Rickshaw Truck
T r u s s roof
Typical Community Transfer
Unloading
Station for open truck
S e c t i o n o f T r a n s f e r Station
D o u b l e t r u c k l o a di ng
W a s te unloading B o u n d a r y wall
Way
system
Down Up
Way
In
R O A D
Transport means and methods:

Motor vehicles, railroads and ocean-going vessels are
the principal means now used to transport solid
wastes. Pneumatic and hydraulic system have also
been used.
Motor vehicle transport
Where the point of final disposition can be reached
by motor vehicles, the most common means
used to transport solid wastes from transfer stations
are trailers, semitrailers, and compactors.
All these types of vehicles can be used in
conjunction with either type of transfer station.
Motor vehicle transport

In general, vehicle used for hauling on highway
should satisfy the following requirements:
(i) Wastes must be transported at minimum cost,
(ii) Wastes must be covered during the haul operation,
(iii) Vehicles must be designed for highway traffic,
(iv) Vehicle capacity must be such that the
allowable weight limits are not exceeded,
and
(v) Methods used for unloading must be simple
and dependable.
Railroad transport
Although railroad were commonly used for the transport of solid wastes
in the past, they are now used by only a few countries. However,
renewed interest is again developing in the use of railroads for the hauling
solid wastes, especially to remote landfill areas where highway travel is
difficult and railroad line now exist.
Water transport
Barges, scows, and special boats have been used in the past to
transport solid waste to processing locations and to seaside and ocean
disposal sites.
One of the major problems encountered when ocean vessels are used
for the transport of solid wastes is that it is often impossible to move the
barges and boats during times of heavy seas. In such cases, the wastes
must be stored, entailing the construction of costly storage facilities.
Pneumatic, hydraulic and other systems of transport
Low-pressure air and vacuum conduit: From high-density
apartments or commercial activities to central location for processing or for
loading transfer vehicle.
Large pneumatic system: The largest system is installed at the Walt Disney
World amusement park, USA.
Water to transport waste: Hydraulic transport is now commonly

used for transport of a portion of food wastes.
One of the major problems with this method is that ultimately the water
or wastewater used for transporting the wastes must be treated. As a result
of solubilization, the concentration of organics in this wastewater is
considerably greater than in other domestic water use.
Hydraulic system may be practical in areas where proper processing and
post processing facilities are incorporated into the treatment system.
Pneumatic, hydraulic and other systems of transport

Other systems that have been suggested for the
transport of solid wastes include
 various types of conveyors,
 air-cushion and rubber-tired trolleyes, and
 underground conduits with magnetically

transported gondolas
! But these systems have never been put into operation.

Transfer station design requirements

 Types of transfer station to be used
 Transfer station capacity requirements
 Equipment and accessory
requirements
 Environmental requirements
 Health and safety
Processing and Resource Recovery
Materials separated from MSW can be used

directly,
 as raw material for manufacturing
and reprocessing,
 as feedstock for the production of compost
and other chemical and biological conversion
products,
 as a fuel source for the production of energy,
and
 for land reclamation.
Processing and Resource Recovery
Recycling Practice in Bangladesh:

First stage of salvaging: Housewives separate refuse
of higher market value.
Second stage of salvaging: Mostly children of
slum dwellers separate refuse of low market value.
Third stage of salvaging: Scavengers at the
final disposal sites separate refuse of very low
market value when municipal trucks unload fresh
refuse.
Separation and Processing and
Transformation of Solid Waste
1. Sorting:
Manual component separation
Mechanical component
separation
Magnetic and electromechanical
separation
2. Biological volume reduction
(Bioconversion): New product formation
3. Thermal volume reduction
(Incineration): Heat energy
Electric energy
4. Mechanical volume
reduction: Compaction
Manual Component Separation
The manual separation of solid waste components
can be accomplished at the source where solid
generated,
wastes are at a transfer station, at a
processing station, or at the disposal site.
centralized
Manual sorting at the source of generation is the
positive
most way to achieve the recovery and reuse
of materials.
The number and types of components salvaged
or stored (e.g., cardboard and high quality paper,
metals, and wood) depends on the location, the
opportunities for recycling, and the resale market.
Mechanical component separation
Mechanical component separation is a
necessary operation in the recovery of
resources from solid wastes and where energy and
conversion products are to be recovered from
processed wastes.
For example, trommels are now used routinely for
the separation of unprocessed wastes.
Trommel
Magnetic and electromechanical separation
Magnetic separation of ferrous materials, a
well- established technique in the metals industry,
is now used commonly for the removal of ferrous
metals from solid wastes.
More recently, a variety of
electromechanical techniques have been developed
for the removal of several nonferrous materials.
Magnetic separator
Electromechanical Separator
Electric Separator
Recovery of biological conversion products
Biological conversion products that can be derived
from solid wastes include
 Compost

 Various proteins
 Alcohols (Bioethanol)
 Enzymes (Cellulase, Ligninase, Amailase, etc.)
 Organic acids (Citric acid)
 A variety of intermediate organic compounds

Organic Solid Wastes
Composting
Composting is the Salvaging/Packaging
Salvageable
process of bacterial Screening/Sorting
conversion of organic Non-
compostable
solid and semi-solid Shredding/Pulverizing
Water
wastes into compost Additives
handled, stored which and Moisture Adjustments
(stable end product) Air
transported
can be without Aerobic Composting
any adverse CO2, Excess Air,
NH3
effect, and can be used
environmenta Maturing
as
l organic manure
Processing/ Bagging
for improvement of soil
quality and fertility. Saleable Compost
Incineration with heat recovery
Heat in the gas production from the
contente solid wastes can be recovered by
conversion to steam. The low-level heat remaining in
d incineration
the gases
of after heat recovery can also be used to
preheat the combustion air, boiler makeup water, or
solid waste fuel.
Incineration with heat recovery
Landfill
Non
recoverable Gas residues
Non recoverable material
material
Chemical and
Processed biological Conversion Energy Electrical
Solid Processing components
component products conversion energy
waste
conversion
Recoverable process
material
Recoverable
conversion
products and /or Energy
byproducts conversion
Front end Rear end
Typical flow sheet for recovery of resources, conversion

products, and energy
Steam from shredded and classified solid wastes, or solid fuel
pellets fired directly in boiler, or from solid wastes mass-fired in
water walled boiler. With mass-fired units auxiliary fuel may be
required.
Air
Steam
Low-BTU gas from
recovery process
Electricity
Low-BTU gas to
pipe line quality Boiler
Oil from recovery Generator

