Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Conflict between work and family among New Zealand teachers with dependent
children
Melanie Palmer*, Dennis Rose, Matthew Sanders, Fiona Randle
School of Learning, Development, and Professional Practice, Faculty of Education, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92601, Symonds Street, Auckland 1150, New Zealand

h i g h l i g h t s

< We examine conflict between work and family among teachers.

< We investigate teachers’ use of parenting programmes and programme preferences.
< Occupational- and family-related demands increased conflict between work and family.
< Programmes focussing on inter-role conflict and managing child behaviour would benefit teachers.
< Organisations should play a role in delivering workelife balance programmes.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Changes in family and employment patterns have lead to an increasing need for families to balance work
Received 27 September 2011 and family roles. Little research has examined work and family conflict among teachers. In the present
Received in revised form study, 69 New Zealand teachers completed a survey examining occupational-related demands,
2 May 2012
family-related demands, work and family conflict, and perceptions of parenting programmes.
Accepted 5 May 2012
Occupational task overload, their children’s behaviour problems, hours of employment, and work
experience increased conflict between work and family. A programme addressing inter-role conflict and
Keywords:
managing children’s misbehaviour would be of benefit to teachers. Teachers believed organisations
Work and family conflict
Teachers
should play a role in delivering such programmes.
Children’s behaviour problems Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Workelife balance programmes
Parenting programmes

1. Introduction employees in non-managerial occupations and research needs to

Substantial changes in the nature of employment and family
patterns have occurred worldwide over the past few decades. More
women, including mothers, participate in the workforce, and
fathers are more likely to be absent from their children’s lives
(Bianchi & Milkie, 2010). Furthermore, a greater number of the
parents participating in the workforce are from dual-earner fami-
lies or single-parent families, as opposed to traditional two-parent,
single income families, and they must balance the competing
demands of work and family roles. As a consequence, workers are
more likely to experience conflict between work and family roles.
Research examining conflict between work and family roles has
generally focused on the experiences of professional and manage-
rial employees and examined the precursors and consequences of
inter-role conflict. Findings from this research may not apply to
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ64 9 6238899x83042.
E-mail address: ml.palmer@auckland.ac.nz (M. Palmer).
be extended to these employees (e.g., teachers) who may be more
or less vulnerable to inter-role conflict. At present, only a handful of
studies have examined teachers’ experiences of conflict between
work and family.
Furthermore, most of the literature examining inter-role conflict
among teachers has not investigated the impact of teachers’ own
children’s behaviour on work and family conflict. This type of
family-related demand may be a particularly important variable
that impacts on inter-role conflict for teachers because their
professional work roles in interacting with and managing children
substantially overlap with their family roles. The present study
adds to previous literature on work and family conflict among
teachers by examining the relationships between family-related
demands (i.e., the number of children in the household, and chil-
dren’s behavioural difficulties), occupational-related demands (i.e.,
stress related to the teaching occupation), and work and family
conflict. The present study also examines teachers’ use and
perceptions of parenting and workelife balance programmes.

0742-051X/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.05.002
1050 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
1.1. Conceptualisation of role conflict
Research on work and family conflict is primarily based on role
conflict theories that stem from a stress and coping framework
(Grant-Vallone & Donaldson, 2001). Roles are associated with a set
of defined activities and conflict between roles occurs when pres-
sures from one role make it difficult to meet the demands of another
role (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). Kahn et al.
(1964) distinguished between several types of role conflict: intra-
sender conflict, inter-sender conflict, inter-role conflict, person-
role conflict, and role overload. Intra-sender conflict is when
different instructions for a role task are incompatible with each
other, whereas inter-sender conflict occurs when pressures from
one role sender conflict with pressures from another role sender.
Inter-role conflict occurs when pressures associated with one role
conflict with pressures associated with participating in a different
role. Person-role conflict refers to requirements of a role that are
incompatible with an individual’s moral or ethical values and role
overload occurs when role tasks cannot be completed within given
time limits. The focus of the present study is inter-role conflict.
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) differentiated three sources of
inter-role conflict associated with conflicting work and family roles.
Time-based conflict occurs when various role pressures compete
for an individual’s time. For example, a teacher may need to
produce reports for parents by a deadline and this may take time
away from family activities. Role-produced strain-based conflict
occurs when stress symptoms created by one role make it difficult
to comply with the pressures of another role or affects an indi-
vidual’s performance in a different role. For example, a teacher may
become stressed when managing the difficult behaviour of some
children at school and be tired and less tolerant of his or her own
children’s behaviour at home. Lastly, behaviour-based conflict
refers to patterns of behaviour associated with one role that are
incompatible with patterns of behaviour linked with a different
role. For example, when children injure themselves, their parents
may comfort them with hugs and kisses but this is inappropriate
when the same parent is in the role of a teacher in a school.
Inter-role conflict can also be classified as being either an
objective and/or a psychological experience (Greenhaus, 1988).
Objective inter-role conflict occurs when work commitments
prevent participation in family-based commitments. An example of
objective inter-role conflict is when an early morning work meeting
is scheduled at the same time as when children need to be taken to
school (Grant-Vallone & Donaldson, 2001). On the other hand,
psychological conflict depends on the relative importance of
different roles and focuses on the degree of internal psychological
conflict (Greenhaus, 1988). An example of this is when teachers
who spend a great deal of time at school because of their ambition
to be promoted experience psychological conflict if the time spent
doing this results in not taking their own children to sporting and
cultural events. This conflict arises because they have placed
greater importance on their work role than on their family role.
The work and family domains are associated with two main
roles in which inter-role conflict could occur. Two forms of conflict
between work and family roles are regarded as separate but related
concepts (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000). Work-to-family
conflict (WFC) occurs when work life interferes with family life
(Cinamon, Rich, & Westman, 2007). In contrast, family-to-work
conflict (FWC) is the notion of family life interfering with work
life (Cinamon et al., 2007).
