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A-LEVEL
PEARSON EDEXCEL
Politics
Political ideas
SECOND EDITION
Jessica Hardy
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Contents
Getting the most from this book�� 4
About this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Content Guidance
Core political ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Liberalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Socialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Non-core political ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Anarchism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Ecologism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Feminism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Multiculturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Questions and Answers

How to use this section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Liberalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Socialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Anarchism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Feminism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Knowledge check answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Political ideas 3
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■ Getting the most from this book
Exam tips
Knowledge check
Advice on key points in the text to help
you learn and recall content, avoid Rapid-fire questions throughout the
pitfalls, and polish your exam technique Content Guidance section to check
in order to boost your grade. your understanding.
Knowledge check answers

Summaries
■ Each core topic is rounded
1 Turn to the back of the book for
off by a bullet-list summary
the Knowledge check answers.
for quick-check reference of
what you need to know.
Questions and Answers
■ Conservatism
Exam-style questions To what extent do all conservatives agree that human nature is imperfect?
You must use appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your answer and
consider both sides in a balanced way. (24 marks)
As with all political ideas questions, you must look at areas of agreement and
disagreement with regards to human nature. Are we rational or ruled by emotion and
Commentary on the fear? Then weigh up how significant the level of disagreement is compared to the level
of agreement in order to reach your conclusion.
questions Student A answer

A belief in the imperfection of human nature implies that we are
vulnerable, weak and potentially dangerous as a species, and that we The opening paragraph defines
Tips on what you need to do therefore require a strong state to provide security. Most conservatives
believe this and the history of conservatism has been dominated by
this view. However, the late twentieth-century development of neo-
the term in the question (AO1) and
introduces the debate clearly and
accurately, showing the areas of
to gain full marks. liberal conservatism has a different view. Like liberals, they believe
in the selfish and rational individual, whose freedom should not be
restricted by the state. Conservatives do not agree over human nature.
disagreement (AO2) and linking them to
the strands. There is a clear reference
to AO3 in the final sentence.
One-nation, traditional conservatism and, more recently, the neo-

conservative strand of the New Right are defined by the belief in
human imperfection. Most conservatives strongly agree with this
view. This involves the view that humans are first morally weak, in
that they do not have an innate sense of right and wrong and are
highly emotional and jealous, so will steal the property of others or
The opening sentence links the
Commentary on sample
commit violent acts. Second, there is the belief that the majority of
humans are not particularly intellectually able, and that they do not
fully understand the complex world that surrounds them. Finally, there
argument to the different strands of
conservatism and begins a careful
analysis of exactly what is meant
student answers
is the belief that humans are emotionally and mentally very fragile, by human imperfection (AO1). The
Read the comments showing

easily frightened and often insecure in their surroundings. Each of second sentence makes it clear that
these arguments has political implications. this paragraph is focusing on the
Sample student answers

significance of the areas of agreement
First, if humans commit crime due to psychological weakness, this (AO3) within the political idea.
means that you cannot blame circumstances such as poverty and
inequality for criminal behaviour. The individual is responsible for how many marks each answer
the crimes they commit and harsh punishments must be imposed to More on what is meant by human
Practise the questions, then deter others from doing the same. The role of the state must be to
maintain law and order. Thomas Hobbes had a very negative view
imperfection (AO1) and how it affects
the conservative view of the role of the
state and law (AO2). Useful addition of
would be awarded in the
of human nature, seeing individuals as needing strict authority as
look at the student answers otherwise they would live in a ‘state of war’.
Second, if humans cannot make sense of the wider world and are
a supporting key thinker.
exam and exactly where
Usefully links human imperfection with
that follow. often lacking in intellectual ability, they cannot understand abstract
philosophical ideas or aims. Politics should therefore be based on
other core themes of conservatism
(AO2) but with a close focus on the
question. The paragraph ends with a
marks are gained or lost.
pragmatism, looking back to the past and ‘what works’. Rapid change
is dangerous and slow reform or sticking to the status quo is judgement (AO3) that links back to the
question.
66 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics
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About this book
■ About this book

The aim of this Student Guide is to prepare students for the Section B: Core political
ideas section of Edexcel A-level Politics Component 1, UK Politics, and the Section
B: Non-core political ideas section of Edexcel A-level Politics Component 2, UK
Government. The other sections of these two exam papers will be covered in a
different student guide.
The Content Guidance section covers all the topics largely in the order in which
they appear on the Edexcel A-level specification. You are strongly advised to have
a copy of the most recent version of the specification to refer to as you go through
the topics. There are three ideas in Component 1: Conservatism, Liberalism and
Socialism. You will need to cover all of them. For Component 2 you will study one of
the following: anarchism, ecologism, feminism, multiculturalism or nationalism.
This guide covers all of these ideas briefly, but you will study only one and it will not
be necessary to study any of the others. Each of the ideas is further divided into three
subsections. Please note that this book does not cover the Component 2 Non-core
political ideas in as much detail as the Component 1 Core political ideas due to space
constraints.
You should use the Content Guidance to ensure you are familiar with all the core
ideas and principles and the debates and divisions within each ideology. Each idea,
with its core principles, different strands and key thinkers, is studied in relation to
its beliefs relating to human nature, the state, society and the economy. It is essential
that you have a clear understanding of what these four terms mean before you start to
analyse their links to each ideology. You should also make sure you are aware of the
central arguments developed by each of the named key thinkers and link them to the
strands. The focus of all questions is the level of agreement and disagreement within
the political idea in regards to a particular area e.g. the economy. There is a series of
knowledge check questions (AO1) in this book which act as a guide to some important
information which you will need to use when answering essay questions and which
will also help to establish detailed knowledge. The answers to these knowledge
checks can be found at the end of the guide. Exam tips are designed to help you avoid
significant common errors made by students as well as guiding you towards good
practice. Key terms definitions and Linked concepts relate to the key terms named in
the specification. All the terms in the specification linked to Socialism, Conservatism
and Liberalism are covered. For the Component 2 ideologies, only some are covered.
The key terms appear in the margin in green.
The Questions & Answers section is an opportunity to hone exam technique and
to become familiar with the essay skills and structures that examiners are looking for.
The essays range in length and quality, and each comes with comments on strengths
and weaknesses so that you can use them to develop your essay writing skills. It is not
possible to provide sample questions and answers on every aspect of each ideology,
and you need to be aware that any parts of the specification could be tested in the
examination.
This guide does not go into full detail, so you must use it alongside other resources
such as class notes, textbooks such as Political Ideas for A-level and articles in Politics
Review magazine (published by Hodder Education).
Political ideas 5
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Content Guidance
Content Guidance
Core political ideas
■ Conservatism
Conservatism is an ideology that is constantly evolving and is remarkably successful
as a result. It is in opposition to change and favours protecting traditions, but it can
accept slow change if it is necessary. Most but not all conservatives believe that
humans are imperfect and vulnerable and therefore a strong government is needed to
guide and protect.
Core ideas and principles

Pragmatism
A pragmatist seeking to solve a problem turns not to fixed ideas or theories but to
practicalities — what is the most sensible and workable way to resolve this issue?
Conservatives often describe themselves as non-ideological in that they do not Ideological Relating to
believe in absolutes. Instead they advocate a ‘what works’ approach based on a set of political ideas/
circumstances and experience. This can make the ideology itself quite hard to pin body of doctrine. Most
down for students and can also suggest that conservatism is not an ideology at all but conservatives would
is merely what conservatives themselves might describe as ‘common sense’ and critics describe themselves as
might describe as advocating what might be popular in order to win elections. It also pragmatic rather than
suggests that conservatism is flexible and able to vary its values. ideological.
Linked concept
Exam tip
A pragmatic approach to politics in conservatism led to the belief in change to
preserve, despite being opposed to change. If it was necessary to preserve the Although conservatism is
status quo, e.g. by increasing the size of the electorate, this should be carried more pragmatic than other
out. (See page 7.) ideologies, it clearly does
have some core values
that you must know.
Pragmatism suggests that politics should be based on circumstances and events rather
than on ideological objectives. Conservatives reject abstract and rigid theories such as
those associated with Marxism and see them as dangerous as they are not rooted in Empiricism A rejection
history and traditions and can therefore cause chaos and instability in society. They of ideology. The theory
are supporters of empiricism. This view is linked to their rather negative view of that knowledge comes
human nature. Conservatives therefore reject all utopian ideas as they are a rejection from tradition and
of tradition, knowledge and learned wisdom. experience rather than
Despite conservatism’s claims to be a tradition rather than an ideology, it is clear that from ideas.
conservatives share a range of core beliefs, alongside some variables. These will be
explored below. So conservatism is not entirely based on pragmatism.
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Conservatism
Tradition
This refers to the significance and importance of learning from previous generations
and having a connection to what has gone before. For weak and insecure humans,
tradition helps us to feel safe and to understand where we fit in. We are connected
to our ancestors and to those who will follow us in the future. This helps us form our
personal identities and to feel connections to others with shared histories and culture,
thus creating social cohesion.
For conservatives in the UK, tradition can be found in institutions such as the
monarchy, the Church of England, the House of Lords and the armed forces.
Americans could seek security in the flag, the Constitution and in celebrations such as
the 4th of July. These institutions have developed and survived over hundreds of years
and are therefore full of wisdom and should be preserved for the future. They cannot
simply be abolished and replaced as such a move would lead to dangerous instability.
Most conservatives are suspicious of change, as it goes against tradition and creates
insecurity in vulnerable and weak humans. This belief in the importance of tradition
can lead some conservatives to be suspicious of multiculturalism and immigration.
Much of the conservative view of tradition comes from the religious beliefs of many
(but not all) conservatives and can be linked to many religions, not just Christianity. Radical Far-reaching
and thorough, a major
Exam tip departure from what has
Don’t forget that not all forms of conservatism value tradition — neo-liberals are in favour gone before.
of change and are rationalists.
Change to conserve
The belief that change
However, this does not imply that all conservatives are opposed to any form of change may be necessary
but simply that change should be slow and evolutionary rather than radical, and it but should be slow,
should take place only if it is seen as absolutely necessary. So, while the Conservative evolutionary and based
Party originally opposed devolution, it now sees it as a way to protect the union. on experience in order to
Change here is a response to specific circumstances — devolution had taken place protect tradition and to
and could not be abolished — rather than something that the party initially wanted prevent social instability.
and can be described as change to conserve. Change should also be based on an
analysis of previous events, rather than for abstract reasons or utopian visions. Authority The legitimate
right to rule and to have
Linked to this faith in tradition comes a firm belief in the value and significance of power over others. This
private property. Conservatives believe that ownership gives insecure individuals right can come from
security and independence from the government, while also encouraging respect for tradition, a monarch
the law and for the property of others. Property owners are therefore more likely to be for example, or through
supportive of the status quo, fearing change might lead to a threat to their property election, such as a prime
rights. They will respect those in authority who help to protect what they own and minister.
will support the traditional family values that will allow them to pass on a legacy to
future generations. They also argue that private property is a way for individuals to Knowledge check 1
express their personality and character, for example through furnishings. This belief
What do conservatives
in the value and significance of private property is at the heart of all conservative
mean by property?
thinking and one of the few areas in which there is agreement.
Political ideas 7
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Content Guidance
Key thinkers and their ideas
Edmund Burke (1729–97)