system
Gas to stack Exhaust
The most common flow diagram for the production of electric energy
involves the use of a steam turbine-generator combination
Gasification
The gasification process involves the partial
combustion of a carbonaceous fuel to generate a
combustible fuel gas rich in carbon monoxide and
hydrogen.
A gasifier is basically an incinerator operating
under reducing conditions.
Heat to sustain the process is derived from
the exothermic reactions while the combustible
components of the low-energy gas are primarily
generated by the endothermic reactions.
The reaction kinetics of the gasification process is
quite complex and stills the subject of considerable
debate.
Lecture: 8
Week: 7
Date: 29-06-2022
Determination of Energy Output
The principal elements of solid waste are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and sulfur. Under ideal conditions, when solid-waste
materials are combusted the gaseous end products include
CO2, H2O, N2, and SO2. In practice, a variety of other gaseous
compounds are also formed, depending on the operating
conditions under which the combustion process is occurring.
The energy content of the waste can be estimated using the
modified Dulong equation for the heating value of the
individual waste components.
Heat (KJ/kg) = 337C + 1428 (H – O/8) + 9S
Where,
C = Carbon (%), H = Hydrogen (%t), O = Oxygen (%), S = Sulfur (%)
Determination of Energy Output
Energy available in solid wastes = Qt. of waste (kg/day)
heat (kj/kg)
Steam energy available = 70% of heat energy
Electric power generation = Steam energy
11395 kJ/kWh
Station service allowance = 6% of electric
power generation (- ve)
Unaccounted heat losses = 5% of electric
power generation (-ve)
Net electric power export = Electric power generation
– (Station service allowance + Unaccounted heat
Disposal of Solid Waste
Ultimate disposal methods of solid waste

 Sanitary landfilling
 Ocean Disposal
 Atmospheric disposal
 Land farming
 Deep-Well Injection
 Incineration
Sanitary Landfilling
Activities involve in Sanitary landfilling

 Selection of landfill site
 Preparation of landfill site
 Design and construction of site
 Operation of landfilling
 Leachate management
 Landfill gas management
Sanitary Landfill
Site selection
Factors that must be considered in evaluating
potential solid waste disposal sites include:
Available land area:
In selecting potential land disposal sites, it is
important to ensure that sufficient land area is
available. It is desirable to have sufficient area to
operate for at least 1 year at a given site. For
shorter periods, the disposal operation becomes
considerably more expensive, especially with
respect to site preparation, provision of auxiliary
facilities, and completion of the final cover.
Sanitary Landfill
Site selection
Haul
distance:
Haul distance has a significant effect of the
overall design and operation of waste management
system. Although minimum haul distances are
desirable, other factors must also be
considered. These include collection route
location, local traffic patterns, and characteristics
of the routes to and from the disposal site.
Sanitary Landfill
Site selection
Availability of cover materials:
It is important that the cover material should be
available at or near the landfill site. Therefore the
soil conditions and topography of the site must be
considered.
Climatic condition:
Local weather condition must also be considered in
the evaluation of potential sites. In many locations,
access to the site will be affected by winter
conditions. Where freezing is sever, landfill cover
material must be available in stockpiles when
excavation is impractical. Wind and wind patterns
must also be considered carefully.
Sanitary Landfill
Site selection
Surface-water
hydrology: hydrology of the area is
important in establishing the existing natural
The local surface-water
drainage and runoff characteristics that must be
considered. Other conditions of flooding must also be
identified.
Geologic and hydrologic conditions:

Geologic and hydrologic conditions are perhaps
the most important factors in establishing
the environmental suitability of the area for a
landfill site, especially with respect to site
preparation.
Sanitary Landfill
Site selection
Local environmental condition:
While it has been possible to build and operate landfill
in
sitesclose proximity to both residential and
developments, industrial care must
operation
extremeif they are to be environmentally
be taken acceptable
in
with respect to noise, odor, dust,
their and vector control.
Flying papers and plastic films must also be controlled.
Ultimate use:
One of the advantages of landfill is that, once it
is completed, a sizable area of land becomes
available for other purposes. Because the ultimate use
affects the design and operation of the landfill, this
issue must be resolved before the layout and design of
the landfill are started.
Sanitary Landfill
Site selection
In addition to these above factors, the following factors should be
considered:
 public opposition,
 proximity of major roadways,
 speed limits,
 load limits on roadways,
 bridge capacity,
 underpass limitations,
 traffic pattern and congestion,
 detours (diversion/bypass),
 buffer area around the site,
 historic buildings,
 endangered species, and
 wetlands.
Sanitary Landfill
Site preparation
The plans and specifications for a sanitary landfill should
require that certain steps be carried out before operations
begin. These steps include
 grading the site area,
 constructing access roads and fences, and
 installing signs, utilities, and operating facilities.
 On-site access roads should be of all-weather construction

and wide enough to permit two-way truck travel.
 Grades should not exceed equipment limitations.
 For loaded vehicles, most uphill grades should be less
than 7 %, and downhill grades should be less than 10 %.
Sanitary Landfill
Site preparation
 All sanitary landfill sites should have electric, water, and
sanitary services.
 Remote sites may have to use acceptable substitutes,
for example, portable chemical toilets, trucked-in
drinking water, and electric generators.
 Water should be available for drinking, fire-fighting, dust
control, and sanitation.
 Telephone and radio communications are desirable.
 A small sanitary landfill operation will usually require
only a small building for storing hand tools and
equipment parts and a shelter with sanitary facilities.
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill equipment
The size, type, and amount of equipment required at
a sanitary landfill depends on
 the size and method of operation,
 quantities and time of solid waste deliveries, and,
to a degree,
 the experience and preference of the designer
and equipment operators.
Another factor to be considered is the availability

and dependability of service from the
equipment.
Sanitary Landfill
Some landfill
Equipment
Equipment Spreading Compacting Excavating Hauling Density of
compacted waste
(kg/m3)
Crawler dozer E G E NA 750
Crawler loader G G E NA -
Rubber-tired E G F NA 733
dozer
Rubber-tired G G F NA -
loader
Steel-wheel E E P NA 809
compactor
Scraper NA NA G E NA
Dragline NA NA E NA NA
Rating key: E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor; NA, not applicable.
Sanitary Landfill
Land filling Methods and Operation

To use the available area at a landfill site effectively,
a plan of operation for the placement of solid
wastes must be prepared. Various operational
methods have been developed primarily on the
basis of field experience. The principal; methods
used for landfilling dry areas may be classified as:
(i) Area method,
(ii) Trench method, and
(iii) Depression method

