1

NOTES
UNIT III: WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid Waste Management-Sources & Classification –Solid Waste Disposal Options - Toxic Waste
Management.
______________________________________________________________________________

1.0 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the process of collecting and treating
solid wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not belong to garbage or trash. As
long as people have been living in settlements and residential areas, garbage or solid waste has
been an issue. Waste management is all about how solid waste can be changed and used as a
valuable resource.

Solid waste management should be embraced by each and every household, including the business
owners across the world. The industrialization has brought a lot of good things and bad things as
well. One of the adverse effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste.

Solid-waste management, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is discarded
because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste
can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the
environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases spread by rodents and
insects.

2.0 CATEGORIES OF WASTE

Organic waste: Kitchen waste, waste from food preparation, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits,
and market places.

Combustibles: Paper, wood, dried leaves, packaging for relief items etc. that are highly organic
and having low moisture content.

Non-combustibles: Metal, Tins, Cans, bottles, stones, etc.

Toxic waste: Old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
containers, batteries, shoe polish.

Recyclables: Paper, glass, metals, plastics.

Ashes or Dust: Residue from fires that are used for cooking.

Construction waste: Rubble, roofing, broken concrete etc.

Hazardous waste: Oil, battery acid, medical waste, industrial waste, hospital waste.
 2

Dead animals: Carcasses of dead livestock or other animals.

Bulky waste: Tree branches, tires etc.

Soiled waste: Hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.

3.0 VARIOUS SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE

Every day, tonnes of solid waste are disposed of at various landfill sites. This waste comes from
homes, offices, industries and various other agricultural related activities. These landfill sites
produce foul smell if waste is not stored and treated properly. It can pollute the surrounding air
and can seriously affect the health of humans, wildlife and our environment.
The following are major sources of solid waste:

1. Residential
Residences and homes where people live are some of the major sources of solid waste. The garbage
from these places includes food wastes, plastics, paper, glass, leather, cardboard, metals, yard
wastes, ashes and special wastes like bulky household items such as electronics, tires, batteries,
old mattresses and used oil.

2. Industrial
Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors to solid waste. They include light and
heavy manufacturing industries, construction sites, fabrication plants, canning plants, power and
chemical plants.

These industries produce solid waste in the form of housekeeping wastes, food wastes, packaging
wastes, ashes, construction and demolition materials, special wastes, medical wastes as well as
other hazardous wastes.

3. Commercial
Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today. Commercial
buildings and facilities, in this case, refer to hotels, markets, restaurants, godowns, stores and office
buildings.

Some of the solid wastes generated from these places include plastics, food wastes, metals, paper,
glass, wood, cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous wastes.

4. Institutional
The institutional centers like schools, colleges, prisons, military barracks and other government
centers also produce solid waste. Some of the common solid wastes obtained from these places
include glass, rubber waste, plastics, food wastes, wood, paper, metals, cardboard materials,
electronics as well as various hazardous wastes.

5. Construction and Demolition Areas

 3

Construction and demolition sites also contribute to the solid waste problem. Construction sites
include new construction sites for buildings and roads, road repair sites, building renovation sites
and building demolition sites.

Some of the solid wastes produced in these places include steel materials, concrete, wood, plastics,
rubber, copper wires, dirt and glass.

6. Municipal Services
The urban centers also contribute immensely to the solid waste crisis in most countries today.
Some of the solid waste brought about by the municipal services include street cleaning, wastes
from parks and beaches, wastewater treatment plants, landscaping wastes and wastes from
recreational areas, including sludge.

7. Treatment Plants and Sites

Heavy and light manufacturing plants also produce solid waste. They include refineries, power
plants, processing plants, mineral extraction plants and chemical plants.

Among the wastes produced by these plants, there are industrial process wastes, unwanted
specification products, plastics, metal parts, just to mention a few.

8. Agriculture
Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes. Among the
wastes they produce are agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide containers and other hazardous
materials.

9. Biomedical
This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical manufacturing firms. In hospitals,
there are different types of solid wastes produced.

Some of these solid wastes include syringes, bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper, plastics, food
wastes and chemicals. All these require proper disposal or else they will cause a huge problem for
the environment and the people in these facilities.

