GE6 – Art Appreciation
BAROQUE ART AND NEO-CLASSICISM (GROUP 3)
THE BAROQUE ART
Baroque art and architecture, the visual arts and building design and construction
produced during the era in the history of Western art that roughly coincides with the 17th
century. The earliest manifestations, which occurred in Italy, date from latter decades of the
15th century, while in some regions, notably Germany and colonial South America, certain
culminating achievements of Baroque period is stylistically complex, even contradictory. In
general, however, the desire to evoke emotional states by appealing to the senses, often in
dramatic ways, underlies its manifestations. Some of the qualities most frequently associated
with Baroque are grandeur, sensuous richness, drama, vitality , movement, tension,
emotional, exuberance, and tendency to blur distinctions among the various arts.
The Origin of the Term
The term Baroque probably ultimately derived from the Italian word "barocco" which
philosophers used during Middle Ages to describe an obstacle in schematic logic.
Subsequently the word came to denote any contorted idea involuted process of thought.
Another possible source is the Portuguese word “barroco” (Spanish barrueco), used to
describe an irregular or imperfectly shape, pearl, and this usage still survives in the jeweler's
term baroque pearl.
In art criticism the word 'Baroque' came to be used to describe anything irregular, bizarre,
or otherwise departing from established rules and proportions. This biased view of 17th
century art styles was held with few modifications by critics from Johann Winckelmann to
John Ruskin and Jacob Burckhardt, and until the late 19th century the term always carried
the implication of odd, grotesque, exaggerated, and over decorated. It was only with Heinrich
Wölfflin's pioneer study "Renaissance und Barock" (1888) the term 'Baroque' was used a
stylistic designation rather than as a term of thinly, veiled abuse, and a systematic formulation
of the characteristics of Baroque style was achieved.
Three Main Tendencies of the Era
Three broader cultural and intellectual tendencies had a profound impact on Baroque art
as well as Baroque music. The first of these was the emergence of the Counter- reformation
and the expansion of its domain, both territorially and intellectually.
The Roman Catholic Church after the Council of Trent (1545-63) adopted a
propagandistic stance in which art was to serve as a means of extending and stimulating the
public's faith in the church. To this end the church adopted a conscious artistic program
whose art products would make an overtly emotional and sensory appel to the faithful. The
Baroque style that evolved from this program was paradoxically both sensuous and spiritual;
while a naturalistic treatment rendered the religious image more accessible to the average
church goer, dramatic and illusory effect were used to stimulate piety and devotion and
convey an impression of the splendor of the divine. Baroque church ceilings thus dissolved in
painted scenes that presented vivid views of the infinite to the observer and directed the
scenes toward heavenly concerns.
The second tendency was the consolidation of absolute monarchies, accompanied by a
simultaneous crystallization of the prominent and powerful middle class, which now came to
play a role in art patronage. Baroque places were built on an expanded and monumental
scale in order to display the power and grandeur of the centralized state, a phenomenon best
displayed in the royal palace and gardens at Versailles.
The third tendency was a new interest in nature and a general broadening of human
intellectual by explorations of the globe. These simultaneously produced a new sense both of
human insignificance (particularly abetted by the Copernican displacement of the Earth from
the center of the universe) and of the unsuspected complexity and infinitude of the natural
world.
Architecture, Painting, and Sculpture
The arts present an unusual diversity in the Baroque period, chiefly because currents of
naturalism and classicism coexisted and intermingled with the typical Baroque style. Indeed,
Annibale Carracci and Caravaggio, the two Italian painters who decisively broke with
Mannerism in the 1590's and thus, helped usher in the Baroque style, painted, respectively, in
classicist and realist modes. A specifically Baroque style of the painting arose in Rome in the
1620s and culminated in the monumental painted ceilings and other church decorations of
Pietro da Cortona, Guido Reni, II Guercino, Domenichino and countless lesser artists. The
greatest of the Baroque sculptor-architects was Gian Lorenzo Bernini, who designed both
Baldachin with spiral columns above the altar of St. Peter's in Rome and the vast colonnade
fronting that church. Baroque architecture as developed by Bernini, Carlo Maderno,
Francesco Borromini and Guarino Guarini emphasized massiveness and monumentality,
movement, dramatic spatial and lighting sequences, and a rich interior decoration using
contrasting surface textures, vivid colors, and luxurious materials to geighten the structure's
physical immediacy and evoke sensual delight.

French architecture is even less recognizably Baroque in its pronounced qualities of
subtlety, elegance and restraint. Baroque tenets were enthusiastically adopted in staunchly
Roman Catholic Spain, however, particularly in architecture. The greatest of the Spanish
builders, Jose Benito Churriguera, shows most fully the Spanish interest in surface textures
and lush detail. He attracted many followers, and their adaptations of his style, labeled
Churrigueresque, spread throughout Spain's colonies in the Americas and elsewhere.
The Baroque made only limited inroads into northern Europe, notably in what is now
Belgium. That Spanish-ruled, largely Roman Catholic region's greatest master was the
painter Peter Paul Rubens, whose tempestuous diagonal compositions and ample, full-
blooded figures are the epitome of Baroque painting. The elegant portraits of Anthony van
Dyck and the robust figurative works of Jacob Jordaens emulated Ruben's example. Art in
the Netherlands was conditioned by the realist tastes of its dominant middle-class patrons,
and thus both the innumerable genre and landscape painters of that country and such
towering masters as Rembrandt and Frans Hals remained independent of the Baroque style
in important respects.
The Baroque did have a notable impact in England, however, particularly in the churches
and palaces designed, respectively, by Christopher Wren and Sir John Vanbrugh.
The last flowering of the Baroque was in largely Roman Catholic southern Germany and
Austria, where the native architects broke away from Italian building models in the 1720s. In
ornate churches, monasteries, and palaces designed by J.B. Fisher von Erlach, J.L. von
Hildebrandt, Balthasar Neumann, Dominikus Zimmermann, and brothers Cosmas Damian
Asam and Egid Quirin Asam, an extraordinarily rich but delicate style of stucco decoration
was used in combination with painted surfaces to evoke subtle illusionistic effects.
NEO CLASSICICM
As the term implies, neoclassicism is a revival of the classical past. The movement began
around the middle of that 18th century, marking a time in art history when artists began to
imitate Greek and Roman antiquity and the artists of the Renaissance.
Neoclassicism grew to encompass all of the arts, including painting, sculpture, the
decorative arts, theatre, literature, music, and architecture. The style can generally be
identified by its use of straight lines, minimal of use color, simplicity of form and, of course, its
adherence to classical values and techniques.
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, founder of modern archeology and art history, praised the
Greeks and believed them to be as close to Perfection as possible. Following Winckelmann's
words, many artists began to study Greek architecture and create classically inspired works
of art. In 1738, excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum led to the finding of well-preserved,
colorful paintings, mosaics, and pottery. These discoveries only fueled artistic fascination and
curiosity for antiquity, and artists began to use this new knowledge of the past in their art,
creating their own "new" classical style that was extremely different from the Rococo--a style
popular during the early to mid-18th century.