Sanitary Landfill
Area Method
 The area method is used when the terrain is unsuitable for
the excavation of trenches in which to place the solid wastes.
 Operationally the wastes are unloaded and spread in long,
narrow strips on the surface of the land in a series of layers that
vary in depth from 16 to 30 inches.
 Each layer is compacted as the filling progresses during the
course of the day until the thickness of the compacted wastes
reaches a height varying from 6 to 10 ft.
 At that time, and at the end of each day’s operation, a 6 to 12
inches layer of cover material is placed over the compacted fill.
 The cover material must be hauled in by truck or earth-
moving equipment from adjacent land or from borrow-pit areas.
Sanitary Landfill
 The filling operation usually is started by building an earthen
levee against which wastes are placed in thin layers and
compacted.
 The length of the unloading area varies with the site
conditions and the size of the operation.
 The width over which the wastes are compacted varies from
8 to 20 ft., again depending on the terrain.
 A completed lift, including the cover material, is called a cell.
 Successive lifts are placed on top of one another until the
final grade is reached that was called for in the ultimate
development plan.
 The length of the unloading area used each day should be
such that the final height of the fill is reached at the end of
each day’s operation.
Sanitary Landfill
Compacted solid wastes in a

completed cell
Daily earth cover
Landfill liner
A typical sanitary landfill

Sanitary Landfill
Trench Method
The trench method of landfilling is ideally suited to
areas where an adequate depth of cover material is
available at the site and where the water table is
not near the surface.
 Solid wastes are placed in trenches varying from
100 to 400 ft in length, 3 to 6 ft in depth, and 15 to
25 ft in width.
 To start the process, a portion of the trench is drug
and the dirt is stockpiled to form an embankment
behind the first trench.
 Wastes are then placed in the trench, spread into
thin layers, and compacted.
Sanitary Landfill
Trench Method
 The operation continues until the desired height
is reached.
 The length of trench used each day should be
such that the final height of fill is reached at the end
of each day’s operation.
 The length also should be sufficient to avoid
costly delays for collection vehicles waiting to unload.
 Cover material is obtained by excavating an
adjacent trench or continuing the trench that is being
filled.
Sanitary Landfill
Depression Method
 At locations where natural or artificial
depressions exist, it is often possible to use them
effectively for landfilling operations.
 Canyons, ravines, dry borrow pits, and quarries
have all been used for this purpose.
 The techniques to place and compact solid wastes
in depression landfills vary with the geometry of the
site, the characteristics of the cover material, the
hydrology and geology of the site, and the access to
the site.
Sanitary Landfill
Final cover
Final lift
system
Final cell Bench as
required Final cover
on slope
Cell height
face
Cell 3:1 typical
Lift
Cell
slope
6 in.
intermediate
Lift height
cover
Daily
Lift
Compacted solid waste

cover Cell
Cell-width
Landfill liner
(variable)
system
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill Design
There are some activities involved for sanitary
landfill design. These are
 volume requirement,
 construction of bottom liner,
 landfill cover,
 design of cell of landfill,
 compaction of solid wastes,
 leachate control and
 management of landfill gas.
Sanitary Landfill
Volume requirement
To estimate the volume required for a landfill, it
is necessary to know the amount of waste
being produced and the density of the in-place,
compacted waste.
The volume of waste differs markedly from one city
to another because of local condition.
Salvato recommends a formula of the following form
for estimating the annual volume required.
Sanitary Landfill
Volume requirement
VLF = PEC/Dc
Where, VLF = volume of
landfill P = population
C = average mass of solid waste collected
per capita per year, kg/person
Dc = density of compacted fill,
kg/m3 E = ratio of cover to
compacted fill
= (Vsw +Vc)/Vsw
Where, Vsw = volume of solid
waste Vc = volume of cover
Sanitary Landfill
Volume requirement
The density of the compacted fill is
somewhat dependent on the equipment used at
the landfill site and at the moisture content of the
waste.
Compacted solid waste densities vary from 300 to
700 kg/m3. Normal values in the range of 475 to 600
kg/m3.
Sanitary Landfill
Selection of Bottom Liner

In order to prevent groundwater contamination,
strict leachate control measures are required.
A bottom liner is an engineering system to contain
and control the pollution of the land and water
environments surrounding the land disposal operation.
Usually clay is used as a bottom liner, which
hydraulic conductivity should be less than 1 10-7 cm/s.
A clay liner is usually constructed of 0.3 m to 1
m thickness.
Total required quantity of bottom liner is the
effective landfill area multiplied by the thickness of the
bottom liner.
Sanitary Landfill

Several geomembrane materials are available.
Some examples include:
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
 High-density polyethylene (HDPE),
 Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), and
 Ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM).
Geo-synthetics
Clay soil
Sanitary Landfill
 Designers show a strong preference for PVC and especially for
HDPE.
 Although geomembranes are highly impermeable (hydraulic
conductivities are often less than 1 10-12 cm/s), they can be
easily damaged or improperly installed.
 Damage may occur during construction by construction
equipment, by failure due to tensile stress generated by the
overburden, tearing as a result of differential settling of the
supporting soil, puncture from sharp objects in the overburden,
puncture from coarse aggregate in the supporting soil, and
tearing by landfill equipment during operation.
 Installation errors primarily occur during seaming when two
pieces of geomembrane must be attached or when piping must
pass through the liner.
Sanitary Landfill
Various types of liners and the

thicknes recommended
s
Liner Thickness
Synthetic membrane (geomembrane) At least 0.76 mm
Clay soil 0.60 m

Flexible membrane liner (consisting 1.52 mm
high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill Cover
The technology of modern sanitary landfilling includes cover
systems over the waste to control nuisances, to protect the
environment, and to protect the health and safety of workers
and of the public.
Depending on the location within the fill and the phase of the
construction and operation, the cover systems employed are
daily, intermediate, and final.
The daily and intermediate covers are placed more or less
continuously during the active phase of the filling operation.
The final cover usually is periodically placed during the active
phase of the landfill or at the completion of the fill.
Of the three, the final cover is more complex system.
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill Cover
The recommended ratio of cover material and solid
wastes is 1:5. The total volume of cover material would
be one fifth of the total volume of waste, which would
generate during design period.
Daily and iintermediate cover
Daily cover controls vectors, litter, odors, fire, and moisture. Any
soil material that is workable and has stability (clay, gravel etc.)
may be used.
Intermediate cover
Intermediate covers control gas migration and provide a road
base. Soils used for intermediate cover must have strength and
the required degree of impermeability. Typically 150 to 200 mm
of compacted soil is recommended.
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill Cover
Final cover
The final cover is the layer that is placed on
the completed surface of the fill. The functions of
the final cover are several.
It controls infiltration of water (and, hence,
indirectly controls leachate production), controls
landfill gas migration, serves as a growth medium
for vegetation, provides a support for post-closure
activities, and is a barrier between the external
environment and the waste.
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill Cover
Final cover
Modern final cover design consists of a surface layer, biotic barrier,
drainage layer, and hydraulic barrier.
The surface layer is to provide suitable soil for plants to grow. This
minimizes erosion. A soil depth of about 300 mm is appropriate for grass.
The biotic barrier is to prevent the roots of the plants from penetrating the
hydraulic barrier. At this time, there does not seem to be a suitable material for
this barrier.
The drainage layer serves the same function here as in the leachate
collection system – that is, it provides an easy flow path to a grid of
perforated pipes.
The hydraulic barrier serves the same function as the liner in that it
prevents movement of water into the landfill.
Sanitary Landfill
Recommended depth of cover material