Typical waste
Source Types of solid wastes
generators
Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles,
leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes,
Single and multifamily
Residential special wastes (e.g., bulky items, consumer
dwellings
electronics, white goods, batteries, oil, tires), and
household hazardous wastes.).

Light and heavy

manufacturing, Housekeeping wastes, packaging, food wastes,
Industrial fabrication, construction construction and demolition materials, hazardous
sites, power and wastes, ashes, special wastes.
chemical plants.
 4

Stores, hotels,
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes,
Commercial restaurants, markets,
glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes.
office buildings, etc.

Schools, hospitals,
Institutional prisons, government Same as commercial.
centers.

New construction sites,

Construction and road repair, renovation
Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.
demolition sites, demolition of
buildings

Street cleaning,
landscaping, parks,
Street sweepings; landscape and tree trimmings;
beaches, other
Municipal services general wastes from parks, beaches, and other
recreational areas, water
recreational areas; sludge.
and wastewater
treatment plants.

Heavy and light

manufacturing,
Process
refineries, chemical Industrial process wastes, scrap materials, off-
plants, power plants, specification products, slay, tailings.
(manufacturing, etc.)
mineral extraction and
processing.

Crops, orchards,
Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes,
Agriculture vineyards, dairies,
hazardous wastes (e.g., pesticides).
feedlots, farms.

4.0 EFFECTS OF POOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Litter Surroundings
Due to improper waste disposal systems, particularly by municipal waste management teams,
wastes heap up and become a menace. While people clean their homes and places of work, they
litter their surroundings, which affect the environment and the community.

2. Impact on Human Health

Improper waste disposal can affect the health of the population living nearby the polluted area or
landfills. The health of waste disposal workers and other employees involved with these landfill
facilities are also at a greater risk.

3. Disease-causing Pests
This type of dumping of waste materials forces biodegradable materials to rot and decompose
under improper, unhygienic and uncontrolled conditions. After a few days of decomposition, a
foul smell is produced, and it becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease-causing
insects as well as infectious organisms. On top of that, it also spoils the aesthetic value of the area.
 5

4. Environmental Problems
Solid wastes from industries are a source of toxic metals, hazardous wastes, and chemicals. When
released to the environment, the solid wastes can cause biological and physicochemical problems
to the environment that may affect or alter the productivity of the soils in that particular area.

5. Soil and Groundwater Pollution

Toxic materials and chemicals may seep into the soil and pollute the groundwater. During the
process of collecting solid waste, hazardous wastes usually mix with ordinary garbage and other
flammable wastes making the disposal process even harder and risky.

6. Emission of Toxic Gases

When hazardous wastes like pesticides, batteries containing lead, mercury or zinc, cleaning
solvents, radioactive materials, e-waste and plastics mixed up with paper and other non-toxic
scraps are burned they produce dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls, and other gases. These
toxic gases have the potential of causing various diseases, including cancer.

7. Impact on Land and Aquatic Animals

Our carelessness with our waste and garbage also affects animals, and they suffer the effects of
pollution caused by improperly disposed of wastes and rubbish. Consuming Styrofoam and
cigarette butts have been known to cause deaths in marine animals. Animals are also at risk of
poisoning while consuming grasses near contaminated areas or landfills as the toxins seep into the
soil.

5.0 METHODS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

There are different methods of solid waste management. The following are some of the recognized
methods:

1. Sanitary Landfill
This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Garbage is basically spread out
in thin layers, compressed and covered with soil or plastic foam. Modern landfills are designed in
such a way that the bottom of the landfill is covered with an impervious liner, which is usually
made of several layers of thick plastic and sand. This liner protects the groundwater from being
contaminated because of leaching or percolation. When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers
of sand, clay, topsoil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.

Advantage: If landfills are managed efficiently, it is an ensured sanitary waste disposal method.

Constraint: It requires a reasonably large area.