The discovery of preserved ancient artifacts also played a huge role in the Decorative
Arts of the time. Josiah Wedgwood (British, 1730-1795), one of the most famous English
ceramic manufacturers of the 18th century, founded the Wedgwood company in 1759, which
produced classically inspired jasperware, creamware, and black basalts, formed using simple
geometric lines, and decorated with frieze-like scenes reminiscent of ancient Greek and
Roman pottery.
John Flaxman (British, 1755-1826), a prominent neoclassical sculptor, illustrator and
designer, began working for Wedgwood around 1775. His oeuvre includes illustrations for
classical literature like Odyssey, and designs, for classically inspired decorative works of art
produced by Wedgwood, and monuments for military heroes and nobles.
In music, the period saw the rise of classical music in painting, the works of Jacques-
Louis David became synonymous with the classical revival. However, Neoclassicism was felt
most strongly in architecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts, where classical models in the
same medium were fairly numerous and accessible. Sculpture in particular had a great
wealth of ancient models from which to learn, however, most were Roman copies of Greek
originals.
Neoclassical architecture was modeled after the classical style and, as with other art
forms, was in many ways a reaction against the exuberant Rococo style. The architecture of
the Italian architect Andrea Palladio became a very popular in the mid-18th century.
Additionally, archaeological ruins found in Pompeii and based on the ancient Roman
rediscoveries.
Neoclassicism - Characteristics
Neoclassical works (paintings and sculptures) were serious, unemotional and sternly
heroic. Neoclassical painters depicted subjects from Classical literature and history, as used
in earlier Greek art and Republican Roman art, using somber colors with occasional brilliant
highlights, to convey moral narratives of self-denial and self-sacrifice fully in keeping with the - Praised Greeks, believed they achieved perfection.
supposed ethical superiority of antiquity. Neoclassical sculpture dealt with the same subjects,
and was more restrained than the more theatrical Baroque sculpture, less whimsical than the Archaeological Discoveries:
indulgent Rococo, Neoclassical architecture was more ordered and less grandiose than Pompeii and Herculaneum:
Baroque, although the dividing line between the two can sometimes be blurred. It bore a
close external resemblance to the Greek Orders of architecture, with one obvious exception - - 1738 excavations revealed well-preserved Greek and Roman artifacts.
there were no domes in ancient Greece. Most roofs were flat. - Colorful paintings, mosaics, and pottery.
The most recent phase pf neoclassicism - the Classical Revival in modern art - emerged Neoclassical Artist:
between about 1900 and 1930, with active participants including Pablo Picasso (1881-1973),
Fernand Leger (1881-1955) and Giorgio de Chirico (1888-1978). - Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (French, 1780-1867):
o Notable work: "Oedipus and the Sphinx" (1808).
Additional information o Represents a scene from Sophocles' classical Greek plays.
Neoclassicism in Art and Culture Decorative Arts:
Definition: - Josiah Wedgwood (British, 1730-1795):
Neoclassicism: A revival of the classical past, emerged in the mid-18th century. o Founder of the Wedgwood company in 1759.
o Produced classically inspired jasperware, creamware, and black basalt.
Neoclassicism in music was a 20th-century trend that emerged in the interwar period o Simple geometric lines, decorated with frieze-like scenes from ancient Greek
(between World War I and World War II) as a reaction against the perceived excesses of and Roman pottery.
Romanticism and the experimentalism of early 20th-century music. Neoclassical composers
sought to rediscover and revive the formal balance, clarity, and emotional restraint of classical
music, particularly that of the Baroque and Classical periods.

Scope: Encompasses various art forms: painting, sculpture, decorative arts, theatre,
literature, music, and architecture.

Characteristics: Straight lines, minimal use of color, simplicity of form. Adherence to

classical values and techniques.

Influential Figure:

- Johann Joachim Winckelmann:

- Founder of modern archaeology and art history.

GE6 – Art Appreciation
THE ART OF REALISM (GROUP 2)
THE ART OF REALISM
From 1400 to 1800, Western art was dominated by Renaissance-inspired academic
theories of idealized painting and high art executed in the Grand Manner. Thereafter, caused
partly by the huge social changes triggered by the Industrial Revolution, there was a greater
focus on realism of subject - that is subject matter outside the high art tradition. The term
Realism was promoted by the French novelist Champfleury during the 1840s, although it
began in earnest in 1855, with an Exposition by the French painter Gustave Courbet (1819-
77) after one of his paintings (The Artist's Studio) had been rejected by the World Fair in
Paris. Courbet set up his own marquee nearby and issued a manifesto to accompany his
personal exhibition. It was entitled "Le Realisme."
Characteristics: Genres and Subject Matter
The style of Realist painting spread to almost all genres, including history: painting,
portraits, genre-painting, and landscapes. For example, landscape artist went out to the
provinces in search of the 'real' France, setting up artistic colonies in places like Barbizon,
and later at Grez-Sur-Loing, Pont-Aven, and Concarnean. Favorite subject matter for Realist
artists included genre scenes of rural and urban working class life, scenes of street-life, cafes
and night clubs, as well as increasing frankness in the treatment of the body, nudity and
sensual subjects. Not surprisingly, this gritty approach shocked many of the upper and middle
class patrons of the arts, both in France and in the Victorian art of England, where Realism
was never fully embraced. A general trend, as well as a specific style of art, Realism heralded
a general move away from the "ideal' (as typified by the art of Classical mythology, s0
beloved by Renaissance artists and sculptors) towards the ordinary. Thus, in their figure
drawing and figure painting. Realists portrayed real people not idealized types. From now on,
artists felt increasingly free to depict real-life situations stripped of aesthetics and universal
truth. (No more cute-looking child beggars picturesque streets and views, healthy-looking
contented peasants and so on.) In this sense, Realism reflected a progressive and highly
influential shift in the significance and function of art in general, including literature as well as
fine art It influenced Impressionism - see, for instance, Realism to Impressionism (1830 1900)
- and several other modern art styles, such as Pop Art. The style retains its influence on the
visual arts to this day.
Realist Artists
Realist artists, strongly associated with the 19th century movement include:Jean-
Francois Millet (1814-75), Gustave Courbet (1819-77), Honore Daumier. (1808-79). However,
many more were influenced by Realism without allowing it to dominate their work. An
interesting example is the Russian painter Ilya Repin (1844-1930), who produced outstanding
realist style works such as Bargemen on the Volga (1870), as well as Krestny Khod
(Religious Procession) in Kursk Gubernia (1883). Another example is Jules Bastien-Lepage
(1848-84), whose naturalism was a strong influence on the conservative strand of
Impressionist painting. The realist style was taken up and adapted by French Impressionists
like Edgar Degas (for example, in his picture The Absinthe Drinker (1830-1900). The
Germanic Biedermeier style of Romantic realism - a comforting domestic idiom popular in
Germany, Austria and Denmark, not unlike the seventeenth century Dutch Realism School -
is discussed in German Art, 19th Century.