Type of cover Daily Intermediate Final
Minimum 0.15 0.30 0.60

depth (m)
Exposure <7 7 to 365 >365
time (d)
(Davis, M.L and Cornwell, D.A,

1998)
Sanitary Landfill
Compacting of solid waste

The density of the compacted fill is
somewhat dependent on the equipment used at the
land fill site and the moisture content of the
waste. Compacted solid waste density varies
from 300 to 700kg/m3. Settling takes place during
the first year usually about 90%.
For complete compaction required 4 (four) passes
by single equipment (Davis, M.L and Cornwell, D.A,
1998).
Sanitary Landfill
Leachate Management
Leachate
Leachate may be defined as liquid that has
percolated through soli waste and ha extracte
dissolved or suspended materials from it. In most
landfills, the liquid portion of the leachate is
composed of the liquid produced from the
liquid ofthat
decomposition the has entered
wastes and the landfill from
sources, such as surface external
groundwater, and water from underground
drainage, rainfall,
springs.
Sanitary Landfill
Quantity of leachate
The amount of leachate generated from a landfill
site may be estimated using a hydrologic mass
balance for the landfill.
 The rate of production of leachate can be
by performing a water balance.
calculated
 A water balance involves an accounting of all of
the sources of water entering and leaving the
landfill.
 generated
The quantity is ofthat whichthat
leachate exceeds the
could potentially be
moisture holding capacity of the
material in the landfill.
Sanitary Landfill
 The total amount of moisture that can be stored in a
unit volume of soil is a function of two variables -
the field capacity (FC) and the wilting point (WP) of
the soil.
 The field capacity of the soil is defined as the quantity
of liquid, which remains in the pore space
following a prolonged period of gravitational drainage.
 The wilting point of a soil is defined as the quantity
of water that remains in a soil after plants are no
longer capable of extracting any more water.
 The difference between the field capacity and the
wilting point is equivalent to the quantity of moisture
that can be stored in a particular type of soil.
Sanitary Landfill
 Leachate will be formed if the amount of
water present exceeds the field capacity of the fill.
 The field capacity of a landfill varies as a function
of the weight of the overburden, as well as of
other variables, e.g., soil and waste characteristics.
 The field capacity of a landfill can be
estimated approximately using the following
equation:
FC = 0.6 - 0.55 {W/ (10000 + W)}
Where: FC = Field capacity, and
W = Weight of overburden calculated at the middle of
the lift.
Leachate Generation
Evapotranspiration (Wavap)
Precipitation (Wp)
Evaporation (Wevap)
Runoff (WRO) Water in Gas (WV)
Transpiration Infiltration
Cover
Water in cover, Wc
Water in waste (Wsw)

Solid Waste
Water from Decomposition (Wlfg)
Leachate (Wleach)
Quantity of leachate:
FC = 0.6 - 0.55 {W/ (10000 + W)}
MC = Wsw + Wc + Wp- WRO - Wlfg - WV - Wevap + Wleach
mGenerated Leachate = MC – FC
Leachate Generation
The components of water balance for a landfill can be
expressed by the following equation if ground water infiltration
is insignificant:
MC = Wsw + Wc + Wp- WRO - Wlfg - WV - Wevap + Wleach
Where:
MC = Change in the quantity of moisture stored in the landfill (kg/ m3)
Wsw = Quantity of water in the incoming solid waste (the moisture content of solid
waste ranges from 30% to 60% in developing countries) (kg/ m3)
Wc = Quantity of in the cover material (kg/ m3).
Wp = Quantity of water from precipitation (kg/ m3).
WRO = Quantity of water from precipitation diverted as runoff (kg/ m3).
Wlfg = Quantity of water utilized in the formation of landfill gas (0.2 kg/ m3 of gas)
WV = Quantity of water lost as saturated vapor with the landfill gas (0.04 kg/ m3 of gas).
Wevap = Quantity of water lost due to evapotranspiration (kg/ m3), and
Wleach = Quantity of water leaving the (control volume) landfill as leachate (kg/ m3).
mGenerated Leachate = MC - FC
Leachate Collection
 There are a number of proposed designs for leachate

collection systems.
 Two of the more common systems are the sloped terrace
and the piped bottom.
 The sloped terrace design involves the sloping of the
 Generally, the recommended slopes for the terrace in the

range of 1% to 5%.
 This degree of inclination promotes migration of the
leachate in the direction of collection pipes or channels.
 The collection channels typically include perforated
collection pipes in a bed of packed gravel.
 The gravel should have a size in the range of 3.5 to 5 cm.
Leachate Collection
Leachate Collection Pipe 1% to 5% Slope
Clay Liner Drainage Layer

Leachate Collection
The piped bottom collection system design includes
the placement of clay barriers and perforated
leachate collection pipes at the bottom of the site.
Typically, the barriers have a defined form and a
much similar to that of the solid waste cell. A
geomembrane is placed on the top of the clay. After
the barriers have been installed, slotted pipes are
placed on top of the geomembrane.
5–6m 10cm Pipe
15cm 15cm Pipe

5–6m Vertical pipe
30 m 30 m
Management of Landfill Gas
Gases found in landfills include air, ammonia,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
hydrogen sulfide, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.
Carbon dioxide and methane are the principal
gases produced from the aerobic decomposition of
the organic solid waste components.
The functional element of landfill gas are (a)
Composition of gas, (b) Total volume (yield) of
gas, (c) Actual recoverable volume of gas, (d)
Collection of gas,
(e) Upgrading of gas, (f) Utilization of gas, (g)
Disposition of gas, and (h) Economic feasibility of gas
recovery.
Gas Generation
Methods for estimating gas production in a
conventional digester must be appropriately
adjusted to reflect the differences between
anaerobic digestion in a fill and anaerobic digestion
in a digester.
In general, the amount actually obtained from a
landfill will be much less than the theoretical volume
predicted on the basis of organic waste content.
Moreover, unless the fill has been specifically
designed for gas containment and eventual
collection, the actual yield of gas will be
disappointingly small.
Disposition of the Landfill Gas
 Gas generated in the fill can either be allowed
to disperse and migrate beyond the confines of
the fill without any effort being made to control
them, or they can be collected.
 Collected gases may be put to some use, may
be flared, or may simply be vented into the
environment.
 Venting into the environment provides
undesirable conditions to global warning.
 Accumulated gases and uncontrolled dispersal
and migration can lead to the development of
undesirable or hazardous conditions due to
flammability, asphyxiating properties, and trace
organic composition of the gases.
 Accumulation of gases in the fill can be
avoided through the use of a porous final cover.
 Migration from the fill and the attendant hazards
can be averted by providing an area of high
permeability vented to the atmosphere.
 Gases flow to the surface of the vented areas
they
where are diluted in the atmosphere to
harmless levels.
 The areas take the form of boreholes, of gas well,
or of interceptor trenches installed around the
boreholes of the fill.
 A more useful measure is to recover (collect)
the gas and use it is a source of energy.
Collection of the Gas
Gas can be recovered from a landfill by way of drilling
a number of boreholes into the landfill at selected
gas collection points.
 The boreholes should be 0.66 to 1m in diameter.
 Their depth should be from 50% to 90% of the