1.2. Precursors and consequences of conflict between work and family
Research investigating conflict between work and family roles
has typically examined the precursors and consequences of inter-
role conflict. Occupational stress and schedule inflexibility are the
occupational-related demands most strongly associated with an
increase in WFC (Byron, 2005; Ford, Heinen, & Langkamer, 2007).
For FWC, the family-related demands most strongly associated with
higher levels of FWC were family stress and conflict in the home.
Allen et al.’s (2000) meta-analysis of the consequences of
conflict between work and family roles found that increased
conflict is associated with negative outcomes at work, such as: job
dissatisfaction, lower levels of organisational commitment, greater
turnover, intention-to-leave an organisation, and general
occupational-related stress. Non-occupational outcomes linked to
increased conflict between work and family include increases in life
dissatisfaction, marital dissatisfaction, family dissatisfaction and
distress, general psychological strain, physical/somatic symptoms,
depression, burnout, and general non-occupational-related stress.
Other research has also linked occupational stress to poorer
parentechild interactions (Repetti & Wood, 1997) and negative
work experiences to decreases in positive parenting practices and
increases in negative parenting practices (Costigan, Cox, & Cauce,
2003).
Much of the research examining conflict between work and
family roles is based on the experiences of managerial and
professional employees (Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood, &
Lambert, 2007). These findings may not apply to employees in
non-managerial occupations and research needs to be extended to
these employees. At present, it is not known whether particular
employees in particular occupations (e.g., teaching profession) may
be more or less vulnerable to conflict between work and family
roles, or experience conflict between work and family in different
ways.
1.3. The teaching profession
Several characteristics of the teaching profession make conflict
between work and family among teachers an important issue to
study. International and national research has demonstrated that
teaching is a high stress occupation and this may lead to high levels
of inter-role conflict. A survey of working life in New Zealand found
that employees in the education sector were among those with the
highest proportion reporting that they often or always felt stressed
(Statistics New Zealand, 2008). The education sector also employed
the highest proportion of individuals who were dissatisfied or very
dissatisfied with their workelife balance (Statistics New Zealand,
2008).
Several unique characteristics about the teaching profession
may contribute to teacher stress. Excessive workload and role
overload is commonly reported as a source of stress among
teachers (Shernoff, Mehta, Atkins, Torf, & Spencer, 2011). Gunter
et al. (2005) found that a large proportion of beginning teachers
in England leave the profession within three years and approxi-
mately 60% of teachers claimed that their high workload was the
reason they left the teaching profession. Teachers from Queensland,
Australia reported that they worked long or very long hours
(Timms, Graham, & Cottrell, 2007) and Timms et al. claimed that
the workloads of teachers were unsustainable. Research with New
Zealand teachers (Wylie, 2007) found that fewer than 50% of
teachers thought their workload was manageable and only 32% of
the surveyed teachers reported that their work life and personal life
was balanced, supporting Timms et al.’s findings.
In addition to high workloads and long working hours, student
misbehaviour is another major stressor for teachers (Clunies-Ross,
Little, & Kienhuis, 2008; Shernoff et al., 2011). Clunies-Ross et al.
(2008) found that teachers perceive student misbehaviour as one
of the largest sources of stress. They also found that teachers spend
a large amount of time on behaviour management and that they
 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
mostly use reactive strategies to deal with misbehaviour. In Shernoff
et al.’s (2011) study, teachers reported they felt overwhelmed and
ineffective when dealing with disruptive child behaviour.
Furthermore, those teachers with dependent children at home
may spend a large amount of time managing children (some of
whom may have emotional or behavioural problems) in their
workplace, in addition to the demands of raising their own children
when they are at home. The relentless requirement of managing
other people’s children at school and their own children at home
may exacerbate conflict between work and family because this
demanding task is central to both roles. This makes teachers an
important group to study.
1.4. Inter-role conflict among teachers
A small number of studies from a variety of cultures have
investigated the impact of work and family conflict among
teachers. Previous research has found that WFC and FWC is asso-
ciated with negative outcomes including increased physical strain,
job dissatisfaction, life dissatisfaction, burnout, emotional exhaus-
tion, job tension, and intention-to-leave the teaching profession
(Cooke & Rousseau, 1984; Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996;
Noor & Zainuddin, 2011; Simbula, 2010).
Various occupational-related demands among teachers have
been found to increase conflict between work and family.
Employment hours have been consistently and positively associ-
ated with WFC (Caudroit, Boiche, Stephan, Le Scanff, & Trouilloud,
2011; Cinamon, 2009; Cinamon & Rich, 2005b; Netemeyer et al.,
1996). However, research by Cinamon et al. (2007) found that
stressors specific to teaching (i.e., class size, number of students
with special needs, teachers’ investment in student misbehaviour,
and teachers’ investment in relationships with student’s parents)
explained more variance in WFC than did generic work stressors
such as the number of hours worked. They found that greater
investment in students’ misbehaviour and in students’ parents
increased their WFC. Furthermore, findings for the relationship
between work experience and levels of work and family conflict
remain unclear as Cinamon and Rich (2005b) found that novice
teachers experience more inter-role conflict than more experienced
teachers, while Noor and Zainuddin (2011) reported that work and
family conflict increased as work experience increased.
Family-related demands have generally been conceptualised as
the number of children in the home, age of the youngest child, and
lack of spousal support. Among teachers, spousal support is
correlated with less FWC and WFC (Cinamon, 2009; Cinamon &
Rich, 2005b; Netemeyer et al., 1996). Noor and Zainuddin’s (2011)
study with Malay female teachers with children found that the
number of children in the home was not associated with conflict
between work and family. Cinamon (2009) also found that
commitment to the parental role was not significantly related to
FWC or WFC among female teachers with children.