 Harvesters resting in the Gleaners by Millet
 Stone breaker by Corbet
Famous 19th Century Realist Paintings
The main schools of Realism during the nineteenth century included the English
Figurative School, the French School (led by Gustave Courbet), the Russian School (led by
Ilya Repin), the German School (led by Adolph von Menzel), and the American School (led by
Thomas Eakins). In addition, numerous artists produced paintings in the realist style,
including the Romantic Theodore Gericault (notably his asylum portraits), the Impressionist
Edgar Degas (notably his ballet pictures).
Realism in the 20th-Century
With two horrific world wars, a worldwide depression, the holocaust, the Vietnam
War and the appearance of nuclear weapons, twentieth century realist artists had no
shortage of subjects. Indeed, modern realism appeared in a wide variety of forms. Here is a
short introduction to a selection of realist schools and themes in fine art painting and
sculpture (Encyclopedia Art History).
1. Verismo (1890s/1900s)- This Italian term implies extreme raw realism, without any
interpretation. The word first appeared in the violent melodramatic operas of
Mascagnie, such as Cavalleria Rusticana (1890), and was taken up by Italian artists
like Telemaco Signorini (1835-1901).
2. Ashcan School (c.1908-1913) - The Ashcan School was a small group of painters
who strove to chronicle everyday life in New York City during pre-war period,
producing realistic and unvarnished pictures and etchings urban streetscapes and
genre scenes. Led by Robert Henri (1865-1929), who was influenced by the strong
unglamorous realism of Thomas Eakins and Thomas Anshutz, the Ashcan school
included other painters like Everett Shin (1876-1953), George Luks (1866-1933),
George Wesley Bellows (1882-1925 William Glackens (1870-1938) and John Sloan
(1571-1951). The legacy of the Ashcan School endured in the American Social
Realism scene painting of the 1920s and 1930s, thanks to Edward Hopper (1882-
1967): see, in particular, hi House by the Railroad (1925, MOMA) and Lighthouse at
Two Lights (1929 Metropolitan Museum).
3. Precisionism (1920s) - An American painting movement which depicted
urban/industrial landscapes often in a Cubist/Futurist manner, its members were
known by a variety of labels such as "Cubist-Realists", "Immaculates" "Sterilists" or
"modern classicists". The style was also known as "sharp-focos realism." The best
known exponents of Precisionism were Charles Sheele (1883-1965), Charles
Demuth (1883-1935), and Georgla O'Keeffe (1887-1986)
4. Social Realism (1920N/1930s) - The term Social Realists describes the urban
American Scene artists who worked during the Depression era. Social Realism is a
naturalistic style of realism which focuses exclusively on social issues and everyday
hardships. Best known members of the Social Realism school include Ben Shahn
(1898-1969), Jack Levine and Jacob Lawrence. All were significantly influenced by
the earlier Ashcan School of New York city.
5. Surrealism (1920s/1930s) - A bizarre art-form, Surrealism was founded in Paris in
1924 following the publication of Andre Breton's manifesto. Based on
the psychoanalytical ideas of Sigmund Freud, Surrealism sought to released creative
potential of the unconscious mind. Two broad types of Surrealist art emerged. The
fantasy-like paintings of Salvador Dali (1904-89) Rene Magritte (1898-1967), and the
automatism of Joan Miro (1893-1983).
6. American Contemporary Realism (1960s/Early 1970s) - This term describe the
relatively straightforward realistic approach to representation taken by artists in the
post-abstract era. Well aware of modem abstract concepts of art, contemporary
realists nevertheless prefer to paint or sculpt in a mor traditional manner. Among the
famous painters associated with this approach to fine art are William Bailey, Nell
Welliver and Philip Pearlstein. Nor that Contemporary Realism differs from
Photorealism owing to the latter’s somewhat exaggerated and ironic tone.
7. Cynical Realism (China)(1990s)- Cynical Realism is a satirical style of Chinese
contemporary painting which appeared in the 1990s following the suppression of the
Tiananmen Square demonstrations. Cynical Realists borrowed imagery from various
traditions, including Surrealism and Symbolism, as well as classical figure painting.
The Art of the Impressionist
Impressionism can be considered the first distinctly modern movement in painting.
Developing in Paris in the 1860s, its influence spread throughout Europe and eventually the
United States. Its originators were artists who rejected the official, government-sanctioned
exhibitions, or salons, and were consequently shunned by powerful academic art institutions.
In turning away from the fine finish and detail to which most artists of their day aspired, the
Impressionists aimed to capture the momentary, sensory effect of a scene - the impression
objects made on the eye in a fleeting instant. To achieve this effect, many Impressionist
artists moved from the studio to the streets and countryside, painting en plein air.
Key Features
The Impressionists loosened their brushwork and lightened their palettes to include
pure, intense colors. They abandoned traditional linear perspective and avoided the clarity of
form that had previously served to distinguish the more important elements of a picture from
the lesser ones. For this reason, many critics faulted Impressionist paintings for their
unfinished appearance and seemingly amateurish quality. Picking up on the ideas of Gustave
Courbet, the Impressionists aimed to be painters of the real - they aimed to extend the
possible subjects for paintings. Getting away from depictions of idealized forms and perfect
symmetry, but rather concentrating on the world as they saw it, imperfect in a myriad of ways.
 At the time, there were many ideas of what constituted modernity. Part of the
Impressionist idea was to capture a split second of life, an ephemeral moment in time on the
canvas: the impression. Scientific thought at the time was beginning to recognize that what
the eye perceived and what the brain understood were two different things. The
Impressionists sought to capture the former.- the optical effects of light - to convey the
passage of time, changes in weather, and other shifts in the atmosphere in their canvases.
Their art did not necessarily rely on realistic depictions. Impressionism records the effects of
the massive mid-19th-century renovation of Paris led by civic planner Georges-Eugene
Haussmann, which included the city's newly constructed railway stations; wide tree-lined
boulevards that replaced the formerly narrow, crowded streets; and large, deluxe apartment
buildings. The works that focused on scenes of public leisure - especially scenes of cafes and
cabarets - conveyed the new sense of alienation experienced by the inhabitants of the first
modern metropolis. The realist movement, championed by Gustave Courbet, first confronted
the official Parisian art establishment in the middle of the 19th century. Courbet was an
anarchist that thought the art of his time closed its eyes on realities of life. The French were
ruled by an oppressive regime and much of the public was in the throes of poverty. Instead of
depicting such scenes, the artists of the time concentrated on idealized nudes and glorious
depictions of nature. In his protest, Courbet financed an exhibition of his work right opposite
the Universal Exposition in Paris of 1855, a bold act that led to the emergence of future artists
that would challenge the status quo.