2. Incineration
This method involves the burning of solid wastes at high temperatures until the wastes are turned
into ashes. Incinerators are made in such a way that they do not give off extreme amounts of heat
when burning solid wastes.
 6

Incinerators that recycle heat energy through furnace and boiler are called waste-to-energy plants.
These waste-to-energy systems are more expensive to set up and operate compared to plain
incinerators because they require special equipment and controls, highly skilled technical
personnel, and auxiliary fuel systems. This method of solid waste management can be done by
individuals, municipalities and even institutions. The good thing about this method is the fact that
it reduces the volume of waste up to 20 or 30% of the original volume.

Advantage: The volume of combustible waste is reduced considerably by burning waste. In the
case of off-site pits, it is an appropriate method to minimize scavenging.

Constraint: It can cause smoke or fire hazard and also emits gaseous pollutants.

3. Recovery and Recycling

Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful but discarded items for the next
use. Plastic bags, tins, glass and containers are often recycled automatically since, in many
situations, they are likely to be scarce commodities. Traditionally, these items are processed and
cleaned before they are recycled. The process aims at reducing energy loss, consumption of new
material and reduction of landfills. The most developed countries follow a strong tradition of
recycling to lower volumes of waste.

Advantage: Recycling is environmentally friendly.

Constraint: It is expensive to set up, and in most emergencies, there is limited potential.

4. Composting
Due to a lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard waste is allowed to decompose
in a medium designed for the purpose. Only biodegradable waste materials are used in composting.
It is a biological process in which micro-organisms, specifically fungi and bacteria, convert
degradable organic waste into substances like humus. This finished product, which looks like soil,
is high in carbon and nitrogen. Good quality environmentally friendly manure is formed from the
compost that is an excellent medium for growing plants and can be used for agricultural purposes.

Advantage: Composting is environmentally friendly as well as beneficial for crops.

Constraint: It requires intensive management and experienced personnel for large scale operation.

5. Pyrolysis
This is a method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are chemically decomposed by
heat without the presence of oxygen. It usually occurs under pressure and at temperatures of up to
430 degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gasses, solid residue of carbon and ash and
small quantities of liquid.

Advantage: This will keep the environment clean and reduce health and settlement problems.

Constraint: The systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat may create incomplete
combustion products, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are highly toxic in the parts
 7

per trillion ranges. The residue it generates may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment,
storage, and disposal.

To summarize, proper solid waste management is an integral part of environmental conservation

that should be observed by both individuals and companies globally.

6.0 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT [3]

Wastes considered hazardous are those which are ignitable, corrosive, reactive, and toxic.
Hazardous waste can be categorized into waste from non-specific sources and waste from specific
sources

USEPA has established four characteristic tests to determine whether a waste is hazardous or not.
Ignitability
• Wastes that pose a fire hazard during routine handling, storage, processing, transport, or
disposal
• If a solid waste possesses any of the following properties:
o Liquid containing less than 24% alcohol by volume and has flash point less than 60oC
o Liquid capable of causing fire through friction under standard temperature and
pressure
o Is an ignitable compressed gas
o Is an oxidant
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o Examples – paint thinners and paint removing compounds, solvents used for cleaning
parts and degreasing

Flammability
• Vapors of volatile organic compounds can ignite in the presence of a spark
• Lower Flammability Limit (LFL) and Upper Flammability Limit (UFL) of mixture:
o =1Σ 1 1 =1
o =1Σ 1 1 =1
o Where 1= , =

Corrosivity
• Corrosive wastes occur at extreme pH
o ≤2.5, ≥12.5
o Liquid corrodes steel at a rate greater than 6.35 mm per year and at a temperature of
55oC
o Examples – battery acid, phenol wastes, acidic wastes from metal plating industries

Reactivity
• Unstable waste
• Reacts violently with water
• When mixed with water, generates toxic gases/ vapours/ fumes
• Cyanide or sulphide bearing wastes
• Can pose sufficient danger to human health or environment

Toxicity
• Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) to simulate environmental conditions
in landfill
o Intent of test is to determine whether toxic components of waste could leach to
groundwater and soil if exposed to acidic precipitation
• Examples – paint waste containing metals (Pb, Ag, Cd, Cr), mercury waste, oily wastes
and sludge from petroleum industry, waste containing tetrachloroethylene

The Mixture Rule

A mixture of any amount of hazardous waste and a solid nonhazardous waste is considered
hazardous waste (Pichtel, 2005). There is also an exception to this rule: If the mixture is hazardous
owing a particular property, and a resultant mixture does not exhibit this property, then it cannot
be categorized as hazardous waste. For example, if paint waste is characterized as hazardous (due
to its ignitability), a mixture of paint waste and sand (which is nonignitable) would result in a
nonignitable mixture, which means that the waste mixture can no longer be categorized as
hazardous – it becomes nonhazardous waste as long as it does not exhibit the ignitability property.