Some of the research examining teachers’ conflict between work
and family roles has not differentiated between teachers with and
without children living in their homes. Bragger, Rodriguez-
Srednicki, Kutcher, Indovino and Rosner (2005) found that
teachers who have children of their own report greater levels of
work and family conflict than teachers who are not parents. This
finding highlights the importance of examining conflict between
work and family roles among teachers who are parents separately
from those who are not parents. By aggregating results across both
groups previous research may have masked important information
about differences between teachers with dependent children
and those teachers without children at home. This aggregation
may have resulted in an average result that fails to describe either
group.
1051
Although research has identified relationships between work
and family conflict and family-related demands, few studies have
examined the relationship between children’s behavioural diffi-
culties and work and family conflict using a sample of teachers. It is
theoretically important to investigate how others (e.g., dependent
children) influence inter-role conflict and how they themselves are
affected by such factors (Casper et al., 2007). It may not be the
number of children that parents have but their children’s behav-
ioural repertoire that impacts on conflict between work and family
roles.
There is good reason to believe that children’s behavioural
difficulties may act as a precursor in work and family conflict,
especially for teachers. The Three Stage Spillover model argues that
work pressures indirectly influence children’s behaviour and
development (e.g., Galambos, Sears, Almeida, & Kolaric, 1995). In
the first stage, adverse conditions at work (e.g., task overload,
conflict with other teachers, and challenges with working with
students) may result in feelings of strain and stress. In turn, these
feelings of strain and stress may be brought home and influence
how a parent responds to their own children (second stage). The
quality of the parentechild relationship may be affected and
characterised by higher levels of parentechild conflict and less
parental acceptance. In the third stage, these types of parentechild
interactions may be associated with less-than-optimal child
behaviour and development. This spillover process can be bidi-
rectional in that children’s behaviour difficulties may cause further
stress and strain in the parent which, in turn, is likely to influence
how a parent functions at work. Children’s behavioural difficulties
may be a particularly important variable exacerbating conflict
between work and family among teachers.
Haslam (2009) found that children’s behaviour problems were
significantly related to greater FWC and occupational stress for
a sample of 147 teachers. FWC mediated the relationship between
children’s disruptive behaviour and occupational stress, indicating
that FWC is the mechanism by which children’s behaviour is related
to occupational stress. Hyde, Else-Quest, Goldsmith and Biesanz
(2004) also found that having a preschooler with a hostile and
aggressive temperament was associated with more negative work
outcomes for mothers. However, Hyde et al.’s (2004) participants
were not teachers and their results may not apply to this group.
More research is needed to identify the relationships between
these variables for teachers.
1.5. Parenting programmes
Parenting programmes based on behavioural and social learning
theories are an effective treatment for children displaying behav-
iour problems (Piquero, Farrington, Welsh, Tremblay, & Jennings,
2009; Scott & Dadds, 2009) and have been recommended as the
first approach to intervention (Eyberg, Nelson, & Boggs, 2008).
Parent training programmes aim to improve the quality of the
parentechild relationship, develop parenting knowledge and skills,
and increase the frequency of positive and prosocial child behav-
iours while decreasing the frequency of disruptive and difficult
behaviours (Carr, 2009; Piquero et al., 2009). Parenting pro-
grammes benefit both parents and children and appear to have few
negative effects (Piquero et al., 2009). Behavioural parent training is
particularly effective in reducing and eliminating child behaviour
problems, with 60e70% of children displaying improvements (Carr,
2009). There is also substantial evidence that such programmes are
effective in producing improvements in parenting practices and
parental adjustment and wellbeing (Piquero et al., 2009; Serketich
& Dumas, 1996).
A range of parenting programmes that stem from a behavioural
and social learning framework have been developed, such as
1052 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
ParenteChild Interaction Therapy (PCIT; Brinkmeyer & Eyberg,
2003), Parent Management Training from Oregon (Forgatch &
DeGarmo, 1999), Triple P-Positive Parenting Program (Sanders,
2008), Helping the Noncompliant Child (McMahon & Forehand,
2003) and The Incredible Years Parenting Program (IY; Webster-
Stratton & Reid, 2003). A number of these programmes have been
implemented on a large-scale in Western nations (Piquero et al.,
2009) and parenting programmes are used in a range of cultures
worldwide. For example, Triple P has been used in 17 nations,
including nations in the Pacific, Asian nations, the USA, the UK and
other European nations (Kirp, 2011).
Parent training programmes generally do not address
occupational-related demands, inter-role conflict, and their rela-
tionship with parenting and children’s behaviour. Programmes that
aim to address conflict between work and family roles, parenting
skills, and children’s behavioural problems are likely to produce
benefits in both the workplace and the home. Such programmes
may be especially useful for teachers with dependent children who
have the task of managing children at school and at home. Strate-
gies targeting teachers’ own children’s misbehaviour taught during
the programme are likely to be generalised into the school context
and may relieve some stress related to dealing with student mis-
behaviour, which in turn may further reduce WFC. If there is a link
between child misbehaviour, work and family conflict, and occu-
pational stress among teachers, such programmes could be of
benefit.
One example of a parenting programme that targets both work
and family conflict and parenting skills is a variant of the Triple P-
Positive Parenting Program, Workplace Triple P (WPTP). WPTP is
delivered in the workplace and involves teaching parents positive
parenting and child management strategies, as well as assisting
parents to prevent and manage stress, reduce conflict between
work and family roles and, for two-parent families, strategies to
enhance partner support (Haslam, 2009). Research evaluating
WPTP with working parents of 1e16 year old children found that
when compared to a waitlist control, WPTP produced lower levels
of personal distress and dysfunctional parenting practices and
greater levels of work satisfaction, work commitment and parental
self-efficacy (Sanders, Stallman, & McHale, 2011).