Burke, in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), rejected liberal ideas,
specifically the idea of progress as desirable. He argued that inheritance and
tradition were the basis of a stable society, and that the institutions and beliefs
that form society are formed by the wisdom and knowledge of those who came
before us and must be respected. He used France — the tyranny and disaster
of the aftermath of the 1789 revolution — as an example of what happens when
you destroy this past knowledge. Burke argued for continuity — ‘change is only
necessary in order to conserve’ — and saw society as a partnership or bond
between the dead, the living and the unborn future generations rather than a social
contract between the government and the governed. These connections create
stability and security in society and create social order, preventing social chaos.
Burke, like many conservatives, also rejected the abstract ideas and theories, e.g.
rights, that developed as a result of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution.
He rejected democracy and saw inequality as natural. The people should be
represented by the elite and the wise (the same thing), who would not be delegates
but would follow their own conscience in making decisions. Burke was not a
supporter of social contract theory, which suggests that the relationship between
the government and the governed can be broken if power is abused. Society
exists to provide individuals with a link to the past and future. However, Burke
defended the Glorious Revolution and did not believe in absolute monarchy, rather
that the king should be constrained by a parliament elected by the few.
Human imperfection
Conservatives see human nature as selfish and flawed, and as emotional rather than
rational. This pessimism impacts on their view of the society and the state. First,
conservatives see human nature as psychologically weak. Due to our fragile and vulnerable
nature, we desperately seek security and this can be found in hierarchy, a social system Hierarchy A society
in which we all know our place and our roles and happily defer to the natural leaders who ordered on an unequal
will be positioned above us. This is clearly in stark contrast to the optimistic beliefs of basis, with those at the
liberals and it leads most conservatives to value order above freedom and liberty. top holding authority and
those on the lower levels
obeying those above
Linked concept them. This structure is not
A belief in hierarchy suggests a belief in authority. In order to maintain the divisions based on ability or talent.
in society there needs to be obedience to those at the top.
Our vulnerability also means that some individuals are likely to become criminals. Knowledge check 2
Unlike that of liberals and socialists, this view of human nature suggests that humans
What is meant by the
do not have a natural sense of morality. Our human nature is selfish and greedy and
doctrine of original sin?
we can have a tendency to violence. We require institutions such as the education
system, the nuclear family and the police to impose the values of right and wrong on
us. This has implications for the role and powers of the state. Without a strong state,
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Conservatism
society will become unstable and chaotic. Conservatives are therefore more likely to Exam tip
blame the criminal for their actions than to see society as in any way responsible for
Although most
crime and this is linked to a focus on strict law and order policy, such as the death
conservatives see
penalty in parts of the USA.
humans as deeply
Intellectually, human imperfection implies that we cannot really understand or emotional, weak and
make sense of the complex and frightening world around us. Religious institutions seeking security, neo-
can play a part in explaining this to us and will be part of the ordered hierarchy of liberals take a different
a conservative state and society. This is also linked to the conservative rejection of view, seeing humans
abstract ideas — we will find them unsettling as they suggest change and a rejection as rational and selfish.
of learned experience. This is also linked to the
neo-liberal rejection of the
importance of tradition.
Linked concept
A belief in human imperfection suggests that change is not something that
Human imperfection
humans are able to cope with and understand. Therefore, it is better only to
The belief that humans
change to preserve, and any radical ideas must be rejected or there will be
are psychologically,
instability in society. (See page 7.)
morally and intellectually
weak and incapable of
understanding the world
Key thinkers and their ideas around them.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Thomas Hobbes was a supporter of absolute and unlimited government, which in Knowledge check 3
his time meant monarchy. In Leviathan (1651), he argued that strong government Why do conservatives
was absolutely necessary in order to protect humans from the chaos and reject the idea of equality?
violence of the alternative — a ‘state of nature’ of ‘all against all’ where life would
be ‘nasty, brutish and short’. He believed that, left to themselves, individuals
would live in constant fear of each other. From this you can see that Hobbes
had a very negative view of human nature, seeing people as self-seeking, power
grabbing and irrational. As a result, a strong authoritarian government without
limits was needed to protect humans and without it, so-called ‘normal’ life would
be impossible. Thus government’s role was to enforce law and order. Hobbes
believed that humans would be very happy to accept this.
Hobbes was one of the thinkers who developed social contract theory. Citizens
must accept and obey the government, even a repressive one, because the
alternative would always be far worse. Hobbes therefore believed that it was
worth giving up one’s freedom and liberty in return for the protection that
only the state could provide. The contract between the citizens and the state
consisted of the citizens’ unlimited obedience in return for personal security.
However, this negative view of human nature is not fully accepted by libertarian
New Right conservatives. Not only do they advocate change, they also support
the liberal view of human rationality and have a firm belief in some ideas that
could be described as abstract, such as laissez-faire economics.
Political ideas 9
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Content Guidance
Organic society/state
The term ‘organic society’ is a metaphor that sees society as a human body. This Atomism The idea
theory is particularly linked to one-nation conservatives. Every part of the body has a that humans are self-
specific and essential part to play, and the body cannot function without it. The whole seeking and unconnected
is more than the sum of its parts and more important than any individual within it. to others. Some
If a part is changed, the body will be damaged. When they are all playing their part conservatives see human
and are healthy, the body is in harmony and will flourish. This metaphor suggests that beings as fundamentally
there must be no attempts to transform society as disaster will result. It is also closely selfish and therefore
linked to the conservative view of the importance of hierarchy — within society there society is simply a
will be various classes and groups but they can live in peace as part of a larger whole. collection of isolated
Organic society gives fragile humans a sense of security as it provides a clear role individuals.
and purpose for each one of us, depending on what part of the ‘body’ we are. It Noblesse oblige The
connects us to social groups and institutions such as the family, workplace and belief that the wealthy,
religious community, and also to the wider whole, the nation. This view of society those at the top of the
can be linked to nationalism and patriotism. This also implies that those with money hierarchy, have a duty
and power have a duty to look after those less fortunate, and it implies a rejection of to look after those less
atomism. This is called noblesse oblige. well off.
Linked concept
Atomism is linked to laissez faire. If we have no obligations to others then the
state should leave us alone as much as possible and allow us to be free. (See
page 9.) Hard paternalism
A form of government
not concerned with
There is some disagreement within conservatism over organic society. It is supported consent. The state can
by traditional conservatives, who reject individualism. However, New Right supporters step in to prevent actions
see individual rights and freedoms as more important. As Margaret Thatcher once or activities that are
famously stated, ‘there is no such thing as society, only individuals and their families’, potentially dangerous
an idea firmly rejected by David Cameron. or undesirable — for
example, banning
Paternalism smoking.
The term ‘pater’ means father and so the role of the paternalistic state is to act as an
Soft paternalism The
authoritative father figure to the weak and flawed citizens, providing for their care and
idea that government
maintaining order by regulating their behaviour. A paternalistic state is hierarchical
should act in a fatherly,
and unequal and aims to protect that status quo by preventing any uprising of the
authoritative way, looking
working classes. As a result it will include some form of welfare provision in order to
after the needs and
prevent discontent. It is a key aspect of one-nation conservatism.
regulating the behaviour
There are two forms of paternalism. Hard paternalism favours forcing people to do of citizens, but that it
things, such as giving up smoking, while soft paternalism favours persuasion and should do so with their
education. broad consent.
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Conservatism
Linked concept
A belief in paternalism means a belief in hierarchy and authority. Some are born
to rule and guide others, and deserve privileges as a result, but this role comes
with a duty to support those lower down the hierarchy. (See page 10.)
The implications of paternalism include a belief that inequality is both natural and
Knowledge check 4
desirable. Edmund Burke argued that leaders came from the ‘natural aristocracy’, and
the Victorian prime minister Benjamin Disraeli agreed, arguing that the rich had a What did Disraeli mean
duty to the poor. Linked to the belief in organic society, paternalism implies that there by describing England as
are natural leaders who will form the elite and who will act in a responsible way, as ‘two nations’ and what
they see fit, rather than acting in a representative way. This puts most conservatives was his solution?
in opposition to democracy, although as pragmatists, conservatives have adapted
to accept and accommodate democracy, where the masses can choose between a
selection of members of the elite to make decisions on their behalf.
Libertarianism (specifically neo-liberalism)

Also closely linked to liberalism, and recently seen on the banners of Donald Trump
supporters in the USA, the belief in libertarianism focuses on the need to provide
citizens with as much freedom as possible, therefore seeking to limit the role of the
government and the state. This is linked to a firm belief in the free market and is in
stark contrast to paternalism. Libertarians believe strongly in individualism, that the
individual should be entirely responsible for their actions and that individual rights to
life, liberty and property must be upheld absolutely. Law should exist purely to ensure
that individuals respect the rights of others. The state and government are potentially
a danger to individual freedom. Libertarians believe that a free market, consisting of
free individuals, unconstrained by government, will prosper.
Ayn Rand (1905–82)

A novelist whose bestsellers included The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas
Shrugged (1957), Ayn Rand focused on the importance of individual liberty.
In recent years she has been rediscovered and recently Donald Trump
announced he is a huge fan. In her novels and writings, selfishness, rather than
being seen as a character fault, is seen as a virtue and the key to personal
happiness. Altruism is interpreted as sacrificing yourself for the interests and
lives of others and therefore is irrational. Self-seeking individuals will naturally
support free-market capitalism as they will want to earn and trade as they
choose. In The Fountainhead, architect Howard Roark argues that altruism
creates dependence and ideas of the common good lead to dictatorships. He
refuses to alter or simplify the designs of his buildings.
Political ideas 11
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Content Guidance
Rand was an atheist, calling for a ‘complete separation’ similar to that of

church and state in France. She also believed in a very limited government,
whose only role would be to protect the individual by using threats of force. In
that way Rand was not an anarchist as she did see a role for the state in terms
of police, army and legal systems. The government itself, however, has no
rights and status ‘except the right delegated to it by the citizens’.
Rand developed the idea she called ‘objectivism’, which is the highly
individualistic belief that ‘man exists for his own sake’, an idea many
entrepreneurs have found very exciting and which may explain why Trump is
such a fan.
Differing views and tensions within conservatism