The Contained-In Rule

If a contaminant such as a phenolic compound leaks from a storage container into the groundwater
in the area, the contaminated groundwater is also considered to be a hazardous waste. This applies
to any natural material (soil/ groundwater/ surface water) incorporated into hazardous waste.
 9

The Derived-From Rule

Any solid waste generated from the treatment/ storage/ disposal of hazardous waste (such as
sludge, ash, particulate matter, and leachate) is also considered to be a hazardous waste.

7.0 PROPERTIES OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

Solubility
It is the extent of concentration (mg/L) to which a hazardous compound dissolves in a solvent. It
determines whether the chemical can be found as a separate phase or dissolved, thus controlling
fate and transport. Hydrophobic compounds tend to partition onto solids form emulsions and float
at air-water interface, or sink to the bottom of aquifer. In general, solubility is inversely
proportional to sorption, bioaccumulation and volatilization. Partitioning decreases effect of
treatability. It is affected by temperature (usually expressed at 25°C).
Solubility depends on molecular structure, size and forces of attraction. We can generalize by
saying that size is inversely proportional to molar volume. E.g. – solubility of naphthalene is 32
mg/L, while solubility of benzopyrene is 0.00038 mg/L.

Effective Solubility
It is the true solubility of a compound in mixture, denoted by Sie.
=
Where = ( ), = ,
= ( ), =

Water solubility of weak acids/ bases

Weak acids dissociate into their ionized form. The solubility of basic ionized form is much greater
than solubility of neutral ionized form.

Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by the liquid at equilibrium. When a liquid is
in contact with air, molecules of the liquid leave as Vapour and reach an equilibrium (rate of
volatilization is equal to the rate of molecules dissolving).

Sorption
Properties of the phase as well as properties of the contaminant affects sorption into soil. Sorption
controls the rate at which the contaminants move across media.

Oxidation-Reduction Potential
Used to determine the oxidation state of water
Controls concentration of ions present in oxidized/ reduced forms
Oxidized species – positive ORP, Reduced species – negative ORP (on a relative basis)

Forces controlling sorption

Vander Waal’s attraction force
Electrostatic attraction (adsorption), electrostatic repulsion (desorption)
Hydrogen bonding, Covalent bonds
Dipole-dipole interaction
 10

Coulombic forces
Volatilization
Volatilization refers to the mass transfer of a contaminant from liquid to gaseous phase. It is
important to monitor the migration of hazardous chemicals from waste sites and storage facilities
(both above and below ground).
Factors contributing to concentration of contaminant in air:
Vapour pressure and Henry’s Law (decides volatilization rate)
Temperature
Mixing (for e.g., fans/ blowers)
Contact area (within the storage container)
Ventilation rate (mixing from outside the room/ system)
Rate limited mass transfer and dilution will play an important role

8.0 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

A hazardous waste can have adverse health effects in any of the following scenarios:
• A large amount is released at once
• A small amount if released intermittently in the same location
• The substance does not get diluted
• The substance is very toxic

Humans, plants and animals can come into contact with hazardous waste by either inhalation,
ingestion, or dermal exposure.Exposure can be acute or chronic.

Acute exposure Chronic exposure

Single exposure for short time period Repeated exposure over long periods of time
E.g. burn on your finger from an acid E.g. leaking dumpsite which results in contaminated groundwater
(health effects include cancer, liver and kidney failure, slow physical
and mental development)

9.0 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

Radioactivity
Radioactive decay occurs in an unstable atomic nucleus – i.e., an atomic nucleus that does not have
enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together due to an excess of either protons or neutrons.
There are three types of radioactive decay:
• Alpha decay: An alpha particle is identical to a helium nucleus, being made up of two
protons and two neutrons. It initially escapes from the nucleus of the parent atom by
quantum mechanical processes and is further repelled from it by electromagnetism, as
both the alpha particle and nucleus are positively charged.
• Beta decay: Beta decay itself comes in two kinds – β+ and β-. β- emission occurs by
the transformation of one of the neutrons into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
β+ decay is similar, but involves a proton changing into a neutron, a positron and a
neutrino.
 11

• Gamma decay: After a nucleus undergoes alpha or beta decay, it is often left in an
excited state with excess energy. An atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting a gamma
ray. Gamma radiation is the most penetrating of the three.