1.6. Purposes of the present study
One purpose of the present study was to explore relations
between WFC, FWC, occupational-related demands (e.g., occupa-
tional stress, employment hours, class size) and family-related
demands (e.g., number of children, children’s behavioural difficul-
ties) among New Zealand teachers who have at least one depen-
dent child. We also investigated whether occupational-related
demands and family-related demands predicted conflict between
work and family roles. A final purpose of the present study was to
explore teachers’ use of parenting programmes, their perceptions
of the importance of delivering a programme with a focus on work
and family conflict, which features of a parenting programme are
important, and teachers’ preferred delivery mode for a programme
aimed at improving parenting and workelife balance.
2. Method
2.1. The research context
New Zealand is a country in the South Pacific Ocean and is
comprised of two main islands, the North and South Islands, in
addition to several smaller islands. New Zealand has a population of
around 4.3 million (Nusche, Laveault, MacBeath, & Santiago, 2012)
with the majority of New Zealanders living on the North Island
(76%). The capital city is Wellington; however, Auckland is New
Zealand’s most populated city.
The New Zealand Education system is organised into three
levels of schooling: early childhood education (ages 0e5), primary
education (ages 5e13), and secondary education (ages 13e18)
(Nusche et al., 2012). Formal education is compulsory for those
aged 6 to 16, although most children start primary schooling at 5
years. On the 1st July 2010, New Zealand had 2559 primary and
secondary schools and 764,398 student enrolments (New Zealand
Ministry of Education, 2010). Approximately 77% of the total
number of student enrolments is from the North Island with 34% of
these coming from the Auckland region. For early childhood
education, there were 5152 services with 211,426 student enrol-
ments (Education Counts, 2010).
The New Zealand Ministry of Education oversees the national
education policy, develops the curriculum and assessment stan-
dards, and provides a large proportion of the funding for state
schools (Nusche et al., 2012). Internationally, the New Zealand
education system is recognised for having high average student
performance, although there is a wide range in achievement scores.
In 2010, National Standards for primary education were intro-
duced, which may have impacted on primary school teacher’s
workload. The National Standards are a set of learning progressions
based on assessment evidence; however, students are not assessed
through national testing. Primary school teachers make an overall
judgement about student achievement and progress and are
expected to report back to parents in relation to the National
Standards. National Standards for secondary education are also
provided in New Zealand, during which national testing is used and
students are assessed in relation to the standards on knowledge
and skills in a range of areas.
Schools in New Zealand are allocated a decile rating (a 10%
grouping) of 1e10 based on five socioeconomic factors of the
school’s catchment area: household incomes, occupations,
household crowding, educational qualifications, and income
support (New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2011). Decile 1
schools represent the 10% of schools with the highest proportion of
students from low socioeconomic communities and decile 10
schools have the lowest proportion of students from low socio-
economic communities. The decile rating is used to calculate and
allocate additional funding aimed to reduce socioeconomic barriers.
2.2. Participants
Participants were 69 New Zealand teachers, each with at least
one dependent child. The sample in this study consisted of 79.7%
female teachers and the age of the teachers varied from 25 years to
57 years (M ¼ 41.03 years). The majority of teachers in the present
study were of New Zealand European ethnicity (79.7%), with
a further 7.2% reported being of M
aori ethnicity. The mean number
of children living in the home was 1.87 (SD ¼ .78).
The teachers taught a variety of age groups ranging from early
childhood education to secondary education. The majority of the
participants were in full-time employment (87.0%). Those not in
full-time employment, worked from between 3 and 25 hours
teaching per week. The highest teaching qualification was
a diploma for seven participants while 36 held a bachelors degree,
20 held a postgraduate diploma and a further six had a masters
degree. Approximately one quarter (23.2%) of the sample had been
teaching for 1e5 years, 24.6% had 5e10 years teaching experience,
26.1% had 11e15 years teaching experience and the remaining
teachers (26%) had 16 or more years experience teaching. The
teachers worked in schools spread across a range of socioeconomic
conditions. Twenty-two teachers (31.8%) taught in schools with
a decile rating of 1e3, 36 teachers (50.4%) taught in schools with
 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
a decile rating of 4e7, and 11 teachers (15.9%) taught in high decile
schools (rating between 8 and 10). A large proportion of the sample
(55.1%) had considered leaving the teaching profession for another
occupation in the past six months.
The majority of participants were married or in a defacto rela-
tionship (73.9%), nine (13.0%) were divorced or separated, seven
(10.1%) were single, one (1.4%) was a widow, and one (1.4%) did not
report their marital status. Nine participants reported that their
partner’s highest education level was Year 12 or less, 12 partners
had completed a trade qualification or apprenticeship, seven held
a polytechnic qualification, 24 held a university bachelors degree or
postgraduate diploma and 3 teachers reported some other quali-
fication for their partner. Fifty participants reported their partner’s
employment status with the majority of partners (n ¼ 43) in full-
time employment. The median family income was between
$75,001 and $100,000.
2.3. Procedure
Prior to recruitment, ethical approval to conduct the study was
obtained from The University of Auckland Human Participants
Ethics Committee. Teachers were recruited to participate in an
online survey via flyers and posters sent to a selection of primary
and secondary schools across New Zealand in 2010. An online
survey was used because it offered a convenient way to recruit
teachers and collect information while preserving anonymity.
Recruitment occurred in two stages. Initially, 50 schools in the
Auckland region were invited to participate in the study. An
alphabetical list of all schools in the Auckland region was obtained
from the New Zealand Ministry of Education website (www.
minedu.govt.nz). Every 10th school on this list was selected until
50 schools had been identified. Information about the study was
sent out to the principals of those 50 schools and principals were
asked to display a poster and distribute flyers advertising the study.