Traditional conservatism
Unlike most modern conservatism, traditional conservatism is authoritarian.
Developing as a response to fears about the radical change and belief in human
equality and improvement espoused by supporters of the French Revolution and the
Enlightenment, this form of conservatism can also be linked to the rise of fascism in
twentieth-century Europe. Traditional conservatism was opposed to any of the new
reformist ideas of the eighteenth century, such as democracy and individual rights,
and is reactionary and backward looking. Its main focus is the protection of social
order and it originally represented the interest of landowners and the gentry.
Traditional conservatives uphold core values such as a belief in the importance of
tradition and custom, highlighting the bonds that hold together past, present and
future generations. Edmund Burke argued that by abandoning traditions and ‘the
accumulated wisdom of the ages’ and advocating new and abstract ideas, post-
revolutionary France would inevitably end up as more oppressive than it was before.
Often taking a rather romantic view of the past and rejecting ‘new’ ideas such as
industrialisation, traditional conservatives believe strongly in the idea of organic
society. This leads to nationalism and can also lead to regionalism or even localism.
Hierarchy is seen as the essence and core of all successful human societies and
as essential for our survival, regardless of where one sits within it. Obedience to
authority is seen as natural. French philosopher Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821),
a fervent critic of the French Revolution, argued that absolute monarchy must
be restored in France, with no changes at all to the ancien régime. Traditional
conservatism takes a very particular view of human nature, seeing humans as sinful
and greedy, motivated by selfishness and unable to comprehend the world around
them. This belief means that in order to create social stability, a strong government Exam tip
must be created and people need to come together as an organic community. Reactionary does not
mean reacting, it means
In the nineteenth century, traditional conservatives opposed new ideas such as
backward looking, or
democracy. In the twentieth century, traditional conservatism was linked to populist
wishing to return to an
regimes which moulded their policies according to the wishes of the people, such as
imagined past.
that of Juan Perón, leader of Argentina from 1946 to 1955.
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Conservatism
One-nation conservatism
Sometimes known as paternalist conservatism, this form of conservatism is often
linked to Benjamin Disraeli. A pragmatist, like most conservatives, he was prime
minister at a time when socialism was becoming more popular throughout Europe and
as a result he was keen to attract the vote of the newly enfranchised working classes
in order to prevent this. In his novels Disraeli wrote about the growing divisions
between rich and poor as a result of industrialisation and capitalism. Much more
recently, David Cameron’s ‘Big Society’ speech and some of his attempts to change the
image of the Conservative Party can also be linked to one-nation conservatism.
This form of conservatism can be seen as an attempt to bring together individualism Knowledge check 5
and collectivism and as an updated form of conservatism responding to the rise of
What did ‘Big Society’
capitalism. It shows the pragmatism of conservatism, reacting to the new forces of
mean?
democracy and capitalism by adapting its programme.
One key belief of a one-nation conservative is the idea of organic society and a
rejection of the laissez-faire approach to capitalism and individualism linked to liberal
ideas. Instead of focusing on individual rights, this approach is more collectivist in
some ways, seeing us as having duties and responsibilities to others, as part of a larger
whole. One-nation conservatives see the social inequalities and poverty created by
capitalism as the problem of all citizens, not just the poor. However, they are not
opposed to the class structure, seeing it as part of our organic society. Disraeli had
been an opponent of capitalism and was shocked by the poverty that resulted from the
industrial revolution. He saw that this could lead the working classes into the hands
of dangerous revolutionaries and socialists, so social reform was needed to protect the
hierarchy. So, reform was carried out to alleviate poverty, in order to ensure the poor
were not a threat to social order.
However, this is not socialism, and redistribution of wealth to create equality is in no
way the aim of one-nation conservatives. Instead they advocate paternalism, seeing
those at the top of the hierarchy as having a duty of care to those below. This social
obligation is sometimes referred to as noblesse oblige and could include passing laws,
such as limits to working hours, or expanding primary education. A concern for the
unemployed and the poor is a central aspect of one-nation conservatism and led to
divisions in Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Party in the 1980s. She described those
attacking her hard-line policies as ‘wets’.
Another aspect of one-nation conservatism that is closely linked to the organic society
is a belief in patriotism and tradition. In order to prevent the division of a country into
haves and have nots, Disraeli argued that institutions such as the monarchy could be
used to unite the nations and create a sense of shared experiences. Exam tip
One-nation conservatism was strong during the twentieth century. In the UK, the Some essay questions
Conservative Party was part of the post-war consensus, accepting the need for a will ask students to
mixed economy and presenting itself as a sensible and pragmatic alternative to the examine all the strands
ideological far left and the classical liberal free market. This led conservatives such of conservatism, while
as prime minister Harold Macmillan to accept the welfare state and support ‘planned others may focus just on
capitalism’. the New Right.
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New Right
Sometimes described as the combination of neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism,
the New Right is contradictory as it contains both radical, forward-looking and
reactionary ideas and is linked to two contrasting political traditions. On the one
hand, neo-liberals believe in rolling back the state to free individuals from constraints,
while on the other hand neo-conservatives believe firmly in the importance of social
order and hierarchy. At the heart, New Right conservatives believe that the individual
must be free from state interference but that human behaviour must be restricted by
family, nation and morality. The two strands are also united by a desire to return to
a past where the state did not interfere with the economy and where people followed
strict moral codes that regulated social behaviour. Some also argue that as neo-liberal
economics will result in higher unemployment and inequality, crime and social
problems will inevitably be the consequence, therefore requiring a tougher stance on
law and order.
New Right thinking came to prominence in the UK and the USA in the 1980s as a Knowledge check 6
response to what supporters saw as the failings of Keynesian mixed-economy post-war What is meant by ‘rolling
economic policies, the electoral failure of paternalistic conservative parties, and the back the state’?
belief in a radical change in social and moral values. It is profoundly different from
other forms of conservatism for a range of reasons, one significant one being that it is
clearly ideological rather than pragmatic, believing in human rationality and abstract
theories such as the free market.
Neo-liberalism
In terms of the economy, New Right thinkers such as Robert Nozick reject one-nation
ideas of preventing the excesses of capitalism in order to help the poor. New Right
ideas developed as a reaction to the economic failings of the 1970s. In the UK, the
election of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 signalled the end of the post-war consensus,
where both major parties had broadly agreed to follow Keynesian economic policies
of intervention, progressive taxation and a mixed economy. American economist
Milton Friedman (1912–2006) argued that governments were to blame for the
economic problems of the 1970s. He argued that it was necessary to accept a level
of unemployment, and that a successful economic policy would instead focus on
inflation, which can be managed only through control of money supply. Government’s
role should be to encourage production and the way to do that would be to cut
regulation and taxes and to support entrepreneurship.
Neo-liberal economists follow the liberal ideas of the eighteenth-century Scottish
economist Adam Smith, who argued that the ‘invisible hand of the market’ should
guide economic policy. They seek a return to what they see as a golden age of
entrepreneurialism and self-help, where voluntary organisations, rather than the state,
supported the poor. This led them to support a mass programme of privatisation in the
UK in the 1980s. Neo-liberals, like classical liberals, believe that the state is coercive
and infantilising and operates in a collectivist way. They therefore have a contrasting
view of human nature to traditional and paternalistic conservatives, believing in
more liberal views of the autonomous rational individual who can manage their
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Conservatism
own affairs. The state should therefore be a minimal one, allowing free individuals
the liberty to make choices. This is also reflected in a belief that the welfare state
has created a dependency culture, and that this state must be drastically reduced
to allow individuals to manage their own affairs and stand on their own two feet.
Nozick argued that welfare itself was a violation of property rights. Thatcher famously
suggested that there was ‘no such thing as society’. Neo-liberals argue in favour of tax
cuts or even flat taxes. Neo-liberal economists argue that their policies will result in a
‘trickle-down’ effect. If the wealthy are allowed to keep more of their money, they will
make more money, employ more people and pay them better. Therefore the wealth
will ‘trickle down’ through all levels of society. This approach is also very different to
the other forms of conservatism in accepting abstract ideas like the free market and
believing in radical change, such as mass privatisation.
Neo-conservatism
Neo-conservatism, also known as conservative New Right, is a political movement
responding to the radical social changes of the 1960s and 1970s that saw the
development of what neo-conservatives would describe as permissiveness. This
movement was and still is particularly influential in the USA. Neo-conservatives Anti-permissiveness
are anti-permissiveness as they see it as individuals doing whatever they like, for The rejection of the view
example getting divorced or having children outside of marriage. This therefore poses that individuals should be
a challenge to authority and hierarchy, which are central to conservative thought. able to make their own
Permissiveness, linked to the changing social norms of the 1960s, is blamed for rising moral choices, e.g. to
crime, divorce rates and increased rates of sexually transmitted diseases. For example, choose to have as many
the rise in the number of single-parent families is considered responsible for what is sexual partners as they
seen as a decline of deference, leading to anti-social behaviour. would like.
Linked concept
Anti-permissiveness is linked to human imperfection. If humans are weak and
selfish, permissiveness is inappropriate. We are unable to make moral choices
and do not understand morality. (See page 8.)
Neo-conservatives can be described as social authoritarians, believing that due to

the frailty and insecurity of human nature, we need strong discipline from above.
Inequality is seen as natural and desirable, a belief held by all conservatives. In
contrast to neo-liberalism’s reduced role of state, neo-conservatives believe that there
needs to be a limited but strong state in relation to law and order, with increased
numbers of police, for example. They are also supporters of traditional family values,
favouring the nuclear family as the best way to bring up children, for example, with
some arguing that this family type should be protected through the tax system,
therefore using the state to encourage a particular set of moral views.
Neo-conservatives also oppose multiculturalism and immigration, seeing these
as weakening national unity and patriotism. As a result, they are sometimes also
xenophobic and can support aggressive foreign policy.
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Michael Oakeshott (1901–90)