refuse depth.
 The boreholes are fitted in the same manner as
collection wells used in fills designed for gas recovery.
 Collection wells are gravel-packed wells equipped
with casings that extend the full depth of the
fill.
 The casings are perforated in the section exposed to
the contents of the fill.
Collection of the Gas
 The casings must have telescopic connections
between pipe segments such that connections
between segments are maintained despite the
significant and non-uniform subsidence characteristic
of landfills.
 The wells are built by progressively backfilling
gravel around the gas collection pipe.
 The backfilled gravel serves as a highly
permeable collection zone through which the gas
flows into the collection pipe for removal from the
well.
 The gravel area is covered with a gas-tight seal
topped by backfilled soil to form a barrier against
intrusion of external air into the well.
0.6m
Rubber Valve
Coupling
Gas Collection Header
2 non-perforated
Impervious layer Completed landfill sections of 15cm
and 10cm PVC pipe
10cm PVC
Compacted pipe Gravel level
Solid waste should be a
minimum of 1.2m
Gravel-packed above first
perforated section
Gas Well
Alternating
perforated sections of
Blower
15cm PVC pipe 15cm and 10cm PVC
Clay packing
pipe
Perforated pipe
No. 2
Impervious Layer Gravel
0.6m
75cm
Diameter Bore
Other Methods of Ultimate Disposal
Ocean Disposal of Solid Wastes

The idea of ocean disposal is that the ocean is a
gigantic sink, in which an infinite amount of pollution
of all types can be dumped, has been discarded.
On the other hand, it is argued that many of the
wastes now placed in landfills or on land could be
used as fertilizer to increase the productivity of the
ocean.
It is also argued that the placement of wastes in
ocean- bottom trenches where tectonic folding is
occurring is an effective method of waste disposal.
Currently a number of industrial solid wastes and
certain other wastes are disposed of at sea.
Ocean Disposal of Solid
Wastes Industrial solid wastes
 The usual method used for the disposal of industrial wastes at sea
consists of transporting the wastes in bulk or containers aboard towed or self-
propelled barges to the point of discharge, usually on the high sea.
 Bulk tank barges range in capacity from 1000 to 5000 tons.
 Discharge rate for conventional industrial wastes vary between 4 to 20

tons/min.
 The discharge hose is trailed at a depth of 1 to 2.5 fathoms, while under way at
a speed of 3 to 6 kn.
 Wastes in containers are either weighted and sunk or ruptured and
allowed to sink.
 In some cases, chemical wastes are carried to sea as deck cargo on
merchant ships. Once the ships are on the high seas, the containers are
dumped overboard.
Ocean Disposal of Solid
Wastes Municipal solid wastes
 With the exception of some isolated cases and excluding sewage
sludge, municipal solid wastes are not now discharged into the
ocean environment.
One of the principal reasons is that many solid wastes components,

including paper, wood, plastics, and rubber, will float to the surface.
 The presence of large quantities of floating solid wastes is

unacceptable from an aesthetic, marine craft, and environmental
standpoint.
 Even if wastes are baled before ocean disposal, it is almost certain
that, over a period of time, the bales will disintegrate and floatables
will rise to the surface.
 For these reasons, the disposal of municipal solid wastes in the
ocean is not a viable alternative at this time.
Landfarming
Landfarming is a waste-disposal method in which
the biological, chemical, and physical processes that
occur in the surface of the soil are used to treat
biodegradable industrial wastes.
Wastes to be treated are either applied on top of
the land, which has been prepared to receive the
wastes, or injected below the surface of the soil.
When organic wastes are added to the soil, they are
subjected simultaneously to the following process:
(i) bacterial and chemical decomposition,
(ii) leaching of water-soluble components in the
original wastes and from the decomposition
products, and
(iii) volatilization of selected components in the
original wastes and from the products
of decomposition.
Factors that must be in evaluating the
considered biodegradability of in a
organic wastes application include: landfarmin
(i) composition of the waste; g
(ii) compatibility of wastes and soil micro-

(iii)
flora;
environmental requirements including
temperature,
oxygen, pH, and inorganic nutrients, and
(iv) moisture content of solid-waste mixture.
Landfarming is suitable for wastes that contain
organic constituents that are biodegradable and are
not subject to significant leaching while the
bioconversion process is occurring.
Deep-Well Injection
 Deep-well injection for the disposal of liquid
wastes involves injecting the wastes deep in the
ground into permeable rock formations (typically
limestone or dolomite) or underground caverns.
 The installation of deep wells for the injection
of wastes closely follows the practices used for
the drilling and completion of oil and gas wells.
 To isolate and protect potential water
supply aquifers, the surface casing must be set
well below such aquifers and cemented to the
surface of the well.
Leachate Collection
Deep-Well Injection
 The drilling fluid should not be allowed to
penetrate the formation that is to be used for
wastes disposal.
 To prevent clogging of the formation, the drilling
fluid is replaced with a compatible solution.
 Also, in some cases, it may be necessary to
acid- treat the formation before injection of
wastes is initiated.
Deep-Well Injection
 Deep-well injection has been used principally
for liquid wastes that are difficult to treat and
dispose of by more conventional methods and
for hazardous wastes.
 Chemical, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical
wastes are those most commonly disposed of
with this method.
 The waste may be liquid, gases, or solids.
 The gases and solids are either dissolved in
the liquid or are carried along with the liquid.
Thank you very much
Problems on Solid Waste Management
Characteristics of Solid
Wastes
Problem 1: Estimate the overall moisture
content of a sample of solid wastes with the typical
composition.
Component Mass Moisture (%) Moist mass Dry mass Sum of dry mass
(%) (%) (%) ( %)
Food wastes 45 70 31.50 13.50