The poster and flyers contained information about the study and
the online survey website address and interested teachers were
invited to complete the online survey. There was a low response
from this first round (approximately 20 teachers had logged on to
the website and completed the survey) and so a second recruitment
round was conducted by approaching 100 schools from non-
Auckland regions, selected using the same method as before but
with an additional stratified sampling procedure to ensure that 10
schools were obtained from each decile.
Participants entered the survey by opening a weblink on
SurveyMonkey, an internet-based survey tool. They were first
presented with a Participant Information Sheet approved by The
University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee. This
sheet provided a brief description of the study and its importance
and assured teachers that they would not be identified in any
reports emanating from the research. Teachers clicked a button to
give their consent to participate. Subsequent pages asked for soci-
odemographic information, information about their occupation,
and presented the various scales described below. Participants
completed the submission of their data by clicking a final button.
2.4. Measures
2.4.1. Workefamily and familyework conflict
Work-to-family conflict (WFC) and family-to-work conflict
(FWC) were assessed using Frone’s WorkeFamily Conflict ques-
tionnaire (Frone & Yardley, 1996). The six-item WFC subscale
measures the degree to which the respondent’s occupation inter-
feres with their family life (e.g., after work, I come home too tired to
do some of the things I’d like to do). The sixeitem FWC subscale
measures the degree to which the respondent’s family life
1053
interferes with their work (e.g., my home life keeps me from
spending the amount of time I would like to spend on job- or
career-related activities). Participants use a 5-point scale ranging
from 1 (never) to 5 (very often) to rate the extent to which each item
applies to them, with higher scores indicating greater levels of
conflict. Scores on each subscale are averaged to provide overall
WFC and FWC scores. Previous research using Frone and Yardley’s
WFC and FWC scales has demonstrated adequate reliability (Frone,
Russell, & Cooper, 1997; Frone & Yardley, 1996). Internal consistency
for the current sample was a ¼ .89 for the WFC subscale and a ¼ .77
for the FWC subscale.
2.4.2. Occupational-related demands
The Teacher Occupational Stress Factor Questionnaire (TOSFQ;
Moracco, Danford, & D’Arienzo, 1982) is a 30-item scale used to
assess participants’ levels of occupational stress specific to the
teaching profession. Participants rated their levels of stress using
a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not stressful) to 5 (extremely
stressful) in five areas: financial security (e.g., feeling my salary is
not equal to my duties and responsibilities), administrative
support (e.g., feeling there is a lack of administrative support in my
school), relationships with teachers (e.g., working in a school
where there is an atmosphere of conflict among teachers), working
with students (e.g., trying to motivate students who do not want to
learn), and task overload (e.g., feeling I never catch up with my
work). Scores are summed for each subscale and a total occupa-
tional stress score is calculated with a possible range of 30e150.
Previous research using the TOSFQ has demonstrated high
internal consistency with Cronbach alphas between .80 and .91 for
the five subscales (Moracco et al., 1982). In the current sample,
the alpha coefficients for the five subscales and the total occupa-
tional stress scores were high: financial security (.79), adminis-
trative support (.93), relationships with teachers (.91), working
with students (.82), task overload (.82), and total occupational
stress (.94).
Information was also obtained about the number of students in
a typical class the teachers taught and the number of students in
a typical class whom they regarded as having significant behav-
ioural or emotional problems.
2.4.3. Child behaviour
The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman,
1997) was used to assess participants’ perceptions of their own
children’s behaviour. Participants were asked to choose a child in
their family whose behaviour was presently of the most concern
and answer the items in relation to that child. The SDQ consists of
25 items and respondents rate the frequency of both prosocial and
difficult behaviours displayed by their child using a 3-point scale
ranging from 0 (not true) to 2 (certainly true). There are five
subscales: conduct problems (e.g., often has temper tantrums or
hot tempers), hyperactivity (e.g., restless, overactive, cannot sit still
for long), emotional problems (e.g., many worries, often seems
worried), peer problems (e.g., rather solitary, tends to play alone),
and prosocial behaviour (e.g., shares readily with other children).
The items for each subscale are summed and all subscales except
the prosocial subscale are summed to provide a total difficulties
score. Total difficulties scores above 16 indicate clinically elevated
problems. The SDQ has previously demonstrated adequate internal
consistency and testeretest reliability (Goodman, 1999; Smedje,
Broman, Hetta, & von Knorring, 1999) and SDQ scores have been
found to discriminate between low- and high-risk samples
(Goodman & Scott, 1999). Internal consistency for the current
sample was: conduct problems (a ¼ .36), hyperactivity (a ¼ .72),
emotional problems (a ¼ .63), peer problems (a ¼ .49), prosocial
behaviour (a ¼ .71), and total difficulties (a ¼ .72).
1054 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058

In addition to the SDQ, participants reported if they had been programmes targeting workelife balance. Descriptive statistics
concerned about any behavioural or emotional problems displayed were conducted and reported for these measures.
by their child in the past 6 months.