Exhibitions in Paris and the Salon des Refusés
In 1863, at the official yearly art salon, the all-important event of the French art world,
a large number of artists were not allowed to participate, leading to public outcry. The same
year, the Salon des Refuses ("Salon of the Refused") was formed in response to allow the
exhibition of works by artists who had previously been refused entrance to the official salon.
Some of the exhibitors were Paul Cezanne, Camille Pissarro, James Whistler, and the early
iconoclast Edouard Manet. Although promoted by authorities and sanctioned by Emperor
Napoleon 111, the 1863 exhibition caused a scandal, due largely to the unconventional
themes and styles of works such as Manet's Le dejeuner sur I’herebe (1863), which featured
clothed men and naked women enjoying an afternoon picnic (the women were not classical
depictions of a nude, but rather women that took off their clothes).
Edouard Manet and the Painting Revolution
Edouard Manet was among the first and most important innovators to emerge in the
public exhibition scene in Paris. Although he grew up in admiration of the Old Masters, he
began to incorporate an innovative, looser painting style and brighter palette in the early
1860s. He also started to focus on images of everyday life, such as scenes in cafes,
boudoirs, and out in the street. His anti-academic style and quintessentially modern subject
matter soon attracted the attention of artists on the fringes and influenced a new type of
painting that would diverge from the standards of the official salon. Similar to Le dejeuner sur
l'herbe, his other works such as Olympia (1863) gave the emerging group ideas to depict that
were not previously considered art worthy.
Olympia is a painting by Edouard Manet, first exhibited at the 1865 Paris Salon, which shows
a nude woman lying on a bed being brought flowers by a servant. Olympia was modelled by
Victorine Meurent and Olympia's servant by the art model Laure. (Wikipedia)
Post Impressionism
Post-Impressionism is a term used to describe the reaction in the 1880s against
Impressionism. It was led by Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Georges
Seurat. The Post-Impressionists rejected Impressionism's concern with the spontaneous and
naturalistic rendering of light and color. Post-Impressionists extended Impressionism while
rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colors, often thick application of paint, and
real-life subject matter, but were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, distort form for
expressive effect, and use unnatural or arbitrary color. Expressionist art tried to convey
emotion and meaning rather than reality. Each artist had his own unique way of "expressing"
his emotions in his art. In order to express emotion, the subjects are often distorted or
exaggerated. At the same time, colors are often vivid and shocking. Known for their diverse
yet distinctive styles and their subjective perceptions of the world around them, the Post-
Impressionists pioneered a new approach to painting at the turn of the century. Post-
Impressionist artists were not unified by a single aesthetic approach. Rather, what brought
them together was a shared interest in openly exploring the mind of the artist.
Characteristics of Post Impressionism
1. Emotional Symbolism - As Fry explained, Post-Impressionists believed that a work of
art should not revolve around style, process, or aesthetic approach. Instead, it should
place emphasis on symbolism, communicating messages from the artist's own sub-
conscious. Rather than employ subject matter as a visual tool or means to an end, Post-
 Impressionists perceived it as a way to convey feelings. According to Paul Cezanne, "a
work of art.”
o Pyramid of Skulls (1901) by Paul Cezanne.
2. Evocative Color - Unlike the Impressionists who strived to capture natural light's effect
on tonality, Post-Impressionists purposely employed an artificial color palette as a way to
portray their emotion- drive perceptions of the world around them. Saturated hues,
multicolored shadows, and rich ranges of color are evident in most Post-Impressionist
paintings, proving the artists' innovative and imaginative approach to representation.
o Yellow Chirst By Paul Gauguin.
3. Distinctive Brushstroke – Like works completed in the Impressionist style, most Post-
Impressionist pieces feature discernible, broad brushstrokes. In addition to adding texture
and a sense of depth to a work of art, these marks also point to the painterly qualities of
the piece, making it clear that it is not intended to be a realistic representation of its
subject.
o The Bathers by Paul Cezanne.
Neo-Impressionism
Neo-Impressionism is a movement in French painting of the late 19th century that
reacted against the empirical realism of Impressionism by relying on systematic calculation
and scientific theory to achieve predetermined visual effects. Whereas the Impressionist
painters spontaneously recorded nature in terms of the fugitive effects of color and light, the
Neo-Impressionists applied scientific optical principles of light and color to create strictly
formalized compositions. Neo- impressionism was led by Georges Seurat, who was its
original theorist and most significant artist, and by Paul Signac, also an important artist and
the movement's major spokesman. Other Neo-Impressionist painters were Henri-Edmond
Cross, Albert Dubois-Pillet, Maximilien Luce, Theo Van Rysselberghe, and, for a time, the
Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro. The group founded a Société des Artistes
Independants in 1884.
The Theory of Neo-Impressionism
The discoveries of "optical blending" and "simultaneous contrast" that Seurat read
about became the theoretical foundation of Chromoluminarism, which came to be known as
Neo-Impressionism. While working at Gobelins dye factory in Paris, Michel-Eugene Chevreul
had to answer customer complaints about the quality of the yarn's color. While trying to
address the problem, he discovered the principle of "simultaneous contrast," or the effect of
the color of an adjacent yarn on the peroeption of another yarn's color. Subsequently,
Chevreul wrote The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors in 1839. Ogden Rood's
Modern Chromatics discussed how the viewer's eye "blends" or "mixes" adjacent colors, and
David Sutter's Phenomena of Vision (1880) established rules for the relationship between
painting and science. To achieve the most brilliant colors and a shimmering effect, Neo-
Impressionism relied upon applying dots or brushstrokes of complementary colors to the
canvas. Rather than mixing pigments on a palette, Neo-Impressionist painters relied on the
viewer's eye to "blend" the colors that appeared on the canvas.
Though some of these theories are now considered only quasi-scientific, at the time
they seemed cutting edge. Seurat felt he had discovered the science of painting, one that
required discipline and precise application and that could achieve an intensity of color. He
applied his color theory and a new technique that he called balaye, criss-crossing strokes to
apply matte colors, in his 1884 Bathers at Asnieres, a monumental work that depicts a
number of workmen bathing in the river on a hot summer day. Subsequently Seurat began
work on A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1884) by undertaking
extensive preliminary studies and sketches. Depicting the bourgeoisie in the park along the
river, the work used the Pointillist style Seurat developed - tiny dots of complementary colors
placed next to each other. In 1890 Seurat published Esthetique, his foundational work on
Neo- Impressionism's scientific color theory. Other Neo-Impressionists were to continue
exploring this scientific basis; for instance, around 1887 Albert Dubois- Pillet developed the
idea of passage, where the separate pigment of each of the primary light colors created a
passage between different hues.
- A Sunday on La Grande Jatte- 1884, oil on canvas by Georges Surat.
By the 1890s the influence of Neo-Impressionism was waning, but it was important in the
early stylistic and technical development of several artists of the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, including Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Henri
Matisse.

GE6 – Art Appreciation
CUBISM (GROUP 4)
CUBISM
Cubism was an attempt by artist to revitalize the repetitive traditions of Western art and a
response to the world that was changing with unprecedented speed.