Paper 10 6 0.60 9.40
Cardboard 3 5 0.15 2.85
Plastics 5 2 0.10 4.90
Textiles 2 10 0.20 1.80
Rubber 3 2 0.06 2.94
Leather 2 10 0.20 1.80 65.29
Wood 5 20 1.00 4.00
Glass 5 2 0.10 4.90
Tin cans 5 3 0.15 4.85
Nonferrous metal 5 2 0.10 4.90
Ferrous metal 5 3 0.15 4.85
Solution:
Dirt, ashes, brick 5 8 0.40 4.60
Moisture Content = {(a-b)/a} 100
Where, a = initial mass of sample as delivered and b = mass of sample after
drying
Moisture Content = {(100-65.29) /100} 100 = 34.71%
Problem 2: Estimate the energy content of the wastes
from the given chemical analysis.
Composition Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulfur

Percent by mass 48.00 6.40 37.60 0.40
Solution:
Heat (KJ/kg) = 337C + 1428 (H – O2/8) + 9S
Or, Btu/lb = 145.4C + 620(H - O2/8) + 41S
Where, C = Carbon, (percent), H = Hydrogen,
(percent), O2 = Oxygen, (percent), S = Sulfur,
(percent)
Heat (KJ/kg) = 337 0.48 + 1428 (0.064 - ) + 9 0.004

= 186.07 KJ/kg
Problem 3: Estimate the energy content of a solid-waste
sample with the given composition. What is the energy content on a
dry basis and on an ash-free dry basis? Consider ash content is 5%.
Component Food waste Paper Cardboard Plastics Garden trimmings Wood Tin cans
% by mass 60 10 10 5 5 5 5
Energy kJ/kg 4650 16750 16300 32600 6500 18600 700
Moisture (%) 70 6 5 2 60 20 3
Solution: Set up a computation table to determine moisture content and energy

as discarded
Component Mass Moisture Moist Dry Energy Total Moisture
(%) (%) mass ,% mass,% kJ/kg energy,kJ Content
Food wastes 60 70 42.00 18.00 4650 279000

Paper 10 6 0.60 9.40 16750 167500
Cardboard 10 5 0.50 9.50 16300 163000
Plastics 5 2 0.10 4.90 32600 163000 47.35%
Wood 5 20 1.00 4.00 6500 32500
Tin cans 5 3 0.15 4.85 18600 93000
G. trimming 5 60 3.00 2.00 700 3500
Now the unit energy content (as discarded) =
901500 kJ/100 kg = 9015 kJ/kg
Energy content on a dry basis kJ/kg (dry basis) = kJ
(as discarded) 100/(100 - % moisture)
= 9015 100/(100 – 47.35) = 17122.50
Energy content on an ash-free dry basis KJ/kg (ash-
dry basis)
free
= kJ (as discarded) 100/(100 - % ash - %
moisture) Assume the ash content is equal to 5.0
percent.
mkJ/kg (ash-free dry basis) = 9015 100/(100 – 5 -
47.35) = 18919.20
Problem 4: Determine the unit waste generation rates for a
residential area consisting of approximately 1000 homes. The
observation has been made for 1 week at a transfer station.
1. Number of compactor truck loads = 10
2. Average size of compactor truck = 20 yd3
3. Number of flatbed loads = 10
4. Average flatbed volume = 1.5 yd3
5. Number of loads from individual residents private cars and trucks = 20
6. Estimated volume per domestic vehicle = 8 ft3
Solution:
Step-1: Set up the computation table
Item Number of Average Unit weight, Total weight,

loads volume, yd3 (Assumed) lb/wk
lb/yd3
Compactor 10 20 350 70,000
truck
Flatbed truck 10 1.5 150 2,250
Individual 20 0.30 100 600
private vehicle
Total, lb/wk 72850
Solution:
Step-2: Determine the unit waste generation rate
based on the assumption that household is
comprised of 3.5 people.
Unit rate = 72850/(1000 3.5)(7days/wk)

= 3.0 lb/capita/day (1.36 kg/capita/day)
Problem 5: A cannery receives on a given day 12 tons
of raw produce, 5 tons of cans, 0.5 tons of cartons,
and 0.3 ton of miscellaneous materials. Its output
includes 10 tone of processed produce, the remaining
becoming part of the waste water. Four tons of cans
are stored for future use, and the remainder are used
to package the produce. About 3% of the cans used
are damaged and recycled. The cartons are also used
for packaging, except for 3% which become damaged
and are incinerated with other paper wastes. Of the
miscellaneous materials, 75% become paper
wastes that are incinerated, and the remainder are
disposed of by the municipal collection agency. Draw
a material flow diagram for this activity.
Solution:
Step-1: Each day the cannery
receives 12 tons of raw
produce
5 tons of cans
0.5 ton of cartons
0.3 ton of miscellaneous materials
Outflow (Incineration
gas and ashes) Outflow
Storage
Inflow (materials, (Material)
(Materials) products and Outflow
solid wastes) (products)
Outflow (Solid
System boundary wastes)
Solution
Step-2:
: As a result of internal activity,
10 tons of product are produced, and the remainder of produce is
discharged to the sewer
4 tons of cans are stored
3% of the cans used are damaged and recycled
3% of cartons are damaged and incinerated, and remainder is used
75% of the miscellaneous materials become paper wastes which are
incinerated, and the remainder is disposed of
Step-3: Determine the required quantities:
Waste generated = (12 – 10) tons = 2 tons (1814 kg)
Cans damaged and recycled = 0.03(5 – 4) tons = 0.03 ton (27 kg)
Cans used in product = (1 – 0.03) tons = 0.97 ton (880 kg)
Cartons incinerated = 0.03 0.5 ton = 0.015 ton (14 kg)
Cartons used in product = (0.5 – 0.015) tons = 0.485 ton (440 kg)
Miscellaneous incinerated = 0.75 0.3 ton = 0.225 ton (204 kg)
Miscellaneous disposed of = (0.3 – 0.2253) ton = 0.075 ton (68 kg)
Total incinerated = (0.015+0.225) ton = 0.240 ton (218 kg)
Total produce = (10+0.97+0.485) ton = 11.455 tons (10392 kg)
Step-4: Neglecting the amount of materials discharged in the incinerator stack
gases, draw a materials flow diagram
Material Balance
Diagram
Outflow (Incineration gas and ashes)
0.03 tons cans recycled