3. Results
2.4.4. Perceptions of parenting and workelife balance programmes
Participants were asked to report if they had ever participated in 3.1. Correlational analyses between research variables and inter-
a parenting programme. They were also asked whether they would role conflict
value a parenting programme that targeted workelife balance,
along with their preferences for the delivery format (i.e., group, The means, standard deviations and correlations are displayed
individual, self-directed workbook, large group seminar, and web- in Table 1. WFC was not associated with FWC in the present sample.
based), and their perceptions on the importance of five programme Few significant relationships emerged between occupation-related
features (qualified practitioners, demonstrated programme effec- demands and WFC and FWC. WFC increased as the hours of
tiveness, quality resources, participants encouraged to set and employment increased, more stress related to task overload was
achieve their own goals, and programme addresses relevant associated with greater WFC, and more years of teaching service
issues). was related to higher levels of FWC. There were few family-related
The Work and Family Conflict Scale (WAFCS; Haslam, 2009) was demands associated with WFC and FWC. Two-parent households
used to assess participants’ perceptions of balancing work and had less FWC. Those teachers whose children displayed more
family life. Seven items examined the extent to which teachers hyperactive behaviours and more difficult behaviours in general
agreed with statements about balancing work and family life (e.g., experienced greater WFC.
difficulties managing competing work and family demands can
impact job performance and work satisfaction), the role of teachers’ 3.2. Multiple regression models for WFC and FWC
organisations in supporting healthy workelife balance (e.g., my
organisation supports me in managing my work and family The model predicting WFC was significant, F(3, 60) ¼ 10.93,
commitments) and delivering programmes targeted at balancing p < .001. When entered simultaneously, all predictor variables
work and family commitments (e.g., I am more likely to attend significantly predicted WFC scores and accounted for 35% of the
a parenting programme sponsored by my workplace than one at variance in WFC (see Table 2). Higher levels of stress due to task
a clinic). Items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 overload, higher levels of their children’s hyperactive behaviours
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). and more employment hours were related to an increase in WFC.
Task overload explained 13% of the variance in WFC, children’s
2.5. Data analysis hyperactive behaviours accounted for an additional 8% in WFC, and
employment hours explained an additional 7% of the variance.
Data was downloaded from SurveyMonkey on a single day in The regression model predicting FWC was also significant, F(2,
2010 when 90 teachers had logged on and submitted questionnaire 66) ¼ 4.97, p < .05. When the number of parents in the household
sets. We excluded 21 of these entries; 20 of them did not respond to and years of teaching service was entered simultaneously, only
any questions or only to questions assessing sociodemographic and years of teaching service was a significant predictor of FWC. More
occupational characteristics and one respondent reported they did years of teaching service predicted greater FWC and accounted for
not have any children. Analyses were conducted on the remaining 6% of the variance in FWC.
69 questionnaire sets.
First, the raw data was checked and missing values were
imputed for the work and family conflict, occupational stress, and Table 1
child behaviour measures. Missing values were handled in two Means and standard deviations for scales and subscales and correlations between
them.
ways as per Haslam (2009). In cases where less than 15% of the data
was missing, values were imputed using the Expectation Max- Variable M SD WFC FWC
imisation method. In cases where more than 15% of the values was Work-to-family conflict 3.97 .74 e
missing, the case was excluded from the analysis. This accounts for Family-to-work conflict 2.18 .57 .004 e
the range in N (66e69) for these measures. Occupational-related demands
Financial security 8.48 3.45 .141 .022
Descriptive statistics were then conducted for the key variables Administrative support 17.26 8.20 .037 .029
and bivariate correlation analyses were carried out to examine the Relationships with teachers 18.88 7.61 .150 .153
relationships between WFC, FWC, occupational-related demands Working with students 21.62 6.29 .087 .086
and family-related demands. The next series of analyses involved Task overload 16.67 4.75 .454** .087
Total occupational stress 82.91 23.96 .194 .095
conducting multiple regression models to determine whether
Hours of employment 27.61 10.74 .283* .066
occupational-related demands and family-related demands pre- Class size 24.15 6.86 .016 .036
dicted WFC and FWC. The variables that emerged as significant Number of students with significant 4.48 4.04 .109 .195
correlations of WFC and FWC at the bivariate level were entered behavioural or emotional problems
into the regressions. All predictor variables were entered simulta- School decile 5.06 2.55 .029 .097
Years of teaching service e e .128 .283*
neously into the multiple regression analyses. As both SDQ hyper- Family-related demands
activity and SDQ total difficulties was significantly correlated with Child emotional problems 2.11 2.03 .145 .071
WFC, only one of the variables was entered in the regression Child conduct problems 1.53 1.32 .046 .036
analysis to reduce the effects of multicolinearity. Stepped regres- Child hyperactivity 4.06 2.52 .378** .230
Child peer problems 1.86 1.67 .094 .129
sions were conducted to determine whether SDQ hyperactivity or
Child prosocial behaviour 7.34 2.18 .034 .086
SDQ total difficulties predicted more variance in WFC. SDQ hyper- Child total difficulties 9.58 4.96 .295* .178
activity predicted more variance and this variable was used in the Number of children living at home 1.87 .78 .027 .146
regression analyses. Number of parents in the household e e .157 .258*
A final purpose of the present study was to examine teachers’ Partner’s employment hours (n ¼ 47) 39.73 13.94 .125 .222

experiences and perceptions of parenting programmes and *p < .05; **p < .01.
 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
Table 2
Multiple regression analyses for WFC and FWC.
Multivariate analyses B SE b sr2
Criterion: WFC
Employment hours .02 .01 .27*
TOSFQ task overload .06 .02 .37**
SDQ hyperactivity .09 .03 .29**
R2 ¼ .35***, Adjusted R2 ¼ .32
Criterion: FWC
Number of parents in .32 .16 .23
household
Years of teaching service .11 .05 .26*
R2 ¼ .13*, Adjusted R2 ¼ .11
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
3.3. Perceptions of parenting and workelife balance programmes
Just under half of the teachers (44%) reported that they had
participated in a parenting programme. A large proportion of the
sample (46.3%) reported that they had been concerned about their
child’s behaviour or emotions in the past 6 months and of those
parents expressing concerns about their child’s behaviour, only
48.3% had participated in a parenting programme.