Oakeshott, like Burke, rejected ideology and the idea that there are ‘correct’
answers to practical questions. He criticised the idea that politics can be
organised on a rational basis based on abstract principles such as equality
due to the limits of human understanding. He attacked rationalism as an idea
that placed theory above knowledge, culture and tradition. Instead, Oakeshott
argued that politics should be about practical knowledge and pragmatism,
rather than ideas and theories that ignore the complexities of human society
and tradition. He saw reform as tending to consist of a break with the past,
when it was always better to try to create continuity. Creating something ‘new’
was usually a mistake and a failure. Oakeshott blamed the Enlightenment for
the rise of the belief in rationality as the method of making political decisions.
He argued that politics should be a ‘conversation, not an argument’, therefore
rejecting the idea of absolutes.
In ‘On Being Conservative’ (1962, in Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays)
Oakeshott compared a society with too much personal freedom to a ship lost
at sea — restless and without direction and order. Politicians can be seen as
the officers on the deck, guided by experts but heading for disaster.
Robert Nozick (1938–2002)
Nozick was a free-market libertarian who argued in Anarchy, State, and Utopia
(1974) that humans own themselves. By self-ownership (Nozick referred to
individuals as ‘self-owners’) he meant that individuals have the moral right to
keep what they produce and should not be obligated or forced to give those
resources to others. They also have the right to act in any way they choose,
even if that means harming themselves, e.g. by smoking. Nozick was strongly
opposed to egalitarianism, arguing that individuals must be free to do what
they wish with their own resources. Whatever the outcome of this is, regardless
of inequalities, it is a just one. A belief in equality of outcome will always result
in unjust state interference in people’s lives and is always collectivist rather
than individualist, focusing on common goals and seeing the individual as
unimportant.
The state’s role should therefore be limited to that of police, defence and the
administration of courts. Other tasks traditionally undertaken by governments
could be carried out more effectively by voluntary organisations or religious
bodies on a free-market/competitive basis. This would be less wasteful and
would prevent the growth of unnecessary bureaucracy. This very minimal state
is similar to that favoured by some classical liberals, and Nozick is sometimes
characterised as such. Progressive taxation and other forms of state
interference are rejected as they use the individual to achieve a higher moral
outcome, when individuals are ends in themselves.
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Conservatism
Summary
Conservatism is a mixture of pragmatism and principle, but arguably it does
have a set of shared values which means that it is clearly a single ideology. The
key areas of agreement and disagreement are:
■ Human nature All conservatives argue that human nature is imperfect,
limited intellectually and security-seeking. Therefore, authority is more
important than individual freedom. Pragmatism is favoured rather than
abstract ideas, which are difficult for us to comprehend. However, neo-
liberals have a more positive view as they see human nature as rational and
therefore people are more able to manage their own affairs.
■ Society Most conservatives agree that society is organic and naturally
hierarchical. We all have a role to play within society, and we need traditional
structures to create a sense of belonging and safety. Inequality is both
desirable and natural, and rapid change should be avoided. However, New
Right conservatives take a more atomistic view and individualistic approach
and see humans as self-reliant. They also believe that change in society is
desirable.
■ State Conservatives favour a strong state and hierarchy and see this as
naturally arising. There are born leaders in society, and we need moral
guidance from them with clear rules and punishments for breaking them.
New Right conservatives have a more classical liberal viewpoint and favour
limited government and individual freedom in some, but not all, areas of life
(they favour strong law and order for example).
■ Economy All conservatives believe in the importance of private property.
It creates identity, pride, respect, hierarchy and security. However, while
traditional and one-nation conservatives favour some intervention to protect
the poor and needy (and to prevent upset to the status quo), New Right
conservatives prefer a self-help and laissez-faire approach and do not wish
to intervene in the free market.
Conservatism is an incredibly adaptable and successful ideology. In the UK,
the Conservative Party has arguably dominated British politics for the past 100
years and looks set to continue to do so.
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■ Liberalism
Liberalism developed in the eighteenth century as a result of the revolutions in
America and France that overthrew autocratic monarchies and the development of the
capitalist system. It can also be linked to the nineteenth-century development of the
nation-state.
Individualism
Individualism is at the core of liberal theory. It suggests that the individual should
be at the centre of political thought and must always take priority over any group.
Individualism stands in opposition to collectivist theories such as socialism. This
belief leads liberals to be very concerned to limit the power of the state and is also Egoistical
linked to the idea of foundational equality — that every person is born of equal individualism
value and therefore, regardless of ability, should receive equal rights. This is the Connected to classical
Enlightenment idea of foundational equality, which challenges the conservative idea liberalism, this suggests
of natural hierarchy. that humans are egoistical
Liberals believe that human nature is essentially rational and that individuals are and self-seeking and put
capable of making their own moral judgements and controlling their own destiny. themselves before others.
Although selfish, rationality means that we understand that reason, rather than Developmental
force, should be used to resolve conflicts. This should result in peace and progress in individualism
society. The liberal view of human nature is a much less negative and pessimistic one Connected to modern
than that of conservatism. liberalism, this suggests
However, liberals have two differing interpretations of individualism. Classical liberals that true freedom is the
favour the idea of egoistical individualism, the selfish individual who seeks only ability to achieve goals
his or her own pleasure. This suggests a self-sufficient sovereign individual, who owes and potential and that this
nothing to anyone else. Modern liberals developed the theory of developmental connects humans, so that
individualism, which focuses on the ability to flourish and achieve your potential. if some people are not
This may involve some form of state intervention to ensure that you are able to do free, no one is.
this. Modern liberals such as T. H. Green have argued that individuals can also have
common goals with others in order to achieve self-realisation.
Knowledge check 7
What is the difference
Linked concept between egoistical
A belief in individualism and the idea that society should be focused around the and developmental
needs of the sovereign individual clearly leads to the view that each individual individualism?
should be free and without restraint to make life choices. (See page 19.)
Freedom/liberty
Knowledge check 8
Freedom is the core liberal belief and central to liberals’ arguments over the role of
What is meant by the term
the state. It is also closely linked to individualism and the aim for each human to have
‘atomism’?
control over their own destiny.
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Liberalism
Liberals believe that individuals, by right, must have as much liberty as is possible. Negative freedom
However, there are divisions over what freedom actually means. For classical liberals The absence of external
such as J. S. Mill, freedom means simply the absence of restraint, the ability to do constraints on actions
whatever you wish as long as it does not interfere with the freedom of someone else, and the individual’s total
without being prevented by another person or by the state. This interpretation is now control over the private
described using the term suggested by philosopher Isaiah Berlin, negative freedom. sphere of the home and
Many of the early supporters of the idea of freedom, such as John Locke, were personal life.
focused on the issue of property rights and economic freedom — free trade. Positive freedom The
Positive freedom is not completely in contrast to negative freedom. More accurately, ability to achieve one’s
it goes beyond negative freedom to argue that to be truly free does not mean just potential and to achieve
the absence of restraint but the ability to achieve goals and potential. This can also personal goals. Not only
be used to suggest that our personal freedom should not be seen in isolation but is the absence of external
linked to the freedom and opportunities of others. Linked to the development of constraint but the ability
modern liberalism, supporters of the idea of positive freedom can argue that without to be fulfilled and not have
resources, some individuals will never be free. There cannot be progress in society one’s talents wasted.
unless everyone has the chance to advance, and this will involve a role for the state.
Reforms linked to an extension of freedom could include the provision of housing,
healthcare and education.
Exam tip
Negative freedom and positive freedom are not contradictory. Supporters of positive
freedom believe in negative freedom too — positive freedom is an extension of it.
Linked concepts
Negative freedom is linked to the minimal state, as this allows people to be left
to manage their own affairs in most areas of their life. (See page 25.)
Positive freedom is linked to the enabling state, as in order to achieve
personal goals, many people need the support of the state to create the equal
opportunities for them to do this. (See page 21.)
Tolerance is a key liberal principle that suggests that society must tolerate a Tolerance The
range of views and lifestyles as long as they are not restrictive of personal freedom. acceptance of a wide
Toleration is justified by liberals as it is rational, linked to individual freedom and range of lifestyles, beliefs,
choice, and benefits society as well as the individual. In the nineteenth century, J. S. cultures and religions.
Mill developed this theory as a way to protect religious freedom and to create a free
marketplace of ideas that would allow humans to progress morally and intellectually.
Today liberals support the idea of diversity in society and believe that there are many
ways to live the ‘good life’. Tolerance also means defending freedom of speech, even if
you do not like the views that are being portrayed. This is a highly topical area today,
with many arguing that there are limits to what should be tolerated and that the right
to offend those of different faiths, for example, is not acceptable.
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John Stuart Mill (1806–73)

John Stuart Mill’s harm principle suggests that intervention by the state is Harm principle Mill’s
needed and justified only when an action restricts the freedom of others. It theory that individuals
is therefore acceptable to harm oneself but not anyone else (for example, a should be their own
liberal should not ban smoking outright, but smoking in cars or in bars and masters in every way.
restaurants should be banned). Causing oneself serious harm may well affect There should be no
others such as family members, so this should also be prevented. The role intervention in their
of government must be restricted to allow individual liberty and to prevent activities unless it can be
tyranny, but government should be able to interfere when necessary to protect seen that they will harm
society. others.
Mill argued in favour of tolerance, that society should accept and celebrate a
range of lifestyles, religions, beliefs and cultures. This would lead to a range
of ideas competing against each other, which would result in human progress,
development and improvement. There is no one true way or right way to live. In
On Liberty (1859), Mill argues in favour of free speech as a way to create a free
market of arguments and to allow for open criticism of beliefs that are false.
He also explored utilitarianism, the human pursuit of pleasure, and argued that Knowledge check 9
there were higher and lower forms of pleasure. Higher pleasures he associated
What is meant by the term
with middle-class values and included music and theatre. These, he claimed,
‘utilitarianism’?
were superior to and more progressive than lower forms of pleasure as enjoyed
by the working classes.
Mill was concerned that universal suffrage would lead to the tyranny of the
majority and in On Liberty he explored how individual freedom could be
protected. He argued that the franchise should be based on an educational
qualification, but he also supported the vote for women. As well as being a
philosopher, Mill was a liberal MP and a civil servant.
In his later years he changed his view about the limited role of the state and
argued that liberalism should tackle social problems rather than blaming the
working classes for disadvantages for which they were not responsible.
State
For liberals, the state is a threat to the individual’s freedom and liberty and therefore
there must always be limited government. However, unlike anarchists, liberals Limited government
understand that the state is always necessary and without it we would live in unsafe, A system of checks
lawless conditions. Liberals believe that human nature is corruptible by power and and balances such as
therefore those in power need strict limits or they will seek to increase and abuse their separation of powers
powers. Liberals have developed a wide range of methods to put such limits in place in order to prevent the
and those methods can be seen used in political systems around the world, such as in concentration of power
the USA. The ideas and practices of constitutionalism, consent, checks and balances, and the tendency of those
bicameralism and separation of powers are some examples of these that will be in authority to attempt to
discussed later. Classical liberals also believe that the state should not interfere with increase their power.
the workings of the free market, and in the nineteenth century they were strongly
opposed to protectionism, for example.
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Liberalism
Knowledge check 10
Linked concepts
Limited government is linked to laissez-faire capitalism — in order to restrict List five ways to make
the size of the government it is also necessary to restrict the role of the state sure the power of
within the economy. Both of these principles also allow for more individual government is limited.
freedom. (See page 26.)
In order to be free in the negative sense, and for egoistical individualism
to flourish, it is clearly necessary for government to have a very limited
involvement in people’s lives. (See page 18.)
There is division within liberalism over the role of state. Classical liberals argue that Enabling state
the state should act as a ‘nightwatchman’, its role being to protect individual freedom Associated with modern
through law. However, modern liberals go beyond this to call for an enabling state. liberalism, this offers a
Linked to their belief in positive freedom, modern liberals argue that the limited state ‘hand up not a handout’
leaves capitalism free to create huge inequalities. This results in many people being to ensure that individuals
unable to achieve their personal goals and potential as they are held back by poverty are helped to achieve their
and debt. The state needs to intervene, to ensure that all individuals have equality of ambitions and aims and
opportunity and positive freedom, and this may require the creation of a welfare state can be free in a positive
and intervention in the economy to protect the vulnerable from exploitation. state.
Exam tip
Remember that all liberals
John Locke (1632–1704) see a role for the state,
Although he trained as a medical doctor, John Locke went on to become even if it is a limited one.
one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment and is sometimes This differentiates them
considered to be the father of liberalism. Locke argued that government must from anarchists.
be limited and based on consent. The right to govern must come from the
people themselves, rather than because of traditions or religious authority. Mechanistic theory
Governments must be limited and respect individual rights. These rights are In opposition to the idea
liberty, life and property. of organic society, this
Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke did not believe that the state of nature was suggests that the state
chaotic and violent. However, he argued that the state was needed as is an artificial creation
an arbiter to judge disputes. A supporter of mechanistic theory, Locke that was devised by
developed social contract theory to argue that the citizens and the man to protect individual
government would make a hypothetical contract. The government would freedom.
promise to respect and preserve the freedoms of the people and in return Social contract theory
the citizens would give up some of their freedom and would promise to follow Government is based on
the rule of law. However, if the government abused its powers by taking away a contract between the
property, for example, the citizens had the right to break this contract. citizens and the state in
Locke’s ideal government would not be fully democratic, but he did argue that which the citizens agree
there must be separation of powers between the executive, legislature and to give up a limited part of
judiciary in order to prevent tyranny and ensure the rule of law. their freedom in return for
the protection of the law.
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Rationalism
Human rationality is the belief that humans have an innate understanding of right
and wrong and can make logical decisions based on facts and evidence rather
than making emotional decisions. Liberals view humans as capable of reason and
rationality. Unlike conservatives, they see the individual as the best judge of their
own actions and capable of making decisions and deciding what is right and wrong.
This leads logically to a mistrust of authority and governments. Liberals see humans
as selfish but capable of controlling their own destiny. This leads liberals to have an
optimistic view of human progress, in which society will improve and develop over
time. Rational individuals realise that cooperation and compromise are more sensible
than conflict and war. This will lead to tolerance and harmony in society. It also links
to the liberal belief in the value of education and the capacity for humans to learn.
The idea of human reason and rationality dates back to the Enlightenment and is
a response to early ideas that humans were flawed, weak characters, controlled by
emotion and needing the strong guidance of a monarch with traditional authority. A
belief that humans are rational and reasonable implies that there is no need for strong
government and that instead individuals should be given as much freedom as possible.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97)