9.1 Measures of radioactivity: Half-life

Radioactive decay rate is measured in terms of half-life. The half-life of a radioactive isotope
is the time after which, on average, half the original material will have decayed. For example,
uranium and plutonium are weakly radioactive but have very long half-lives – in the case of
238U, around 4.5 billion years. 131I has a half-life of about 8 days.
Radioactivity is measured in Becquerel (Bq) units. Radioactive decay is described as an
exponential decay process.

9.2 Fuel production in nuclear power plants

1. The first stage is mining for uranium ore.

- Uranium ore mined
- Uranium ore is crushed in a mill
- Crushed ore is ground with water to produce slurry
- Slurry is leached with H2SO4 to dissolve uranium oxides leaving behind rock and other dirt
- Liquid with uranium is filtered and dried to produce uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8) –
bright yellow in color (or brown color after drying at high temperatures)
- Uranium oxide concentrate is only mildly radioactive
2. The second stage is enrichment of the ore.
- Increase amount of U-235 present from 0.7% to 3.5-5%
- Mostly done by centrifuging
- After conversion to U-235, there is little use for the remaining U-238 (“depleted uranium”)
3. The third stage is the fuel fabrication.

9.3 Exposure pathways

Like with other hazardous chemicals, exposure to radioactive material occurs through different
means: inhalation, ingestion and direct exposure – with different effects for each of these exposures.
Inhalation
Occurs when people breathe in radioactive materials
Sources: contaminated dust, smoke, gaseous nuclides

Ingestion
Occurs when radioactive materials are swallowed
o Drinking contaminated radioactive ground water
o Farming on land with contaminated soil
o Use of contaminated water for irrigation
o Consumption of fish from contaminated waters
o Bathing or swimming in contaminated waters
Ingested radionuclides expose entire digestive system – can be absorbed by kidneys and
other organs, as well as bones
 12

Direct Exposure
Depends on duration the person is exposed to radiation, distance from source, presence of
shielding (for instance, gamma rays can travel long distances and penetrate through the
human body)

9.4 Health effects of radioactivity

Cancer is considered to be the primary health effect from radiation exposure (evidence from
observation). Radiation can damage processes happening at the cellular or molecular level, permitting
the uncontrolled growth of cells which leads to cancer. Radiation can also cause changes in DNA
(mutations) of exposed populations. These are chronic side-effects. Non-cancerous side effects can
manifest burns and “radiation sickness” – which can cause premature aging and even death. If the dose
is fatal, death can occur within two months. The symptoms of radiation sickness include nausea,
weakness, hair loss, skin burns, diminished organ function.

Radiation dose is measured in rem. Rem is a unit of radiation dosage, such as from X-rays, applied to
humans. It is the dosage in rads that will cause the same amount of biological injury as one rad of X-
rays or gamma rays. Rad is the unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation and is equal to the amount
of radiation that releases an energy of 100 ergs per grams of matter.

Exposure Health Effect Time to Onset

(rem) (Without Treatment)
5-10 Changes in blood chemistry
50 Nausea Hours
55 Fatigue

70 Vomiting
75 Hair loss 2-3 weeks
90 Diarrhea
100 Hemorrhage
400 Possible death Within 2 months
1000 Destruction of intestinal lining, internal bleeding and death 1-2 weeks
2000 Damage to central nervous system, loss of consciousness Minutes/ hours to days
and death
Source: USEPA|Radiation Protection www.epa.gov
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10.0 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