Table 3 displays the means and standard deviations for the
WAFCS. All teachers in the current sample thought that balancing
work and family was either important or very important for them as
a working parent. The majority of teachers (91.2%) agreed or strongly
agreed that balancing work and family commitments is stressful and
that managing competing demands impacts on their work (83.9%). A
large number of teachers (33.8%) disagreed or strongly disagreed
that their organisation supports them in managing their work and
family commitments, whereas 44.1% of teachers agreed or strongly
agreed with this item. The majority of teachers believed that it was
important for organisations to support their employees and their
partners to manage competing work and family demands. However,
when asked about attending a programme specifically addressing
workelife balance, only 55.9% of teachers stated that they would
consider attending such a programme.
The majority of teachers believed that it was either important or
very important that workelife balance programmes are made
available to working parents, that such programmes have flexible
delivery formats, and different levels of intervention are available
depending on the needs of the individual parent (percentages ranged
from 78.3% to 86.5%). The largest proportion of teachers reported that
they preferred an individual form of a programme aimed at
improving workelife balance (34.8%). The second most preferred
delivery mode was a group programme (31.8%). A self-paced work-
book was the least preferred format for programme delivery (9.1%).
Almost all teachers (95.6%) thought that it was either important or
Table 3
Means and standard deviations for the Work and Family Conflict Scale.
Items
1. Balancing work and family is stressful
2. Difficulties managing competing work and family demands
can impact job performance and work satisfaction
3. I am more likely to attend a parenting programme sponsored
by my workplace than one at a clinic
4. Organisations that support employees to better balance work
and family issues are demonstrating they value the individual
employees and understand the importance of family
5. Organisation sponsored workefamily balance programmes
should be open to partners of employees so parents can
support each other in reducing workefamily conflict
6. My organisation supports me in managing my work and
family commitments
7. Programmes targeting workefamily balance should be
delivered in work hours
1055
very important that parenting programmes used quality resources
and that the programme addressed issues personally relevant to
them. Approximately 95% of teachers indicated that demonstrated
programme effectiveness was either an important or very important
.07 aspect. Slightly fewer teachers thought that it was either important or
.13 very important that parenting programmes were run by qualified
.08
practitioners (88.2%), and 77.9% indicated they believed that it was
important or very important that such programmes encouraged
.05 participants to set and achieve their own goals.
.06 4. Discussion
The present study examined the relationships between WFC,
FWC, occupational-related demands and family-related demands
in a sample of teachers with dependent children. It also investi-
gated teachers’ perceptions of parenting and workelife balance
programmes. Several important relationships emerged using this
sample of New Zealand teachers.
In the present study, few occupational-related stressors signif-
icantly predicted conflict between work and family roles. Stress
related to task overload and the number of employment hours
increased WFC. The finding that the number of employment hours
is related to higher WFC is expected and this relationship has been
found consistently in previous literature using samples of teachers
(e.g., Cinamon & Rich, 2005b; Netemeyer et al., 1996). However,
stress related to task overload in the teaching role accounted for
more variance in WFC than did the number of employment hours.
These findings support Cinamon et al. (2007) who found that
teaching-specific occupational stressors explain more variance in
WFC than generic occupational stressors. These results and those of
Cinamon et al. (2007) indicate the need for future research to
identify occupational stressors related to particular professions to
guide the development of work–life balance programmes.
The only occupational-related demand that predicted FWC was
the number of years employed in teaching service, with more
experienced teachers having higher levels of FWC. This contrasted
with Cinamon and Rich’s (2005b) finding that novice teachers
experienced greater levels of FWC but supports Noor and Zainuddin
(2011) who reported that more work experience was associated
with more work and family conflict among Malay teachers with
a least one child. Even though 82% of the teachers in Cinamon and
Rich (2005b) had children, the results were aggregated for both
teachers with and without children and it may be that the rela-
tionship between teaching work experience and FWC differs for
teachers with and without children. For example, teachers with
more teaching experience may also have more family-related
demands (such as a greater number of dependent children), and
more occupational-related demands (such as having a leadership
role), and therefore would have a higher workload to balance. This,
in turn, may lead to more inter-role conflict.
Family-related demands correlated with conflict between work
M SD and family included children’s hyperactive and difficult behaviours
4.22 .60 and the number of parents in the household. Children’s total
4.07 .72 behavioural difficulties, and in particular, hyperactive behaviours
were related to higher levels of WFC but not FWC. This finding
3.68 .94
supports the spillover model suggesting that children’s behavioural
4.38 .73 difficulties do play an important role in exacerbating conflict
between work and family. However, caution must be taken when
interpreting the relationship between children’s behaviour prob-
4.22 .74
lems and work and family conflict as the lack of relationship
between children’s behavioural difficulties and FWC contrasts with
3.04 1.07 Haslam’s (2009) findings. Haslam found that children’s behavioural
difficulties were related to higher levels of FWC among a sample of
3.40 .90 Australian teachers. This contrasting result may be due to different
measures used to assess children’s behavioural difficulties in the
1056 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
two studies. Haslam (2009) used the Eyberg Child Behavior
Inventory (Eyberg & Pincus, 1999), a measure assessing the
frequency of disruptive behaviour problems, whereas in the
present study the SDQ was used to assess children’s difficult and
prosocial behaviours. It may be that disruptive behaviours which
place high demands on parents’ time and energy, as measured in
Haslam’s study, are more closely associated with FWC than diffi-
culties with a range of behaviours (e.g., emotions, peer problems).
This is an empirical question and may be best answered in a study
where both measures are employed.
Another family-related demand associated with conflict
between work and family roles was the number of parents in the
household. Two-parent families reported lower levels of FWC than
one-parent families. This finding seems logical considering that
family-related demands may be more easily shared in two-parent
households. Other research (e.g., Cinamon & Rich, 2005b;
Netemeyer et al., 1996) has also found that spousal support was
associated with lower levels of WFC and FWC. However, when
considered alongside the years of teaching service, the number of
parents in the household did not account for a significant amount of
variance in FWC. What may matter more is the ability to success-
fully balance role commitments rather than the number of parents
in the household. Future research could explore ways of identifying
the relative effects of these factors.