Developed by Pablo Picasso and George Braque.
Evolved at the beginning of the 20th century and was considered as the first style of abstract
art.
The Cubist style emphasized the flat, two-dimensional surface of the picture plane, rejecting
the traditional techniques of perspective, foreshortening, modeling, and chiaroscuro (the
treatment of light and shade in drawing and painting), and refuting time-honored theories that
art should imitate nature.
Cubist painters were not bound to copying form, texture, color, and space; instead, they
presented a new reality in paintings that depicted radically.
LES DEMOISELLES D’ AVIGNON (1907) – by Pablo Picasso
(FROM THE WEB)
Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon marks a radical break from traditional composition and
perspective in painting. It depicts five naked women composed of flat, splintered planes
whose faces were inspired by Iberian sculpture and African masks.
(FROM THE PRESENTATION)
Presaged the new style; in this work, the forms of five female nudes become fractured,
angular shapes. As in Cézanne’s art, perspective is rendered through color, with the warm
reddishbrowns advancing and the cool blues receding.
THE CUBIST VISION
The Cubists saw the limitations of perspective as an obstacle to progress.
They wanted to introduce the idea of ‘relativity’ - how the artist perceived and selected
elements from the subject, fusing both their observations and memories into one
concentrated image.
A typical Cubist painting depicts real people, places or objects, but not from a fixed viewpoint.
Instead, it will show you many parts of the subject at one time, viewed from different angles,
and reconstructed into a composition of planes, forms and colors.
They applied to revitalize their work was to draw on the expressive energy of art from other
cultures, especially African art.
However, they were not interested in the true spiritual or social symbolism of these cultural
objects but valued them superficially for their expressive style (i.e. Dan Mask from West
Africa).
ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC
CUBISM
Cubism had two distinct phases. The early phase, which lasted until about 1912, was
called Analytical Cubism.
The artist analyzed the subject from many different viewpoints and reconstructed it
within a geometric framework, the overall effect of which was to create an image that evoke a
sense of the subject.
These fragmented images were unified by the use of a subdued and limited palette of
colors.
Around 1912, the styles of Picasso and Braque were becoming predictable. Their
images had grown so similar that their paintings of this period are often difficult to tell apart.
In an attempt to revitalize the style and pull it back from total abstraction, Picasso
began to glue printed images from the ‘real world’ onto the surface of his still life.
His painting ‘Still Life with Chair Caning’ was the first example of this ‘collage’
technique, and it opened the door for himself and other artists to the second phase of the
Cubist style: Synthetic Cubism.
CUBISM AND BEYOND
Cubism was born in France but immigrated across Europe and integrated with the artistic
consciousness of several countries. It emerged as Futurism in Italy, Vorticism in England, and
Suprematism and Constructivism in Russia, and Expressionism in Germany. It also
influenced several of the major designs and architectural styles of the 20th century and
prevails to this day as a mode of expression in the language of art.
FUTURISM
Futurism, an early 20th century artistic movement centered in Italy, emphasized the
dynamism, speed, energy ,and power of the machine and the vitality, change and
restlessness of modern life.
During the second decade of the 20th century, the movement’s influence radiated outward
across most of Europe, most significantly to the Russian avant-garde
The most significant results of the movement were in the visual arts and poetry.
Futurism emerged in 1909 with Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's manifesto
on a French newspaper called “Le Figaro”, advocating for the embrace of modernity,
discarding traditional art, and celebrating speed, innovation, and violence. His manifesto's
aggressive tone aimed to provoke public reaction and controversy.
Boccioni also became interested in sculpture, publishing a manifesto on the subject in the
spring of 1912. He is considered to have most fully realized his theories in two sculptures,
“Development of a Bottle in Space in 1912”, in which he represented both the inner and outer
contours of a bottle, and “Unique forms of Continuity in Space in 1913” portrayed as one solid
form but is instead composed of the multiple planes in space through which the figure moves.
Futurist principles extended to architecture as well. Antonio Sant'Elia formulated A Futurist
manifesto and architecture in 1914.
Boccioni, who had been the most talented artist in a group and Sant'Elia both died during
military service in 1916. Boccioni's death combined with expansion of the group's personnel
and its sobering realities of the devastation caused by World War One effectively brought an
end to the Futurist movement as an important historical force in the visual arts.
ABSTRACT OR NON-OBJECTIVE ART
Nonobjective art is a type of abstract or nonrepresentational art. It tends to be geometric and
does not represent specific objects, people, or other subjects found in the natural world. One
of the best-known nonobjective artists is Wassily Kandinsky. Paintings like his are most
common. This style can be used in other media as well.
Nonobjective art takes nonrepresentational to another level.
Most of the time it includes geometric shapes and flat plains to create simple and clean
compositions. Many people use the term “pure” to describe it.
Nonobjective art can go by many names including concrete art, geometric abstraction, and
minimalism.
The term nonobjective art was first used by the Russian Constructivist artist Alexander
Rodchenko (1891-1956) in the titles of some of his pictures.
It was then taken up by others, such as his compatriot Kasmir Malevich. The inventor of
Suprematism who wrote in 1919 in referring to nonobjectivity.
Nonobjective painting typically uses geometric motifs on a shallow picture plane. As a general
rule, no use is made of linear perspective to create illusion of pictorial deft. Neither is impasto
employed to the create textural effects.
Also, the picture is purposely devoid of any references to worldly things, either material or
emotional. Nonobjective art is obstruction in its purest form.
DADAISM
Dadaism was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zurich, Switzerland, as a
reaction to World War One. It produced a wide range of art, including performance art,
poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Influenced by other avantgarde
movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism. The movement's
influence spread to other cities including Berlin, Hannover, Paris, New York, and Cologne,
and it faded away with the rise of Surrealism.
Dada's ideas have had a lasting impact on modern and contemporary art.
Switzerland's neutrality during World War One and limited censorship provided a haven for
artists and intellectuals, leading to the founding of Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich on February 5,
1916. Initiated by Hugo Ball and Emmy Hennings, the cabaret aimed to be a center for artistic
entertainment, hosting musical performances, readings, and inviting artists to contribute.
Notable attendees included Jeans Arp, Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Richard
Huelsenbeck.
The first Dada evening took place in July, with Hugo Ball presenting the movement's first
manifesto. The word "Dada" is believed to have originated from a dictionary randomly opened
by Richard
Huelsenbeck. Its childlike and nonsensical nature resonated with the group's desire to
challenge conventional norms. The word's ambiguity and cross language applicability aligned
with their internationalist stance.
The aim of Dada art and activities was both to help to stop the war and to vent frustration with
the nationalists and bourgeois conventions that led to do it. Their anti-authoritarian stance
made for a protean movement as they oppose any form of group leadership or guiding
ideology.