12 tons raw produce 0.24 tons paper incinerated
0.075 tons wastes disposed of
5 tons cans 4 tons
0.5 ton cartons
0.3 tons miscellaneous
cans
stored 11.455 tons product
2 tons wastes
System boundary produce
Onsite handling,
Storage and Processing
Problem 6: Assume that home compaction units are to be installed. Estimate
the volume reduction that could be achieved in the solid wastes collection if the
compacted density is equal to 20 lb/ft3 and the data given below.
Solution
:Component Weight (lb) Density (lb/ft3) Volume (ft3)
Food wastes 9.5 18 0.53
Paper 43.1 5.1 8.45
Cardboard 6.5 6.2* 1.05
Plastics 1.8 4 0.45
Textiles 0.2 4 0.05
Rubber - 8 -
Leather 1.5 10 0.15
Garden trimming 14.3** 6.5 (2.20)
Wood 3.5** 15 (0.23)
Glass 7.5 12.1 0.62
Tin cans 5.2 5.5 0.95
Nonferrous metal 1.5 10 0.15
Ferrous metal 4.3** 20 (0.22)
Dirt, ashes, brick, etc. 1.1** 30 (0.04)
Total 100 - 15.09 (12.40)
* Cardboard partially compressed by hand before being placed in container
** Components usually not placed in home compactors
Step-2: Determination of the volume of compacted wastes, excluding garden

trimmings, wood, ferrous metals and dirt, ashes, brick, etc.
Compacted volume = (100 – 14.3 – 3.5 – 4.3 – 1.1) lb/20 lb/ft3 = 3.8 ft3
Step-3: Determination of the volume reduction for the compressible
material.
Volume reduction = [(12.4 – 3.8)/12.4] 100 = 69%
Step-4: Determination of the volume reduction achieved with a home
compactor, taking into account garden trimmings, wood, ferrous

metals and dirt, ashes, brick, etc.
Overall volume reduction = [{15.09- (2.2 + 0.23 + 0.22 +0.04 + 3.8)}/15.09]
100 = 57%
Lecture: 11
Cycle: 11
Day: E
Date: 10-10-2015
Collection of Wastes
Problem 7: The following average speeds were obtained for various
round-trips distances to a disposal site. Find the haul-speed constant a
and b and the round-trip-haul time for a site that is located 11 mile away.
Round-trip distance, x Total time (h) Average haul speed, y

(mile/trip) (mph)
2 0.12 17
5 0.18 28
8 0.25 32
12 0.33 36
16 0.40 40
20 0.48 42
25 0.56 45
0.6
Travel time, x/y (h/trip)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Round-trip-haul distance, x (mi/trip)
Solution
Step-1:
: Linearize the haul-speed equation. The
basic haul-speed equation is y = x/(a + bx)
The linearized form of equation is x/y = h = a + bx
Step-2: Plot x/y, which is the travel time versus the round-trip distance, x. Step-3:
Determine the constant a and b using figure.

When x = 0, a = intercept value = 0.08 h/trip, b = slope of the line = 0.02 h/mile.
Step-4: Find the round-trip-haul time for a site that is located 11 mile away.
Round trip-trip distance = 2 11 = 22 mile/trip

Haul time, h = a + bx = 0.08 + 0.02 22 = 0.52 h/trip.
Problem 8:
Solid waste from a new industrial park is to be
collected in large containers (drop boxes), some of
which will be used in conjunction with stationary
compactors. Based on traffic studies at similar parks,
it is estimated that the average time to drive from
garage to first container (t1) and from the last
container (t2) to the garage each day will be 15 and
20 min, respectively. If the average time required to
drive between containers is 6 min and the one-way
distance to the disposal site is 25 km (speed limit:
88 km/h), determine the number of containers that
can be emptied per day, based on an 8-h workday.
Solution:
Step 1: The pick up time per trip, Phcs = pc + uc + dbc
Use: pc + uc = 0.4 h/trip for hauled container system
bdc = 6 min /trip = 0.1 h/trip (given)
Phcs = 0.4 + 0.1 = 0.50 h/trip
Step 2: The time per trip, Thcs = Phcs + s + a + bx

Use: Phcs = 0.50 h/trip
s = 0.133 h/trip (for hauled container system)
a = 0.016 h/trip (88 km/h speed)
b = 0.011 h/trip (88 km/h speed)
x = 25 2 = 50 km
Thcs = 0.5 + 0.133 + 0.016 + 0.011 50 = 1.20 h/trip
Step 3: Number of trip per day, Nd = [(1 – w)H – (t1 + t2)]/ Thcs Use: w =
0.15 (assumed), H = 8 h, t1= 0.25 h, t2 =0.33 h Nd = [(1 –
0.15) 8 – (0.25 + 0.33)]/ 1.20 = 5.18 trip/day
Nd (actual) = 5 trip/day
Problem 9:
Solid wastes from a commercial area are to be collected
using a stationary-container collection system having 4
m3 containers. Determine appropriate truck capacity for
the following conditions:
Container utilization factor = 0.75
Average number of containers at each location =
2 Collection-vehicle compaction ratio = 2.5
Container unloading time = 0.1 h/ container
Average drive time between container locations = 0.1
h One-way haul distance = 30 km
Speed limit = 88 km/h
Time from garage to first container location = 0.33
h Time from last container location to garage =
0.25 h Number of trip to disposal site per day = 2
Length of workday = 8 h.
Solution:
Step 1: Time required for each trip, Tscs = [(1 – w)H – (t1 + t2)]/Nd
= [(1 – 0.15) 8 – ( 0.33+0.25)]/2 = 3.11 h
Step 2: The pick up time per trip, Tscs = Pscs + s + a + bx
Pscs -= Tscs - (s + a + bx) = 3.11 – (0.1 + 0.016 + 0.011 60) =
2.334 h /trip
Step 3: Number of container that can be emptied per trip,
Pscs -= Ctuc + (np - 1)dbc
Pscs -= 3.334 h/trip
uc = 0.1 h/container (given)
np = Ct/2 (2 containers/location)
dbc = 0.1 h
2.334 = 0.1 Ct + (0.5Ct – 1) 0.1
0.15 Ct = 2.434
m Ct = 16.227, use 16
Step 4: Capacity of the collection truck
Ct = vr/cf
v= Ctcf/r = 16 4 0.75/2.5 = 19.20 m3 Use 20 m3
or nearest larger standard size.
Problem 10: The agency responsible for the collection of the solid
wastes presently allows two containers per service, picked up at the
backyard. Consideration is being given to limiting backyard service to one
container only; the remaining services would be allowed two containers
at curbside. About 10% of all services would be expected to ask for the
backyard service. How many additional containers can be collected per day?
At present there are 300 collection stops per day.
Solution:
Step-1: Pickup time, tp = 0.72 + 0.18Cn + 0.014PRH
Cn = Average number of containers at each pickup location PRH
= Rear-of-house pickup location, percent
mtp = 0.72 + 0.18 2 + 0.014 100

= 2.48 min/location
= 2.48 300 = 744 min
Solution
:Step-2: Determine the total number of pickup locations Tp that can be
picked up if the proposed new service is instituted
Collection time = [0.72 + 0.18 (2) + 0.014 (0)] Tp (0.90)
+ [0.72 + 0.18 (1) + 0.014 100] 0.1 Tp
744 = (0.72 + 0.36)(0.90Tp) + (0.72 + 0.18+1.4)(0.1Tp)
744 = 1.20 Tp
Tp = 744/1.20
= 620 service
Step-3: Determine number of additional containers that can be collected.