Mary Wollstonecraft studied the liberal ideas of rights, liberty and reason
inspired by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution and asked, logically,
why women did not have any of these rights and why these new ideas were
seen as being for men only. Wollstonecraft was writing at a time when women
were effectively the property of either their father or their husband and had no
independent legal status. Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of
Woman (1792), arguing that legal and formal rights should apply to both men
and women rather than just to men, as women were clearly rational individuals,
just like men.
A key figure in the development of the idea of human rights, Wollstonecraft
suggested that women could contribute a great deal to society if they were
properly educated. With education, women could be independent and
autonomous and could contribute a great deal more to society than most
of her idle and vacuous (in her opinion) middle-class contemporaries. She
described these women as being trapped in a ‘gilt cage’. In A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman, her criticism of Rousseau’s Emile, Wollstonecraft attacked
Rousseau’s desire for girls’ education to focus on making them supportive
companions to men.
Like later liberal feminists, Wollstonecraft emphasised the importance of
motherhood to women. ‘I do not wish (women) to have power over men,
but over themselves,’ she wrote. As a supporter of freedom, Wollstonecraft
believed women should be able to have careers and education and should also
be able to own property, but she saw this as a matter of personal choice.
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Liberalism
Foundational equality
Wollstonecraft lived an unconventional life and was seen as a scandalous The idea that we are all
figure at the time. Tragically, she died at the age of 38 while giving birth to her born equal with natural
second child, Mary, who went on to write Frankenstein. Wollstonecraft’s ideas rights and that these are
are also highly relevant to the study of feminism, if you are covering that topic. therefore inalienable and
However, you cannot use her as one of the key thinkers for that topic. it is impossible to take
them away from us.
Formal equality
Equality/social justice Equality before law — the
theory that equality must
Liberals are supporters of foundational equality, believing that we are all born
be ensured by the law and
equal and are of equal value. Therefore we should all be judged by the ‘content of our
it must treat everyone as
character’ (Martin Luther King) and should be governed by the rule of law. However,
the same, regardless of
as individualists, liberals argue that the implication of this is that governments must
background, gender, etc.
ensure the rule of law, so that all are equal in the eyes of the law. This equality
under law is called formal equality and means that liberals are opposed to any form
of discrimination. Linked to this is a belief in political equality, that one person is Knowledge check 11
entitled to one vote only and all of these votes should have equal value. Note that this
does not mean that liberals believe in universal suffrage. What is the liberal view of
equality?
Liberals also very much favour equality of opportunity. However, the outcome of this
will not be full social equality as humans have different talents and abilities and are
personally responsible for the amount of effort they put in. This view of equality is clearly Equality of
in contrast to that of socialists. Liberals argue that the socialist commitment to equality opportunity Everyone
of outcome means that everyone will be treated the same, which is unfair, collectivist should have the same
and will prevent individual liberty. There is some difference of opinion between classical chances to get on in life
and modern liberals over what equality of opportunity means, with classicals seeing it as and to achieve goals and
a chance for the unfettered individual to sink or swim and modern liberals believing that ambitions, regardless of
the state must step in to create a meritocracy or level playing field. social background and
other factors.
Meritocracy A society
Linked concept in which everyone has
In order to create a meritocratic society, it is essential that everyone has equal the chance to better
opportunities and that all are treated equally regardless of background, so themselves, based on
those with talents and abilities are able to rise to the top. (See above.) equal opportunity.
Betty Friedan (1921–2006)

Betty Friedan, a key figure in the development of liberal feminism, examined
the role of the public and private spheres which are central to liberal thought.
These spheres are used to keep government limited in the sense that liberals
believe that the private sphere is not a realm for state interference, and that
tyranny and authoritarianism will result from a government that interferes in the
personal relationships of the home.
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Friedan agreed with this limited role for government but argued that women
were often trapped in domestic life and needed to be able to leave the private
sphere if they wished and enter the public world of politics, education and
work. However, what makes Friedan a staunch liberal is that she believed this
firmly to be a matter of choice and individual freedom.
Her bestseller, The Feminine Mystique (1963), inspired the development of
second-wave feminism. It was hugely influential, changing the lives of many
American women, and is regarded as one of the most important books of
the twentieth century. Written while Friedan was a suburban housewife, and
based on interviews with similar women, it examined the false belief or myth
that women are satisfied by domestic life. Friedan argued that many were
bored and unsatisfied but were too ashamed to admit this. These women had
sacrificed their desires (and positive freedom) for family life, and they had no
choice in this matter due to social expectations. This clearly goes against core
liberal values.
Another key liberal trait in Friedan’s work is her commitment to reform via
legislation and through pressure groups. As well as being a writer she was an
activist and feminist who set up the National Organization for Women in 1966
and campaigned for legal equality and abortion rights. Her ideas should be
used in your study of feminism, if you are covering that too.
In The Second Stage (1981), Friedan angered many feminists by criticising
feminism for becoming too radical and alienating the many women who
wanted and were satisfied by a domestic, family-based life. This highlights her
commitment to liberal values of freedom, choice, equality of opportunity and
individualism.
Liberal democracy
Liberalism and democracy are not necessarily natural partners. Many, particularly
classical liberals such as J. S. Mill, were concerned that democracy was a collectivist
concept that would lead to the tyranny of the majority. A threat to private property
would result, thereby leading to a threat to individual freedom. The majority could
also persecute the minority and this was particularly concerning if the majority
were uneducated and resented the more educated. Some liberals believed that there
should not be universal suffrage and that the franchise should be based on some
sort of property qualification. There was also a fear that property rights would not be
protected in a democratic state, as the majority of voters would be without property
and jealous of those who were not.
In contrast, modern liberals are in favour of democracy as they see it as the best
and only way to limit the power of the state. In order to govern, rulers must seek
the agreement and consent of the population, and this consent can be withdrawn at
election time. It is also linked to the liberal belief in pluralism — the spreading of
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Liberalism
power away from the centre — as in a democracy there will be free speech and media
and competition between parties. Education of the public and political participation
itself have a positive impact on the personal development of the rational individual,
enhancing their freedom.
Liberal democracy is a form of democracy that attempts to reconcile democracy —
universal suffrage and representation of the people — with liberal principles such as
the protection of individual rights and a belief in pluralism. This form of government
is seen across the Western world today, although it may now be in decline. Central
to this form of democracy is the idea of limited government, in order to prevent
concentrations of power and authoritarianism. This limited government can be
protected by universal suffrage, a free press, a wide range of pressure groups and Knowledge check 12
regular elections with a wide choice. A codified constitution, such as that of the
Name two recent UK laws
USA, separates and divides power between an executive, legislature and independent
that would be supported
judiciary. Modern liberals also tend to favour proportional representation as a way of
by a liberal.
ensuring minority voices are heard.
Differing views and tensions within liberalism

Classical liberalism
Classical liberals believe in negative freedom or freedom from, the idea that freedom
means the lack of restraint and restriction, based on the idea that humans are the best
judges of their own actions. A dominant area of thought in the nineteenth century, its
legacy can also be seen in 1970s’ neo-liberal thought, strongly influencing Thatcher,
for example.
Individualism, for classical liberals, means atomism and the idea that human nature
is egoistical and self-serving. Individuals should be free to do as they wish, not just in
economics but in all spheres, as long as this does not intrude on the freedom (in the
negative sense) of any others. This is based on the idea that as humans are rational,
they will tend to make the best decisions when left alone to do so. English philosopher
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) developed the idea of utilitarianism — the greatest
happiness of the greatest number. He argued that people are motivated by the desire
for enjoyment and happiness, and if something increases this then it is right. This
could lead to the suppression of a minority group, for example, in order to improve the
well-being of the majority.
For classical liberals with their firm belief in negative freedom, the state should
act only as a ‘nightwatchman’, preventing citizens from harming each other and
restricting individual freedom. At best, the state is a necessary nuisance. At worst,
it is oppressive and coercive. This minimal state therefore has a role relating to Minimal state The idea
law and order — courts, police and justice — and under no circumstances should that the state should be
be involved in the running of the free market or interfering in the personal lives of as small and limited as
private individuals. Governments should confine themselves to creating and enforcing possible in order for the
the law, mainly to protect private property and life and to safeguard natural rights citizens to be free to do
(particularly those of property owners). Liberals see individual rights as natural and whatever they choose.
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this is linked to their belief in formal equality. Locke talked about ‘life, liberty and
property’ and Thomas Jefferson, third president of the USA, about ‘life, liberty and
the pursuit of happiness’. Equality in legal terms would be enough to create equality
of opportunity. Government must be limited and the state and society itself are
just areas where we pursue our self-interest as individuals rather than entities in
themselves.
Linked concept
A belief in the minimal state suggests a belief in human rationality, i.e. that we
are able to make our own decisions and judgements and manage our own life
affairs. (See page 18.)
Classical liberals are very concerned about interference in the economy, supporting
free trade and laissez-faire capitalism in the nineteenth century, for example. They Laissez-faire
argue that government intervention will prevent the freedom of business to create capitalism The free
profits and lead innovation. The aim is to create profit and the economy is in the market without state
hands of private individuals. Adam Smith argued that the market could and would regulation of any sort.
regulate itself with its ‘invisible hand’, based on the idea of supply or demand. A free Individuals are free to
individual can choose to enter any contract they like. enter contracts and trade
with whoever they please.
Classical liberals strongly reject any ideas of a welfare state. This, they argue, will
destroy wealth through taxation, depriving the enterprising of the fruits of their
success. The welfare system itself will restrict individual freedom by encouraging a
dependency culture and idleness. Only if someone is physically or mentally incapable
of work should they be supported. You can see from this that classical liberals were
influenced by the nineteenth-century idea of Social Darwinism — inequality is seen
as natural, life is competitive, and the stronger will prevail through natural selection.
Unlike anarchists, classical liberals do not reject the state completely. Their view of
human nature — that it is selfish and uninterested in the welfare of others — leads
logically to a belief that the state is needed to protect us from each other. However,
due to their belief in negative freedom, this state must be very restricted.
Finally, classical liberals are suspicious of democracy, seeing it as a form of ‘mob rule’
Knowledge check 13
in which the masses will oppress minorities and steal property. Therefore democracy
is an affront to individual freedom. Classical liberals believe that equality and What is the core
freedom are contradictory terms. With their pessimistic view of human nature, they economic belief of a
fear that all politicians, even those voted in by the majority, will become corrupt and classical liberal?
greedy.
Modern liberalism
Classical liberalism was widely accepted in the pre-democratic Victorian age,
among the political classes at least. However, its appeal began to fade as the impact
of the industrial revolution became clear. Poverty, sickness and ignorance were
commonplace. Liberal thought developed with the work of writers such as English
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philosopher T. H. Green (1836–82), who argued that classical liberalism would not
lead to the freedom it aimed to, apart from for a successful few. The formal equality,
based on law, had not led to equality of opportunity in any way. Developmental
equality — self-realisation — required state intervention. When people spent most
of their lives working in unhealthy conditions and without rights, they were in no
position to develop as rational individuals. Capitalism and an inactive state had
increased poverty and created division.
At the start of the twentieth century, the 1906–14 Liberal government, led by Asquith
and Lloyd George, introduced a range of welfare measures, leading to a huge clash
with the House of Lords in 1911. A belief in positive freedom, the ability to achieve
goals, leads to a very different view of the role of the state. The Beveridge Report
(1942) argued that beginning life disadvantaged meant that opportunities to prosper
were unequal, and formal equality would do nothing to change this. Positive freedom
requires freedom from social evils such as poverty and ignorance in order to ensure
the greatest opportunity for individual development and self-fulfilment. Modern
liberalism is therefore less individualistic and the idea that all should be free to
achieve goals suggests some belief in the idea of the common good, that individuals
Keynesianism
are not truly free if some of their contemporaries are not.
This theory rejected
J. S. Mill explored the idea of individuality and argued that some people will fail to laissez-faire capitalism
thrive through no fault of their own, e.g. lack of educational provision. Therefore the and advocated state
state has a role to ensure that all individuals have a real chance to achieve success in intervention and
life and therefore true liberty. This can be called developmental individualism, rather investment in the
than egoistical individualism where a human has no interest in the fulfilment of economy in order to
others. protect workers and
Modern liberals therefore see the state as a source of empowerment rather than maintain stability.
oppression. Keynesianism, developed by John Maynard Keynes in the mid-twentieth
century, involves economic management, such as progressive taxation or regulations
on working rights, universal free education and welfare, and measures such as Exam tip
unemployment and sickness benefits. It is seen as enabling individual freedom rather Liberalism has had a
than being coercive. Keynes believed in the mixed economy and argued that full huge impact on New
employment should be the aim of every government. The aim of the intervening state Right thinking. This can
is to create a level playing field and therefore true equality of opportunity. be confusing as it is an
aspect of conservatism.
It has also influenced
Linked concept socialism, particularly
Keynesianism advocates an active economic policy and rejects the free through Keynesian
market. This is an example of the enabling state, which helps citizens so that economics. Don’t forget
they can be employed and can then be free in the positive sense to achieve that Keynes was actually
goals. (See page 21.) a liberal.
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Do not make the mistake of seeing modern liberals as having the same ideas and
principles as socialists. Although there is clearly a link between them and revisionist
socialists such as Blair, the focus is always on the individual and enabling the
individual to fulfil goals, rather than on a ‘cradle to grave’ collectivist vision. Although
liberal reforms did lead to the foundations of the welfare state, they were always Exam tip
limited and aimed at preventing dependency culture.
Questions on liberalism
In contrast to classical liberals, modern liberals support democracy, particularly in come down to exploring
its liberal form, seeing it as the only way to spread power away from the centre and the differences between
prevent dangerous concentrations and tyranny. Democracy should lead to greater different types of
participation, improving education and encouraging individual self-development. liberalism — all essays
should include mention
Some argue that modern liberalism represents an almost complete break from
of both classical and
classical liberalism. However, the focus is very much on the rational, self-interested
modern but you must
individual rather than on any group or collective body. Individual needs and interests
compare them rather than
are the starting point and society should be based on giving individuals the greatest
describe them.
opportunity to satisfy their talents and interests.
John Rawls (1921–2002)