RECEPTION, DOWNFALL, AND DISSEMINATION OF DADAIST IDEALS
Dadaism was a revolutionary art movement that emerged during
World War I. Its bold approach, rejection of traditional art forms, and the willingness to
challenge the status quo attracted both supporters and critics. Some saw Dadaism as the
next step in avant-garde art, while others dismissed it as nothing more than a collection of
useless objects. Despite the controversy, Dadaism left an enduring mark on art history,
inspiring future movements and challenging the very definition of art.
Duchamp was the first artist to use a readymade and his choice of a urinal was guaranteed to
challenge and offend even his fellow artist, there is little manipulation of their urinal by the
artist other than to turn it upside down and to sign it with a fictitious name.
Dadaism gripped audiences into the 1920s, but the movement as a whole was destined to
crumble. Some like Man Ray, found their inclinations moving into their subconscious realm of
surrealism, other founder pressures of the modern European artists too weighty to bear. The
rise to power of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s dealt a powerful blow to the modern art world.
SURREALISM: THE RISE AND THE DOWNFALL
Though Surrealism originated in France, strains of it can be identified in art throughout the
world. Particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, many artists were swept into its orbit, and
increasing political upheaval in a second global war encouraged fears that human civilization
was in a state of crisis and collapse.
The emigration of many Surrealists to the Americas during WW2 spread their ideas further.
Following the war, however, the group's ideas were challenged by the rise of existentialism,
which, while also celebrating individualism, was more rationally based than surrealism in the
arts of the Abstract Expressionist, incorporated surrealist ideas and usurped their dominance
by pioneering new techniques for representing the unconscious.
Breton increasingly interested in their revolutionary political activism as the movement's
primary goal. The result was the dispersal of the original movement into smaller factions of
artist. The Bretonians, such as Roberto Matta, believe that art was inherently political. Others
like Yves Tanguy, Max Ernst, and Dorothea Tanning, mountain in America to separate from
Breton. Salvador Dali, likewise, retreated to Spain, living in their centrality of the individual in
art.
Additional notes:
from DADAISM:
PHOTOMONTAGE - Photomontage is a type of collage art that uses two or more
photographs to create a new image. It can be done by cutting, gluing, rearranging and
overlapping the photos, or by using digital editing tools.
from SURREALISM:
Surrealism is also defined as an artistic movement by tapping into the unconscious mind as
a way of creating art, resulting in dreamlike, sometimes bizarre imagery across endless
mediums.
The core of Surrealism is a focus on illustrating the mind’s deepest thoughts automatically
when they surface. This thought process for creating art known as “automatism.”
GE6 – Art Appreciation
BAROQUE AND CLASSICAL MUSIC (GROUP 1)
BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
Introduction:
Baroque music, characterized by its ornate style, predates the Classical period,
spanning from 1600 to 1750. This era produced notable German and Italian composers,
setting the stage for the evolution of classical music.
//Baroque music is a fancy and decorated type of music that originated after the
Renaissance. Although people often think it belongs to the Classical music era, it actually
came before that. The Baroque period was from 1600 to 1750, while the Classical period
followed from 1750 to 1820.//
Key Characteristics of Baroque Music:
Baroque music is known for its heavily ornamented style, and many forms such as
the cantata, concerto, sonata, oratorio, and opera originated in Italy during this period.
//"Heavily ornamented style" in music means using lots of fancy and decorative elements
like intricate melodies and detailed decorations. It's like adding extra details or fancy touches
to make the music more elaborate and interesting. In Baroque music, this ornamentation was
a common and distinctive feature, making the music sound rich and complex.//
//Around the middle of the 1700s, people started paying more attention to German
composers like Bach and Handel. The different types of music associated with the Baroque
period, like cantatas, concertos, sonatas, oratorios, and operas, originally came from Italy.
NOTABLE BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL COMPOSERS
1. Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706)
- German composer renowned for organ works.
- Contrapuntally simple style, influenced by Italian forms derived from Girolamo
Frescobaldi through Johann Jakob Froberger.
Significant contributions:
• Pachelbel’s Canon in D // was written for three violins
• Basso Continuo
• Gigue /ZHēɡ/ - //a lively piece of music in the style of a dance
• Chaconne in F minor //For organ
• Hexachordum Apollinis //a set of Keyboard variation
- His son, Wilhelm Hieronynous Pachelbel, was also an organist and composer.
2. Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
- Nicknamed as il Prete Rosso (“The Red Priest”)
- Venetian priest, virtuoso violinist, and prolific Baroque composer.
- Was born in Conservatorio dell'Ospedale della Pietà
// Became maestro di violine (master of violine) at an orphanage called Pio Ospedale della
Pietà (Devout Hospital of Mercy) in September 1703.//
//While Vivaldi is most famous as a composer, he was regarded as an exceptional technical
violinist as well. Vivaldi, one of the Baroque era's greatest composers, loved the violin.//
Vivaldi’s most famous works:
a. The Four Seasons, the first four concertos of a collection of twelve concertos
written by Vivaldi called Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione (The Contest
Between Harmony and Invention).
b. Concerto No. 5 in E Flat Major, "La Tempesta Di Mare (The Storm Sea). It's one
of Vivaldi's shorter concertos, but he packed quite a punch in there. The entire piece
is high energy, filled with fresh, colorful passages.
c. The Anna Maria Concertos. Vivaldi composed around 30 concertos for this most
favorite student of his, violinist Anna Maria.
3. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
- Celebrated German composer born in 1685.
- Bach is considered one of the central figures of the Baroque era in music.
- Proficient in playing various instruments, including the organ, harpsichord, violin, and
more.
- Composed a wide range of music, including orchestral, chamber, choral, and
keyboard works.
- Mastery of counterpoint, harmonic organization, and adaptation of foreign influences.
 Bach’s famous works:
 Brandenburg Concertos - a set of six instrumental works
 The Well-Tempered Clavier - a collection of keyboard music. Intended for education
and training of keyboard players
 Mass in B Minor - divided into several sections, including the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo,
Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. Each section consists of multiple movements.
4. George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)
- German-born English composer primarily known for operas and oratorios.
- Handel’s famous composition is the Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal
Fireworks.
- Masterful in both vocal and instrumental compositions.
- Handel's music had a profound influence on the development of Baroque music, and
his works continue to be widely performed and appreciated today.
- One of the great instrumental composers of the late Baroque era.
- Handel also published harpsichord music, called Suites de pièces pour le clavecin
of 1720 and the Suites de pièces of 1733, containing 17 sets in all. his finest
contribution to that instrument's repertoire.
5. Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
- Austrian composer bridging Classical and Romantic eras.
- Prolific output, including over 600 vocal works, symphonies, and chamber music.
- Notable compositions: Symphony No. 9, Symphony in B Minor (Unfinished), and
Lieder.
CLASSICAL INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
While sonata form did not exist in the Baroque period, it laid the groundwork for the
Classical era. Key composers include:
1. Joseph Haydn
- Austrian composer, "Father of Quartet" and "Father of Symphony."
- Notable works: String quartets, Piano Sonata in C Minor, and the "Farewell"
Symphony.