There are six general categories:
Exempt waste and very low level radioactive waste
o Consists mainly of demolished material (concrete, plaster, bricks, metal, valves,
piping) produced during dismantling operations at nuclear industrial sites, some
waste from chemical and food processing industries
o Disposed along with domestic waste
High-level radioactive waste
o Sources: reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel including liquid waste directly
produced and solid material derived from the liquid waste that contains fission
products in sufficient concentrations, used fuel itself
o Short-lived and long-lived radionuclides (wastes from operation of nuclear
facilities, materials from production and dismantling of nuclear weapons,
construction materials from decommissioned reactors and nuclear plants)
o Plutonium and americium – elements of concern
Low-level radioactive waste
o This is made up of isotopes having shorter half-lives. Radioactivity level is low.
o Sources: laboratory research, industrial activities, medicine, contaminated protective
clothing
o Does not require shielding during handling and transport
o Suitable for shallow land burial
o Storing the waste for a period of 10-50 years will allow most of the radioactive
isotopes to decay
Uranium mill waste from mining and milling industries
o Fine sandy uranium tailings generated during uranium milling
Transuranic radioactive waste from manufacture of nuclear weapons
Naturally occurring radioactive material

Storage and disposal of High Level Waste (HLW)

Used fuel gives rise to HLW – which contains recoverable elements such as uranium and plutonium.
If used reactor fuel is not reprocessed, it will still contain highly radioactive isotopes, and in that case,
the entire fuel assembly is treated as HLW for direct disposal. The waste generates a lot of heat and
requires cooling before disposal. After storage for about 40-50 years, the radioactivity of the used fuel
would have fallen. The fuel assemblies are then ready for encapsulation or loading into casks and made
ready for permanent disposal underground. HLW from reprocessing must be solidified. In order to
ensure that no significant releases occur in the future, a “multiple barrier” geological disposal is
necessary. The main barriers are:
Immobilize waste in an insoluble matrix such as borosilicate glass or synthetic rock
Seal it inside a corrosion-resistant container – such as stainless steel
Locate it deep underground in a stable rock structure
Surround containers with impermeable backfill such as bentonite clay if the repository is
wet

Disposal of other radioactive waste

Some Low Level Waste (LLW) from reprocessing plants is discharged to the sea. These include
radionuclides which are distinctive, notably technetium-99 (sometimes used as a tracer in
 14

environmental studies). Such discharges must be regulated and controlled, and the maximum dose
anyone receives from these discharges is a small fraction of natural background radiation. Nuclear
power stations and reprocessing plants release small quantities of radioactive gases (e.g. krypton-85
and xenon-133) and trace amounts of iodine-131 into the atmosphere. However, they have short half-
lives and do not have large impacts. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission classifies LLW into four
categories based on radioactivity
Class A
o Lowest radioactivity level, decays to background level after ~100 years
o Includes contaminated paper, clothing, rags, mops, equipment, tools
Classes B and C
o Decay after 300 and 500 years, respectively
o Includes filter, resins, irradiated hardware
Greater than class C
o Greater radionuclide concentration than classes above

In summary, some of the available means of disposal for radioactive waste are:

Deep geological repositories

Ocean dumping
Seabed burial
Sub-seabed disposal: These sites are away from deep-sea trenches, mid-oceanic ridges or
formation zones where geological activities are high.
Subductive waste disposal method: Subduction is a process where one tectonic plate slides
beneath another and is eventually reabsorbed into the mantle. The subductive waste disposal
method forms a high-level radioactive waste repository in a subducting plate, so that the waste
will be carried beneath the Earth’s crust.
Transforming radioactive waste to stable non-radioactive waste

Approaches to radioactive waste handling:

Delay and decay: If the concentrations of radioactive elements are mostly short-lived, they
can be released in small amounts over long periods of time.
Dilute and disperse: This is useful in minimizing the hazard posed to the environment.
Concentrate and contain: For HLW, radioactive material that has a long half-life, and so on;
it is important to make sure that the waste is contained to a space marked for the purpose.

REFERENCE:

[1] Source: What A Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia. Hoornweg, Daniel with Laura Thomas.
1999. Working Paper Series Nr. 1. Urban Development Sector Unit. East Asia and Pacific Region. Page 5.

[2] Source: https://www.conserve-energy-future.com

[3] Source: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105/106/105106056

[4] Source: USEPA|Radiation Protection www.epa.gov