John Rawls, a modern liberal, invites us to imagine that we are behind a
hypothetical ‘veil of ignorance’, in that we don’t know how and where we will
end up in society. For example, we don’t know our gender, ethnicity or class,
nor do we know our character and talents, for example whether we are hard-
working or lazy. He argues that if we didn’t know any of this, we would opt for
a much fairer system, just in case we ended up at the bottom. This system
would be based on freedom and equal opportunities, and it would also be one
in which there was not a large gap between the rich and the poor. Because we
would come to this decision from a neutral perspective, it should be accepted Knowledge check 14
by all as correct and truly fair. What is the difference
A Theory of Justice (1971) is one of the most important works of post-war between social liberalism
political philosophy. In it, Rawls argues that the aim of government should be and economic liberalism?
to achieve liberty for all. This must be accompanied by equality of opportunity,
which would lead to the creation of a truly free society. This society would
include inequality only if this would help the poorest to improve their positions.
Rawls argued that the role of liberalism is to create the social conditions in
which people can flourish and live the life they choose to. It should not tell
people how they should live in terms of morality.
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Summary
Liberalism developed as a result of eighteenth-century Enlightenment
ideas that rejected absolute monarchies. The key areas of agreement and
disagreement within classical and modern liberalism are:
■ Human nature All liberals believe in human rationality and capacity for
progress. Humans are not governed by passions and emotions but by
reason and they base their decisions on evidence. This means that they
are able to determine their own actions and must be free from constraint.
However, modern liberals go beyond negative freedom to support positive
freedom — freedom to achieve goals.
■ Society Liberals argue that individuals have the right to liberty in economic,
social and political life. They are supporters of individualism and tolerance,
the need to accept a variety of lifestyles and views in society. They also
believe in natural rights and formal equality, that we are all born equal and
that this should have protection in law. Classical liberals support egoistical
individualism, seeing society as made up of self-interested individuals.
Modern liberals support the idea of developmental individualism, the
capacity for all to develop and flourish. They also believe in going beyond
foundational equality to equality of opportunity.
■ State Liberals are supporters of limited government — the belief that
government should be restricted, legitimate and accountable and that
individuals should be able to help themselves rather than become
dependent. Classical liberals favour a ‘nightwatchman’ minimal state only,
while modern liberals argue that an enabling state ensures that all citizens
can be free in the positive sense to achieve goals and to fulfil potential.
■ Economy All liberals are supporters of capitalism as they see it as an aspect
of individual freedom. However, they are divided between classical liberals
who favour laissez-faire economics and self-reliance, and modern liberals
who see intervention in the economy and Keynesian economics as essential
to ensuring equality of opportunity and positive freedom.
Liberalism has had a major impact on other ideologies, particularly socialism
and conservatism. However, its values are now under threat from the rise of
nationalism and conservatism in Russia and the USA for example.
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■ Socialism Exam tip

Socialism has more than
two strands. It is a very
Core ideas and principles broad area and can be
Socialism developed in the nineteenth century as a response to the clear inequalities hard to understand.
and social divisions created by the industrial revolution and capitalism. Its aim is to Social democracy (or
create a fairer and more equal alternative, through either revolution or evolution, and reformist socialism)
it sees human nature as naturally social and collective. sweeps from being
anti-capitalist to fully
Collectivism supporting capitalism, for
Socialists argue that collectivism, which implies cooperation with others rather example.
than competitive individual self-striving, is both morally and economically superior
to individualism. This argument also relates to the socialist critique of capitalism,
as an example of economic individualism. Collectivism is seen as morally superior Cooperation Linked to
because it leads to cooperation and prevents the conflict and aggression caused by socialists’ positive view
individual self-striving. It has a positive and unifying effect on society and has both of human nature, the
moral and economic benefits. This is linked to the socialist interpretation of human idea is that humans are
nature that sees humans as naturally social, altruistic beings, so collectivism is a malleable and moulded
natural development. It is economically superior because it prevents unnecessary and by circumstances but
wasteful competition and in theory results in greater productivity. tend towards altruism.
We are social beings and
naturally work with others.
Linked concept
A belief that humans are naturally social and cooperative suggests that
working together will be more effective than working in competition and takes a
collectivist approach to society. (See below.)
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, collectivism was mostly associated with
the state being the collectivist body, as an alternative to the private ownership
associated with capitalism. However, collectivism has been interpreted in many
different ways by different types of socialists. For fundamentalist socialists/
communists in the twentieth century, such as Fidel Castro, collectivism was
interpreted as state planning and the abolition of private property. This involved the
nationalisation of all the means of production, leading to total state control of the
organisation of the economy. In contrast, social democrats would see collectivism as
exemplified by the welfare state, a system where all contribute via progressive taxation
and all benefit, with no opt-outs.
Another form of collectivism which is not associated with state power is the trade
union movement. Trade unions are based on the collectivist idea that workers coming
together to form democratic organisations will achieve a better outcome for all.
The cooperative movement is also an interesting example of collectivism.
Cooperatives can be worker owned or consumer owned. The Co-operative Group in
the UK is a successful example.
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Common humanity .
Socialists argue that by nature humans are altruistic, thinking of others and
empathising with the feelings and suffering of others. Compassion is part of human
nature, which is plastic and moulded by circumstance. Socialists take the nurture
rather than the nature perspective, arguing that we are the product of our society and
environment and therefore can be understood only with reference to others. Crime,
for example, is not due to some people being ‘born bad’ but due to the impact of the
social environment and upbringing. All socialists therefore have a positive view of
human nature, arguing that we have potential for improvement and betterment of all
in society.
Many socialists reject ideas such as nationalism to argue that common humanity
crosses borders. Socialism has been closely linked to internationalism and the idea
that class consciousness crosses state borders. It can be seen to oppose nationalist
ideas to emphasise the fraternity between people. Fraternity The
brotherhood (or
Equality sisterhood) of all.
Socialists are egalitarians, believing that equality is a core political principle and an Socialists believe in
aspect of our social human nature. A belief in equality of outcome is possibly the community, seeing the
most important belief in socialism. If you don’t believe in it, you are not a socialist. bonds between people
Equality of outcome goes beyond liberal arguments for equality as it looks at the end as stronger than the
point and is focused on resources. Socialists argue that liberal beliefs in equal rights divisions.
and equality of opportunity are illusory due to the unfair structure of society. By this
they mean inherited privilege, both financial and personal or status related. Socialists Capitalism The system
argue that capitalism has caused great inequality as it is based on competition of property ownership
and as such there have to be winners and losers, and some have to be exploited to that developed after
create profits for others. A good example is the education system. There might be the end of feudalism. It
equal opportunity in theory, e.g. any student can apply to Oxbridge, but if you attend consists of the private
a private school with fantastic resources, small class sizes and highly skilled and ownership of the systems
motivated staff, plus have family support and an expectation that you will gain a of production and
place, you are clearly more likely to succeed. distribution.
Linked concept Exam tip
Capitalism is always linked to individualism rather than collectivism as it Avoid using the terms
encourages competition. Economic freedom and selfishness will always lead to ‘good’ and ‘bad’ because
inequality. (See pages 18 and 30.) they are subjective
and vague. This is
particularly important
Socialists do not believe, naively, that we all have the same skills and talents. when discussing human
However, they argue that this is not the main cause of inequality, which is in fact nature — socialists do
something over which we have no personal control: the unequal structures of society. not think that human
nature is ‘good’, rather
Social equality will lead to true positive freedom as it allows us to flourish and fulfil
they think it is malleable
our potential without the restriction of debt, poor health and poor housing, etc. It will
and social, which leads
also create more harmonious and stable communities as there is a sense of justice and
to the possibility of
fairness. We will receive what we need rather than what we can afford.
improvement.
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There is a debate among socialists about what exactly equality of outcome means —
narrowing the gap or removing it altogether? This is based on their preference in
terms of economic systems. Fundamentalist socialists argue that capitalism should be
abolished, leading to a redistribution of wealth and the abolition of private ownership
in favour of common ownership. In contrast, Social Democrats such as Anthony
Crosland argued that the welfare state should be used to narrow the gap between
rich and poor, without the need to abolish capitalism, using progressive taxation.
Third way supporters such as Peter Mandelson moved away from equality of outcome
altogether, arguing instead that it was fine to be ‘filthy rich’ and instead focusing on
reducing social exclusion and introducing various measures to reduce poverty, such as
tax credits and the minimum wages.
Social class
This is a very important theme in fundamentalist socialism. Marx and Engels
developed the idea that there were two classes in capitalist society, whose interests
were fundamentally at odds with each other: the proletariat — the workers — and
the bourgeoisie — the owners of production. The exploitation of the proletariat would
eventually lead to the development of a sense of class consciousness which would
cause the proletariat to inevitably form a mass movement based on trade unions. This
mass movement would eventually overthrow capitalism and a temporary workers’ state
would be created.
Social democrats took a different view of class, seeing the development of the middle
class and the more complex and mature nature of twentieth-century capitalism as
a sign that Marx’s view was no longer relevant. Social democrats see class conflict Social justice The fair
as an excluding and polarising idea, instead aiming to narrow the unjust differences distribution of wealth and
between classes and create harmony in society and social justice. opportunity in society.
Arguments about class are directly linked to a belief in equality of outcome. Class Exam tip
creates different social outcomes — access to healthcare, education and financial
Use key terms from the
resources is heavily determined by the class you are born into, and it is therefore very
specification rather than
much out of the control of the individual, regardless of their hard work or talent.
your own versions of
Third way supporters do not use the language of class at all, seeing it as divisive and words. For example, when
preventing left-wing parties from appealing to a wide range of voters. They prefer to discussing Marxism,
focus on supporting the underclass, or the socially excluded, to rejoin society. use ‘proletariat’ and
‘bourgeoisie’ rather than
Workers’ control the less specific ‘rich’ and
All socialists are concerned about the negative impact on society and individuals ‘poor’.
of private property, which they see as leading to inequality and exploitation. Some
socialists believe that capitalism should be abolished and the workers should
participate in the economic management of their place of work and share in
the profits. This theory is an alternative to top-down state-central planning and
nationalisation, as used by twentieth-century communist states such as the USSR and
China, and is therefore much more democratic.
Syndicalists argue for workers’ control via trade unions. A major movement in early
twentieth-century France and Italy, syndicalism aimed to overthrow governments
through the use of general strikes and radical trade union action.
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As mentioned briefly earlier, the cooperative movement is a good example of a non-