//Joseph Haydn or Franz Joseph Haydn is one of the most important composers of the
classical period. He is the Father of the Symphony. He is also called the Father of the String
Quartet because of his contribution to the musical form. He was born in Rohrau, Austria. It
was just a small village. He loves music since he was a boy but his parents didn't have
enough money for musical lessons.//
//At the age of 6, they gave him to a choir master named Johann Matthias Frankh. For 2
years, Haydn was trained there as a boy soprano and sang soloist and in church choir.
Haydn’s singing impressed those who heard him and he was eventually brought to the
attention of George Von Reutter, director of music in St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna.//
2. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart:
- Born in 1756, Austrian composer and prodigy.
- Masterworks in various genres, including operas like Le nozze di Figaro and Don
Giovanni.
- Known for serenades, divertimenti, and acclaimed piano concertos.
Works and composition:
 classical composers, created a vast array of compositions across various genres.
Some of his most famous works include operas like "The Marriage of Figaro," "Don
Giovanni," and "The Magic Flute." He also composed symphonies, such as
Symphony No. 40 and Symphony No. 41 ("Jupiter"), as well as chamber music, piano
sonatas, concertos (including the famous Piano Concerto No. 21), and choral works
like "Requiem Mass in D minor." His musical legacy is incredibly diverse and prolific.
3. Ludwig van Beethoven:
- German composer, dominant in the transition from Classical to Romantic.
- Innovator in musical form, with notable works like Symphony No. 9 and Moonlight
Sonata.
- Overcame deafness, leaving a profound impact on music.
- His first concert was when he was around 7 years old.
- Started losing hearing at age 26.
Works and music
1. Symphony #7 Movement 2
2. Symphony #6 (The Pastoral) Movement 1
3. Piano Sonata #13 Movement 3
4. Piano Sonata #14 (Moonlight) Movement 1
 5. Violin Sonata #5 (Spring) Movement 2
6. Piano Trio #6 Movements 1 and 3
7. Violin Concerto Movement 2
8. Fidelio – The Prisoners Chorus
9. Missa Solemnis – Sanctus
10. Für Elise
//An interesting fact about Beethoven was that some of his greatest works were composed
while he was going deaf. As one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, he is the crucial
transitional figure connecting the Classical and Romantic ages of Western music.//
//If we take a peek into his personal life, we would be able to know that it was marked by a
struggle against deafness, and some of his most important works were composed during the
last 10 years of his life, when he was quite unable to hear.//
//Beethoven and Mozart, both important figures in this era, was believed or speculated to
have crossed paths. There were only speculation and inconclusive evidence for this however,
tradition has it that, upon hearing Beethoven, Mozart said, "Keep your eyes on him; someday
he will give the world something to talk about.” Indeed, Beethoven continued to carve out his
reputation as the most promising young court musician at that time.//
CONCLUSION
Baroque and Classical instrumental music, characterized by the evolution of forms and the
contributions of master composers like Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, have left an indelible
mark on the history of Western music. These eras paved the way for the development of
symphonies, quartets, and sonatas, setting the stage for the rich diversity of musical
expression that followed. The enduring brilliance of these compositions continues to captivate
audiences worldwide.
GE6 – Art Appreciation
THE MODERN PERIOD (GROUP 5)
Introduction:
Music became more accessible to the masses in the 20th century with the invention of mass-
market gramophone records and radio broadcasting. This enabled people to listen to a wider
variety of music, including classical music and folk music, which was previously only available
to the wealthy. Composers and songwriters also began to experiment with new forms and
sounds, leading to the development of new musical styles such as jazz fusion and electronic
dance music.
THE MODERN PERIOD:
The defining feature of modern music (and modern art generally) is the breaking
down of all traditional aesthetic conventions, thereby unleashing complete freedom in all
aesthetic dimensions, including melody, rhythm, and chord progression.
The convention of major-minor tonality (already heavily strained by Wagner and his
successors) was completely abandoned by many composers. Even the very notion of what
constitutes “music” was redefined.
The development of audio recording technology, along with the ability to quickly and
cheaply distribute recordings and scores was central to the revolutions of modern music.
The vast catalog of western art music became much more accessible. Moreover,
non-Western music was suddenly open to exploration thus exposing Western composers to
countless exotic musical ideas.
The Modern Period Artists: Composers
1. CLAUDE DEBUSSY
- French Composer
Early Life:
-Achille-Claude Debussy was born on August 22, 1862 in Saint-Germain-en-Laye,
France.
-He showed an early affinity for the piano and began taking lessons at the age of 7.
-By age 10 or 11, he had entered the Paris Conservatory, where his instructors and fellow
students recognized his talent but often found his attempts at musical innovation strange.
2. ARNOLD SCHOENBERG
Early Works & Compositions
-In 1884, when he was just 22 years old, Debussy entered his cantata L’Enfant
prodigue (The Prodigal Child) in the Prix de Rome, a competition for composers. He
took home the top prize, which allowed him to study for three years in the Italian capital. •
He studied the music of German composer Richard Wagner while in Rome. Debussy
returned to Paris in 1887 and attended the Paris World Exposition two years later. There
he heard a Javanese gamelan – a musical ensemble composed of a variety of bells,
gongs, metallophones and xylophones, sometimes accompanied by vocals – and the
subsequent years found Debussy incorporating the elements of the gamelan into his
existing style to produce a wholly new kind of sound.
Debussy’s masterpieces that showcase the gamelan's impact on his style:
 Ariettes oubliées (forgotten song) 1888
 Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1892)
 The String Quartet (1893)
Pelléas et Mélisande
- Debussys's seminal opera, was completed in 1895 and was a sensation when first
performed in 1902.
- The attention gained with Pelléas, paired with the success of Prélude in 1892, earned
Debussy extensive recognition.
Later Works:
- Over the following 10 years, Debussy was the leading figure in French music.
- La Mer (The Sea; 1905) and Ibéria (1908), both for orchestra,
- Images (1905) and Children's Corner Suite (1908), both for solo piano.
- Claude Debussy spent his remaining years writing as a critic, composing and
performing his own works internationally.
Death and Legacy:
- Debussy died of colon cancer on March 25, 1918 when he was just 55 years old, in
Paris.
- Debussys's music has had a profound influence on 20th-century composers.
- Austrian-American composer
- created new methods of musical composition involving atonality namely: serialism
and 12-tone row.
- influential teachers of the 20th century, one of his students:
o Alban Berg & Anton Webern
- a well-known triskaidekaphobe (fear of the number 13)
Early Life:
- Born: September 13, 1874 in Vienna, Austria
- Was largely self-taught musician
- Amateur Cellist
- He demonstrated from an early age a particular aptitude for composition
- Received rudimentary instruction in harmony and counterpoint from Oskar Adler
- Studied composition briefly with Alexander Zemlinsky
Early Works and Composition:
- Early works influenced by German Romanticism
- Verklärte Nacht, Op. 4 (1899) - first important composition
- One of the works that embarked upon one of the most influential phases of his
career: Five Orchestral Pieces (1909) and the epochal Pierrot lunaire (1912)
- His “atonal music (he preferred "pantonal"), which rejected traditional tonality,was
widely criticized.