Container collected at present = (2 containers/service)(300 services)
= 600 containers
Containers collected, proposed
=(2 containers/service)(0.90)(620 services)
+ (1containers/service)(0.10)(620 services)
= 1116 + 62 = 1178 containers
Additional collected per day = 1178 – 600 = 578 containers
Resource Recovery
Problem 11: Determine the energy output and efficiency for as
1000-tonne/ d steam boiler turbine-generator energy-recovery plant
using unprocessed solid wastes with an energy content of 12000 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Energy available in solid wastes = 12000 kJ/kg 1000000 kg/d = 12 109 kJ/d
Steam energy available = 12 109 kJ/d 0.7 = 84 108 kJ/d
Electric power generation = (84 108 kJ/d)/11395 kJ/kWh = 737165.42kWh/d
Station service allowance = 737165.42kWh/d 0.06 = 44229.925 kWh/d
Unaccounted heat losses = 737165.42kWh/d 0.05 = 36858.27 kWh/d
Net electric power for export = 737165.42kWh/d – (44229.925 kWh/d +
36858.27 kWh/d)
= 656077.22 kWh/d
= 656077.22 kWh/ 24h = 27336.55kW
Plant capacity = 27336.55 kW = 27.34 MW.
Overall efficiency = 27336.55 kW/ [(12 109 kJ/24h)/3600kJ/kWh] 100
= (27336.55 kW/138888.89 kW) 100 = 19.68%
[Here, Theoretical value for mechanical equivalent of heat = 3600 kJ/kWh

and Electric conversion rate = 11395 kJ/kWh]
Problem 12: Determine the air requirement expressed in kg
per ton of waste for the complete oxidation of a waste with the
given waste composition (C50 H100 O40 N).
Solution: Molecular mass of the compound

= (50 12)+(100 1)+(40 16)+(1 14) = 1354
The percentage distribution of the basic elements composing the waste
Element C H2 O2 N
% by mass (w/W) 100 44.3 7.4 47.3 1.0
The net available hydrogen not bound as water = % of initial H2 - % of O2/8

= 7.4% – 47.3%/8 = 1.49%
Basic reaction for complete combustion:

C + O2 = CO2 (12 + 32 = 44) ---------------- (1)
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O (4 + 32 = 36) --------------(2)
S + O2 = SO2 (32 + 32 = 64) ------------------(3)
If it is assumed that air contents 23.15% oxygen by
mass, then the amount of air required for the complete
oxidation of 1 kg of carbon would be equal to
(32/12)(1/0.2315) =
11.52 kg, for hydrogen = 34.56 kg, and for sulfur = 4.31
kg.
Now the air requirement for the given
composition: for carbon = 0.443 11.52 = 5.10
kg/kg
for hydrogen = 0.0149 34.56 = 0.515 kg/kg
Total air requirement = 5.10 + 0.515 = 5.615 kg/kg
= 5615 kg/ton.
Problem 13: Estimate the number of British thermal unit per pound
(Btu/lb) of the remaining solid wastes if 90% of the cardboard and 60% of the
paper were removed by the homeowner.
Solution: Step-1: Determination of total energy
Component Mass (lb) Energy (Btu/lb) Total energy (Btu)
Food wastes 15 2000 30000
Paper 40 7200 288000
Cardboard 4 7000 28000
Plastics 3 14000 42000
Textiles 2 7500 15000
Rubber 0.5 10000 5000
Leather 0.5 7500 3750
Garden trimming 12 2800 33600
Wood 2 8000 16000
Glass 8 60 480
Tin cans 6 300 1800
Nonferrous metal 1 - -
Ferrous metal 2 300 600
Dirt, ashes, brick, etc. 4 3000 12000
Total 100 - 476230
Energy content = 476230/100 = 4762.30 Btu/lb = 11.053 kJ/kg
Step-2: Determination of energy content and weight of 90% of the cardboard in
original sample.
Energy content of 90% cardboard = 0.90 28000 = 25200 Btu Weight
of 90% cardboard = 0.90 4 = 3.6 lb
Step-3: Determination of energy content and weight of 60% of the paper in original
sample.
Energy content of 60% paper = 0.60 288000 = 172800 Btu Weight
of 60% paper = 0.60 40 = 24 lb
Step-4: Determination of energy content per pound of original sample after

recovery.
Total energy content after recovery = 476230 – 25200 – 172800 = 278230 Btu
Total weight after salvage = 100 – 3.6 – 24 = 72.4 lb
Energy content per pound after recovery = 278230/72.4 = 3843 Btu/lb.
Thank you very much

Ce 810

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ce 810

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solid Waste Management

Raihan Khan Opu

At the end of this course the students will learn about

 Design of landfill and leachate as well as landfill gas

Solid wastes are all the wastes arising

From the days of primitive society, humans and

How does solid waste management become a

Due to the improper storage, collection and

Other places: where food and harborage are

Ecological phenomena: water and air pollution

Solid waste management may be defined as that

Sources of solid wastes are, in general, related to

The term solid waste is all-inclusive and

Wastes that are discharged may be of significant

Food wastes: Food wastes are the animal, fruit or

Ashes and Residues:

Demolition and construction wastes:

Treatment plant wastes:

Residential Family dwellings, apartments Food wastes, rubbish, ashes, special

Solid waste management includes all

Information on the properties of solid wastes

The properties of solid wastes are the physical

These properties depend upon the source

Physical composition: Physical composition is

The moisture content of solid wastes generated

 Volatile matter (additional loss on ignition at 950o C)

 Ash (residue after burning)

 Fixed carbon (remainder)

2. Fusing point of ash.

Waste generation encompasses activities in

Waste generation, at present, an activity that is

Factors affecting the generation rate of

(iii) public health and aesthetics, and

(iv) the collection methods to be used.

 the space available for the placement of

Grinding, sorting, compaction, shredding, composting,

Medium and high- Tenants Grinding, sorting (paper), compaction

crews shredding, hydropulping

Open areas Owners, park operators compaction, incineration

Collection of solid wastes is not only the gathering

Residential collection services:

 Backyard carry service

Commercial industrial collection service:

Commercial industrial collection service

 House to house collection system

 Hauled container system

 Stationary container system

In most of the developing countries including Bangladesh this

House to house collection

Hauled container system

Hauled container systems are ideally suited for

Hauled container system

Hauled container system

Pickup loaded Deposit empty

Haul empty container

Conventional Mode of Hauled container system

Deposit empty container

Truck with empty

Haul empty Transfer station, processing

Exchange Container Mode of Hauled container system

Stationary Container System

Load contents from containers at

Drive to next pickup location