Marxist approach to workers’ control and an alternative form of economics. Developed
in the nineteenth century by the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, it originally
consisted of groups of small retailers coming together to combine their buying power.
Cooperatives are democratic organisations controlled by their members, and profits
are shared. The Co-operative Group is the largest mutual business in the UK, owned
by its 7 million customers and members. There are also workers’ cooperatives, for Exam tip
example Suma, a very successful wholesale business. Learn three examples of
collectivism in practice
from contrasting strands
Linked concept of socialism, e.g. state
A belief in collectivism and that working together is natural leads to the socialism and the
argument that there should be non-hierarchical collective ownership and cooperative movement.
management of the means of production, e.g. workplaces. (See page 30.)
Differing views and tensions within socialism

Revolutionary socialism
Revolutionary socialism, linked closely to Marxism, refers to a strand in socialist Marxism A form of
thought that argues that the only way to achieve socialist goals is to overthrow the revolutionary socialism
existing system and replace it with something substantively different. This theory involving the belief in the
developed in the nineteenth century and took various forms. It was very appealing to inevitability of a mass
many at a time when the vote was either completely denied or given to the property- uprising of the proletariat,
owning male. Trade unions were illegal, political parties offering representation to the leading to a revolution.
working class did not exist and workers were given few rights. Revolutionary socialists Marx believed that
argued that there was no alternative to revolution because the state itself was not a historical change was
benign body but an instrument of the ruling or bourgeois class, therefore it could not due to clashes between
be reformed but had to be smashed. Therefore they could argue that even if the vote owners and producers.
was won, it would be a facade, a trick and a pretence to suggest that the interests of
the proletariat would now be acknowledged.
Revolutionary socialists use radical means to achieve radical ends. Those ends would
include the total abolition of capitalism, class and private property, usually described
as communism. This would lead to a redistribution of wealth, the end of class
division, and absolute equality. Marx argued that this would take place after a short
period called ‘the dictatorship of the proletariat’ where the revolution would secure
itself and remove enemies before the achievement of full communism. Communism An
economic system in which
the means of production
Linked concept are owned in common
Marxists aim for a society in which after the revolution and temporary rather than by individuals
dictatorship of the proletariat, private property would be abolished and and where social class
everything would be owned by the people collectively in a communist society. and inequality are
(See page 34.) abolished.
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The Russian Revolution in 1917 was the first successful socialist revolution, taking Knowledge check 15
place in a country which had not experienced much industrialisation or attempts to
What is the difference
create a more democratic system. Lenin adapted Marx’s ideas of a mass movement to
between a revolution and
create the idea of an intellectual vanguard class, which would lead the revolution on
a coup?
behalf of the unpoliticised peasants. In the twentieth century, revolutionary socialism
inspired many all over the world to rise up against oppressors, and it was particularly
important in the anti-colonial movement. Socialist revolutions also took place in
China and Cuba.
The consequences of revolutionary socialism proved disappointing for many socialists.
Marx’s idea that the state would ‘wither away’ proved wrong. In fact, very authoritarian
states — replacing capitalism with a collectivised economy — often resulted in a lack
of respect for civil rights and restrictions on the media and opposition groups. In order
to protect the revolution from its enemies, new governments felt that they needed
to be as disciplined and strong as the revolutionaries themselves had been. Today
revolutionary socialism is much less relevant, linked to the failure of the USSR and
the collapse of communism in 1989/90.
Exam tip
Understanding socialism requires a knowledge of European history. Changes in the
ideology are connected to specific historical events, such as the growth of the franchise.
Particularly useful will be the impact of the industrial revolution, the significance of the
Russian Revolution, the Cold War and the collapse of communism in 1989. However,
remember that your essays are about political ideas and no detailed description of
historical events is needed.
Karl Marx (1818–83) and Friedrich Engels (1820–95)

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were German exiles living in the UK in the
1870s. In The Communist Manifesto (1848), Marx and Engels argued that
Historical materialism
revolution was inevitable as there was a contradiction at the heart of capitalism.
The cause of change in
Marx argued that his form of socialism avoided the utopian idealism of earlier
society is the conflict
forms. He claimed that historical materialism involved a scientific analysis of
between classes, be it
human society, based on his study of history and dialectics. The inevitability of
feudal lord and peasant or
socialism could be proved, rather than just being a desirable aim.
bourgeois factory owner
In their analysis, Marx and Engels argued that capitalism, like previous stages and proletariat.
in history such as feudalism, contains the seeds of its own destruction. Within
capitalism, Marx argued, society is split between two opposing classes, Dialectics Developed
the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The interests of these two groups are by Hegel, this theory
fundamentally at odds with each other. The bourgeoisie’s aim of making profit suggests that ideas
depends on the exploitation of the proletariat. Marx used the term ‘surplus conflict — the thesis is
value’ to describe how workers are (and must be) paid less than the true value the first idea, contradicted
of their labour in order to generate profit. The workers get no satisfaction by the antithesis, and
from what they produce as they are merely part of the process. They often do the synthesis emerges.
not see the end product and cannot afford it either. Marx described this as Marx developed this to
alienation. In recent years, the treatment of workers in the garment industry in describe the relationship
countries such as China and Bangladesh is a clear example of this process. between the proletariat
and the bourgeoisie.
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Socialism
Marx borrowed the idea of dialectics from German philosopher G. W. F.

Hegel (1770–1831) but developed it to create an economics/materialist-
based argument that within each society there are opposing forces (e.g.
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat). Once class consciousness develops Class consciousness
among the proletariat, these two forces will eventually clash, leading to a new The Marxist idea that the
stage of history. Marx saw class conflict as the driving force in history, be it proletariat would become
bourgeoisie and proletariat or slave and slave owner. This, he argued, was aware that their economic
scientific analysis as it was proven and factually based rather than wishful position in society was
thinking. Revolution was therefore inevitable and would lead to the abolition of in conflict with that of
capitalism. the bourgeois property-
Marx’s analysis of capitalism is still admired today and he is seen to have owning class and would
predicted globalisation and explored the unstable nature of capitalism, in join with others to form
which the poor always suffer most from its regular crashes. For Marxists, a mass revolutionary
capitalism must be overthrown and replaced with common ownership and movement.
substantial economic equality.
Marx and Engels argued that after the inevitable revolution, a classless and
stateless society would emerge, with no poverty and genuine equality of
outcome, thus resulting in emancipation. Before this, however, there would
need to be a temporary dictatorship of the proletariat, to prevent counter-
revolution. Once the revolution was safe and secure, the state itself would
‘wither away’, a theory that seems more like anarchism and certainly not the
result of any of the twentieth century’s socialist revolutions.
In The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884), Engels
examined the role of the family within capitalism. He argued that the nuclear
family was essential to profit making and that the subjugation of women was
part of the capitalist structure.
Rosa Luxemburg (1871–1919)
Marxist theorist and revolutionary socialist Rosa Luxemburg was a critic of the
revisionist socialism of German social democrat and political theorist Eduard
Bernstein (1850–1932). She attacked gradualism and parliamentarianism and
defended Marx’s ideas of dialectical materialism and his analysis of history.
However, Luxemburg was also a critic of the consequences of the Russian
Revolution and feared that it would lead to authoritarianism. She criticised
Lenin’s dismissal of the Russian Constituent Assembly in 1918 and thought
this would result in the failure of the revolution.
Luxemburg was strongly opposed to capitalism and it was gradualism’s
acceptance of capitalism that led her to reject it. She argued that exploitation
was at the heart of the capitalist system and as a result true equality would
never come about unless it was rejected. In Luxemburg’s view, social
democracy had failed the working classes because of its support and
acceptance of capitalism and imperialism. Luxemburg opposed the First World
War as an imperialist conflict that would not benefit the working classes.
Political ideas 35
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Content Guidance
Exam tip
Luxemburg developed a theory of revolutionary mass action. She believed that
the organisation of the class struggle had to come from below and should be Distinguish between the
based on a spontaneous uprising of the proletariat. She supported the mass means and the ends of
strike as a movement that would lead to class consciousness and radicalise socialism. Make sure
workers, and she believed this would then develop into a socialist revolution you know which the
naturally. exam question is asking
about — it could be either
A critic of Lenin’s democratic centralism — the theory that the revolutionary
or both. Use the wording
party needed a tight, disciplined structure and should be led by a vanguard
of the question to work
of intellectuals — she argued that this would lead to dictatorship. Some
this out.
communists saw her as a naive utopian as a result of this, while others saw her
as a true democrat.
In The Accumulation of Capital (1913), Luxemburg argued that capitalism Knowledge check 16
would lead to economic imperialism and would take over non-capitalist What are the first and last
markets. We might now call this globalisation. lines of The Communist
Luxemburg was executed in 1919, along with her colleague Karl Liebknecht, by Manifesto, written by
members of the Freikorps, a right-wing paramilitary group in Germany. Marx and Engels in 1848?
Linked concept Knowledge check 17