In contrast to Cinamon et al. (2007), teachers’ reports of stress
related to working with students and the number of students in their
class with behavioural or emotional problems were not related to
WFC or FWC in this sample. This difference in results may be due to
the measures and concepts used in each study. The number of
students in a class with behavioural or emotional problems and the
stress related to working with students may not necessarily corre-
spond to the amount of teacher investment in student misbehaviour.
Another interesting finding was that in the present study WFC
and FWC scores were unrelated, questioning Allen et al.’s (2000)
statement that these two types of conflict are related constructs.
Even though a teacher’s work interferes with their family, it does not
necessarily mean that their family will interfere with their work. This
finding differs from previous research that has found that higher
scores of WFC are significantly associated with higher FWC scores
(Cinamon, 2009; Cinamon & Rich, 2005b; Cinamon et al., 2007). It is
unknown why WFC and FWC were unrelated in the present study
and may be due to different characteristics of the samples. Research
by Cinamon et al. used samples of teachers employed in the teaching
profession in Israel, whereas the current sample was teachers from
New Zealand. Various characteristics about the education systems in
different countries and public perceptions of the importance of
family and work roles may influence how teachers perceive and
experience conflict between work and family. Future research using
a larger sample of teachers who represent a variety of cultures and
a variety of educational systems is needed to further investigate the
lack of relationship between WFC and FWC found in this study.
The present study also found that for the majority of teachers
balancing their work and family commitments was stressful and
that maintaining a balance was important to them. Teachers
reported that it was important to have access to programmes
addressing conflict between work and family and over half of the
teachers stated they would attend a workelife balance programme.
Teachers perceived a need for their professional organisations to
support their work and family commitments and play a role in
providing workelife balance programmes.
4.1. Implications and recommendations
With the increasing number of parents from dual-earner and
single-parent families participating in the workforce, there is
a need to understand how occupational-related demands and
family-related demands influence work and family conflict. In the
present study, employment hours, task overload, years of teaching
service, and teachers’ own children’s hyperactive behaviour pre-
dicted an increase in conflict between work and family.
The findings of the present study offer some important impli-
cations for teachers, schools and employers. These types of impli-
cations would be relevant to all teachers, schools and employers
working in a range of educational settings and systems, not just
teachers from New Zealand. Organisational managers play a role in
developing school culture and employment policies (Cinamon &
Rich, 2005a) therefore, assisting organisational managers to
promote workelife balance by establishing healthier workplaces is
important. This may be done through enhancing managers’ under-
standing of the precursors and outcomes of work and family conflict
and the benefits of family-friendly policies in the organisation
(Cinamon & Rich, 2005a). Making workelife balance programmes
easily accessible to teachers by delivering such programmes in the
workplace is one way of promoting family-friendly policies. ‘At-risk’
employees who may be especially vulnerable to work and family
conflict would likely benefit from programmes teaching strategies
to manage work and family commitments. Given the high reported
levels of WFC and occupational stress among teachers, programmes
promoting workelife balance would be expected to decrease
occupational stress, increase job satisfaction and produce better
occupational performance reflected in less time away from work,
better performance while at work and lower turnover.
The finding that teachers’ own children’s behaviour was related
to conflict between work and family supports the notion of deliv-
ering a parenting programme that also targets work and family
conflict and aims to promote workelife balance. For teachers, this is
likely to have the added benefit of generalising behaviour
management strategies into the classroom, which in turn may
improve work functioning. Interventions that explicitly target these
factors should be tested to determine whether child management
strategies are generalised into the classroom context.
It may be beneficial for such programmes to also teach strategies
to manage and reduce stress related to task overload. Stress
reduction strategies may promote teacher wellbeing and reduce
feelings of burnout and emotional exhaustion, a common outcome
of conflict between work and family. Schools could also play
a further role in reducing teachers’ workloads, thus in turn work
and family conflict, by providing support teachers to complete
clerical tasks. For example, Gunter et al. (2005) reported that by
providing support staff to undertake administrative tasks previ-
ously performed by teachers, the number of hours teachers worked
decreased. However, this did not lead to a clear increase in job
satisfaction and highlights the need for schools to not only address
teachers’ workload difficulties, but also to provide support and
intervention for other factors related to conflict between work and
family roles.
4.2. Limitations
Research examining conflict between work and family roles is
generally limited to cross-sectional studies that rely on self-report
measures (Casper et al., 2007). The present study used a cross-
sectional design and relied solely on self-report measures.
Research using a variety of measures to assess work and family
conflict and observational methods or multiple informants to
measure children’s behaviour is needed to support the current
findings. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the study
means that we cannot infer causality.
The small sample size and the lack of diversity in the socio-
demographic backgrounds of the present sample is a limitation.
 M. Palmer et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1049e1058
The majority of participants are New Zealand European female
teachers from two-parent families and the sample may not reflect
the New Zealand teaching workforce as a whole. The results of the
present study may not capture the circumstances of teachers with
different background characteristics (e.g., male teachers, teachers
of other ethnicities). Furthermore, it is unknown whether the
findings from the present sample would translate to other coun-
tries and cultures which use different educational systems.
The questionnaire used to examine conflict between work and
family roles did not distinguish between different types of inter-
role conflict (e.g., time-based, strain-based, and behaviour-based
conflict, or objective and psychological conflict). Future research
could investigate whether different types of inter-role conflict are
more prevalent than others among teachers. This information could
inform the content of future workelife balance programmes.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted with funding support from Auckland
UniServices and a Summer Research Scholarship from The
University of Auckland. We would like to thank the editors and
reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions.
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