- Despite criticism, Schoenberg's music also inspired a faithful and active following.
- Arnold Schoenberg's most notable disciples were Alban Berg and Anton Webern.
These three composers -- the principal figures of the so-called Second Viennese
School -- were the central force in the development of atonal and 12-tone music in
the first half of the twentieth century and beyond.
- Schoenberg's Suite for Piano (1921-1923) marks his first complete composition
using the 12-tone technique.
- While the 12-tone technique is not the sole defining element of Schoenberg's style, it
remains the most closely associated characteristic with his music.
 - Schoenberg employed the 12-tone technique across various genres, including
chamber works, orchestral works, and choral works.
Life in the United States:
- Fled Europe in 1933 due to political climate
- Settled in the United States and became a citizen in 1941
- Schoenberg occasionally revisited traditional tonality in his later works, such as the
Theme and Variations for band (1943), reaffirming his connection to the great
German musical heritage that extended back to Bach.
- He viewed the dissolution of tonality was a logical and inevitable step in the evolution
of Western music
- Despite facing constant criticism, Schoenberg remained committed to his musical
vision, driven by a powerful creative force.
- Though debate over the man and his music rages on, Schoenberg is today
acknowledged as one of the most significant figures in music history.
- He died in Los Angeles, on July 13, 1951.
3. MAURICE RAVEL
- French Composer
- Joseph-Maurice Ravel was born on March 7, 1875 in Ciboure, France
- Has a Basque mother and a Swiss father
- In 1889, at the age of 14, Ravel began taking courses at the Paris Conservatoire, a
prestigious music and dance school located in the capital of France, studying under
Gabriel Fauré.
Early Works at the Conservatoire:
Ravel continued to study at the Conservatoire until his early 20s
• Pavane pour une infante défunte (Pavane for a Dead Princess; 1899)
• Jeux d'eau (1901) or "Fountains" or "Playing Water" – a piece that Ravel
dedicated to Fauré.
• String Quartet (1903) – which is played in F major and follows four movements.
• Sonatine (circa 1904) – for solo piano
Miroirs (1905)
• Gaspard de la nuit (1908)
Later Works:
• Le Tombeau de Couperin (circa 1917) for solo piano
• Rapsodie espagnole and Boléro for orchestra
• Daphnis et Chloé (1912), a ballet commissioned by Sergey Diaghilev
• La Valse (1920), a piece for ballet or concert performance
Death and Legacy:
- Ravel died in Paris, France, on December 28, 1937.
- Today, he remains widely regarded as France's most popular composer.
- He is remembered for once stating, "The only love affair I have ever had was with
music."
4. JOHN CAGE
- American Composer and Music Theorist
- Born on September 5, 1912 in Los Angeles, California.
- By 1939 he had begun to experiment with “prepared piano”, tape recorders, record
players and radios
- In 1943, his percussion ensemble concert at the Museum of Modern Art marked the
first step in his emergence as a leader of the American musical avant garde.
- In 1944, Cage turned to Zen Buddhism and Eastern philosophies and concluded that
all the activities that make up music must be seen as part of a single natural process.
- To this end he cultivated the principle of indeterminism in his music.
Principle of Indeterminism
- He used a number of devices to ensure randomness and thus eliminate any element
of personal taste on the part of the performer: unspecified instruments and numbers
of performers, freedom of duration of sounds and entire pieces, inexact notation, and
sequences of events determined by random means such as by consultation with the
Chinese Yijing (I Ching).
- In his later works he extended these freedoms over other media, a performance of
his work HPSCHD (completed 1969) might include a light show, slide projections,
costumed performers, and the 7 harpsichord soloists and 51 tape machines for which
it was scored.
 Best-Known Works:
• 4'33" (Four Minutes and Thirty-three Seconds, 1952) –a piece in which the
performer/s remain silent onstage for that amount of time.
• Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (1951) –Incorporates 12 randomly tuned radios, 24
performers, and a conductor
• Sonatas and Interludes (1946-48)
– for prepared piano
• Fontana Mix (1958) –a piece based on a series of programmed transparent cards
that, when superimposed, give a graph for the random selection of electronic
sounds
• Cheap Imitation (1969) – an "impression" of the music of Erik Satie
• Roaratorio (1979) –an electronic composition utilizing thousands of words
- found in James Joyce's novel Finnegans Wake.
John Cage's Literary Contributions and Influence:
- Cage published several books, including Silence: Lectures and Writings (1961)
and M: Writings '67-72 (1973).
- His influence extended to such established composers as Farle Brown, Lejaren
Hiller, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff.
- More broadly, his work was recognized as significant in the development of traditions
ranging from minimalist and electronic music to performance art.
5. PHILIP GLASS
- American Composer and Pianist
- Born in 1937 and grew up in Baltimore
- He studied at the University of Chicago, the Juilliard School and in Aspen with Darius
Milhaud
- Dissatisfied with contemporary music, Glass moved to Europe to study with Nadia
Boulanger and collaborate with Ravi Shankar.
- He returned to New York in 1967 and formed the Philip Glass Ensemble seven
musicians playing keyboards and a variety of woodwinds, amplified and fed through a
mixer.
Philip’s Works:
• "Einstein on the Beach," "Satyagraha," "Akhnaten," and "The Voyage,"
- The operas.
- Played throughout the world's leading houses.
• Glass has composed music for experimental theater, Academy Award-winning films
like "The Hours" and "Kundun."
• Koyaanisqatsi
- His initial filmic landscape with Godfrey Reggio and the Philip Glass Ensemble
- May be the most radical and influential mating of sound and vision since "Fantasia."
Philip Glass's connections with leading rock, pop, and world music artists date back to
the 1960s, beginning with his collaboration with artist Robert Wilson.
Glass is the first composer to achieve widespread popularity across multiple genres,
including opera, concert music, dance, film, and popular music.
Philip Glass's compositions for operas, symphonies, ensembles, and collaborations had
an impact on the musical and intellectual life of his time
Evolving Musical Style of Philip Glass
- The new musical style that Glass was evolving was eventually dubbed
"minimalism."
- He preferred to speak of himself as a composer of "music with repetitive
structures."
- Much of his early work was based on the extended reiteration of brief, elegant
melodic fragments that wove in and out of an aural tapestry.
- There has been nothing "minimalist" about his output
- Despite the "minimalist" label, Glass's output is remarkably diverse, encompassing
over 20 operas, 10 symphonies, concertos, film scores, chamber music, and solo
works.
- Glass has collaborated with a wide range of artists, including Paul Simon, Linda
Ronstadt, Yo-Yo Ma, and Doris Lessing.
- He actively engages with audiences through lectures, workshops, solo performances,
and regular appearances with the Philip Glass Ensemble.