Marx and Engels believed that as the proletariat formed the majority of society What did Marx mean by
and was clearly and obviously being exploited by the bourgeoisie, it was ‘scientific socialism’?
inevitable that people would eventually become aware of how much they had
in common with their fellow workers (class consciousness) and would start to
organise themselves. (See page 32.)
Social democracy
Social democracy encompasses a broad range of beliefs, from those who believe in
similar ends to Marxists to those who are very accommodating of capitalism. Social
democrats are often called revisionists or reformists, and these terms are useful.
Revisionism, developed by Eduard Bernstein in the early twentieth century, suggests Revisionism Rejected
re-examining earlier theories in light of contemporary events and society. Reformism revolution as violent and
suggests gradual and peaceful change, rather than smashing the existing system. It unnecessary at a time
is also possible to distinguish between social democracy and democratic socialism, when the franchise was
particularly when discussing the ideas of the British Labour Party, although this is not being extended and
essential for an A-level Politics student. capitalism had proved
to be more complex and
enduring than Marx had
Linked concept expected.
Revisionists take a moderate approach to the goals of socialism, arguing
that capitalism need not be abolished. These beliefs result in a rejection of
revolution, as it is no longer necessary, and the evolutionary approach to
achieving socialist goals. (See page 37.)
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Socialism
Social democrats were inspired by the works of theorists such as Bernstein, whose
evolutionary socialism theory argued that capitalism had matured, the worker’s Evolutionary
position was improving and classes were able to compromise and cooperate. This socialism Achieving
meant that Marx was wrong — revolution was not inevitable and it was not desirable socialist goals through
either. Bernstein focused on democracy as the best way to achieve socialist goals and peaceful democratic and
was supportive of trade unions and other cooperative movements in their campaigns parliamentary means,
to improve workers’ rights. gradually via the ballot
box and political reforms.
Social democracy combines an acceptance of capitalism with a belief in a strong
interventionist state to restrict capitalism from its excesses and to provide some form
of welfare state in order to create equality in society.
Knowledge check 18
Linked concept
What is universal suffrage
Social democrats believe that the interventionist state is the best way to create
and when was it granted
a more equal society, raising taxes and spending them on a generous welfare
in the UK?
and education system and intervening in the economy to ensure that workers
are fairly paid and protected from exploitative employers. (See page 31.)
Gradualism refers to the theory that it is not revolution that is inevitable but
parliamentary socialism. Gradualists reject revolution and argue that the same or
similar ends can be achieved peacefully and democratically. This form of socialism is
inclusive of all classes and aims to unite the nation without class divisions.
As the economic and social position of the worker improved in the later part of the
nineteenth century, he (not she — yet) also received the vote and was integrated into
society through other means such as via trade unions. As a result, a political party
based on socialism (such as the Labour Party in the UK) would emerge to attract the
support of the new voters. Naturally, the working-class voter would be attracted to
a socialist party, as with its pledges of equality it would obviously be their political
home. The working-class voter would eventually form the majority of the electorate, so
the socialist party would soon find itself forming the government. Once in power, the
party could use the neutral state to introduce a series of measures to create a socialist
society. In contrast to revolutionary socialists, social democrats do not see the state as
a tool of the capitalist class. They argue that it is a neutral body that can be moulded
to fulfil any role assigned to it by those in power.
Social democrats are very critical of the inequalities caused by free-market capitalism,
but they also accept that capitalism is the best way of creating large amounts of
wealth. The economic failures of the Soviet system, with queues for food, prove this
for social democrats. So they do not reject capitalism but seek to reconcile socialism
with capitalism. This involves narrowing social and economic inequalities through
welfare and redistribution. The use of progressive taxation systems allows money
Political ideas 37
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Content Guidance
to be taken from the wealthy and given to the poor via the welfare state. Instead of Knowledge check 19
nationalisation of all businesses, social democrats favour a mixed economy, with a
When was the first Labour
combination of private enterprise and state control of the ‘heights of the economy’,
government (with a
such as water and electricity. John Maynard Keynes, a liberal economist, had a huge
majority)?
influence on twentieth-century social democracy, which encouraged active state
involvement in stimulating the economy.
Beatrice Webb (1858–1943)

Inspired by the revisionist socialist writer Bernstein, who was also very
inspired by them, Beatrice Webb and her husband, Sidney, rejected revolution
as violent and destructive and saw education and reform as the key to
creating a more equal society. Although they were highly critical of capitalism,
they argued that Marx’s analysis was now outdated and that a piecemeal,
step-by-step approach to socialism would be both more humane and more
successful than violent revolution. As supporters and founder members of the
Labour Party in 1901, they saw the state as a neutral body, an essential tool
that could be used to create a more equal and just society, rather than as a
bourgeois creation.
The Webbs were opposed to Marx’s stark class-based analysis. To them,
socialism should be an inclusive ideology and they argued that a socialist
society would appeal to those of all classes and that all would benefit. This
was linked to their belief in the central importance of education and the
spread of knowledge. The Webbs founded the Fabian Society, which still
holds influence over the Labour Party today, as well as the London School of
Economics and New Statesman magazine.
The Webbs were strongly in favour of state intervention in the economy. In
the 1930s they visited the Soviet Union, where they were impressed by the
improvements in health and education but noted the lack of political freedoms.
Their sociological studies on poverty can be seen as providing ideas and plans
for the creation of welfare provision, many years before the Beveridge Report.
Anthony Crosland (1918–77)
Labour politician and author Anthony Crosland’s book The Future of Socialism
(1956) had a huge impact on the Labour Party of the 1960s and 1970s and
arguably led it in a very new direction. Crosland argued that capitalism had
matured and transformed and owners were no longer in control of production
as there was a new class of managers who had grown in significance and
status. These men and women were not just focused on profit but realised that
they had to cooperate with unions, for example.
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Socialism
Crosland criticised the argument that support and commitment to nationalism

should be the central aim of party policy and argued that ownership of industry
should not be a priority for the Labour movement any more. A revisionist, he
believed that opposition to capitalism was pointless and that modern socialists
needed to adapt to modern society and accept private ownership and a mixed
economy. He argued that socialist parties should focus on the eradication of
poverty and the creation of a more equal society. The key to achieving this was
not by attacking the rich and dividing society on class lines but by spending
more on public services and education in order to achieve a fairer and more
(but not completely) equal society. Therefore Crosland was examining the
means to achieve socialism rather than the ends of it, and he was arguing
that the means needed to change with the times. He focused very much on
improving welfare and creating social justice. Economic growth needed to be
encouraged as it would lead, via a progressive taxation system, to a larger pot
of money being available to fund public services.
Exam tip
Linked concept
Textbooks may use
Social democrats support the nationalisation of key industries, which are
a range of terms that
owned by the state and the people rather than by profit-seeking individuals.
can be confusing, e.g.
This is a way of putting collectivist theory into practice. (See page 30.)
‘neo-revisionism’, ‘third
way’, ‘revisionism’,
Third way ‘social democracy’ and
Third way ideas developed as a response to the rise of neo-liberalism and the success ‘democratic socialism’.
of politicians such as Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan in the 1980s. Left- Make sure you know what
leaning parties such as the Labour Party made the pragmatic decision to abandon each of these is and try to
many of their socialist commitments in an attempt to win elections and lead be accurate when you use
governments. them. It’s sensible to stick
with the terms used in the
Arguably, third way is not a strand of socialist thought but actually a form of modern specification but whatever
liberalism. The term itself suggests that it has moved beyond left and right. Third you do, be consistent.
way ideas were developed by Anthony Giddens and were influential on Bill Clinton
as well as Blair and New Labour. Also referred to as neo-revisionism, it takes a
pragmatic approach to socialism, embracing free-market capitalism and public–private
partnerships, and favours the creation of more wealth rather than redistribution. Knowledge check 20
Third way supporters believe in a more limited welfare state, with a ‘carrot and stick’ Give one reason for the
or ‘hand up not hand out’ philosophy. This approach to politics was responding to the creation of New Labour in
decline of the industrial working class, the rise of the service sector and the need the 1990s.
to appeal more widely to get elected. In some respects, it is pragmatic rather than
ideological. New Labour recognised that globalisation meant it was difficult to reject
Political ideas 39
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Content Guidance
the free market as businesses would simply shift abroad. Therefore they chose to Exam tip
accept it. Changes in the class structure led the party to abandon class-based politics
In your answers, always
and to attempt to appeal to all and win votes from a broad section of society. Despite
try to include the views
this apparent shift to the right and rejection of class-based politics, third way ideas are
of different strands of
not fully supportive of individualism and can be described as ‘communitarian’, with a
socialists. Socialism is a
focus on communities and citizenship.
divided ideology, possibly
Third way supporters are happy to accept competition and support introducing the most divided that you
competition into the public sector, for example into the education system and the will study, so it is essential
NHS. Keynesian economics focusing on controlling demand and state intervention not to treat it as one or
was rejected by Tony Blair’s 1997 Labour government in favour of a focus on monetary even two sets of views.
control. However, there are clear elements of third way policies connected to
socialism. There is a focus on poverty reduction and social inclusion.
Anthony Giddens (1938–)

Hugely influential on Tony Blair, Giddens was one of the key theorists behind
the third way, the ideas of which arguably helped New Labour to victory in
1997. Giddens rejects Marxist analysis, arguing that there are no stages of
history and that class conflict will not inevitably lead to revolution. Attacking
the idea that politics comes from either the left (top-down socialism/statist
programmes) or the right (free-market capitalism), he argues that there is no
alternative to capitalism, particularly in the era of globalisation and the decline
of national sovereignty.
Giddens admired the work of Crosland, moving socialism towards a focus on
fairness and protecting people from the harsh effects of capitalism rather than
on equality of outcome and class conflict.
Those inspired by Giddens’ work, such as Tony Blair, reject state intervention
and accept free-market principles. This leads them to reject equality of
outcome and accept the liberal idea of meritocracy. Blair’s ‘education,
education, education’ slogan epitomised the focus on education and training
as the key to achieving social justice, rather than redistribution.
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Socialism
Summary
Socialism developed as a response to the obvious inequalities created by
capitalism in the nineteenth century. Socialists criticise capitalism and seek to
transform society in order to achieve social equality, justice and fairness.
Modern socialism is a diverse and divided ideology, and the key areas of
agreement and disagreement within beliefs of all socialists are:
■ Human nature All socialists have a positive and optimistic view of human
nature. They also believe in collectivism — the individual can be understood
only as part of a group. However, there is a distinction between Marxists,
who believe in collectivism and see people as social and altruistic, and the
move towards some acceptance of individualism by social democrats and,
much more significantly, by supporters of the third way.
■ Society Most socialists believe in equality of outcome and redistribution
of wealth to create a just and fair society for all. All socialists believe in
cooperation and fraternity to achieve common goals. However, Marxists
favour revolutionary methods and a complete transformation of the political
system. Social democrats argue that peaceful, gradual change is preferable
via the democratic system. There are also divisions between those who
argue for a completely equal society, social democrats who focus on
narrowing the divide, and third way supporters who are less concerned
about the gap and focus on reducing poverty.
■ State Socialists agree that the state creates inequality and represents the
interests of the ruling class. However, Marxists argue that the state is a tool
of the bourgeoisie and needs to be destroyed. Social democrats see the
state as a neutral body, whose institutions can be harnessed to implement
socialist reforms.
■ Economy Most socialists agree on opposition to capitalism and the free
market. However, Marxists believe in the abolition of capitalism and its
replacement with common ownership. Social democrats favour a mixed
economy, and supporters of the third way embrace capitalism and reject all
alternatives.
The twentieth century saw a gradual deradicalisation of socialism as a result of:
■ the spread of democracy
■ the rise of the middle class and the decline of the traditional working class
■ globalisation
■ the opposition of the media and the establishment
Since the collapse of communism in 1989/90, revolution as a means to achieve
socialism has been discredited and most socialists no longer wish to eradicate
capitalism.
Socialism has had to adapt to cope with a more materialistic and individualistic
society in order to remain able to win supporters. The third way developed as a
response to this and an attempt to remain electorally viable.
Political ideas 41
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Content Guidance
Non-core political ideas
■ Anarchism
Anarchism is defined by the belief that the state is both evil and unnecessary and that
humans can only realise their full potential and freedom without it. Do not make the
mistake of thinking that anarchism means chaos and violence. Anarchists believe that
humans are rational and capable of living cooperatively. However, there are divisions
in anarchism over human nature, the use of violence and what will replace the state,
making it sometimes hard to define.

Rejection of the state
The principal idea of all anarchists is the absolute and total abolition of the state.
Direct action Usually
For anarchists, the state is always corrupt and coercive and inevitably restricts
non-violent, direct action
humans’ liberty to decide and control their own destiny. Anarchists regard human
involves deliberately
nature as mouldable and, like liberals, they see power as corrupting. However,
breaking the law to make
they also argue that liberal ideas of a limited state with checks and balances are an
a political point.
impossible illusion, designed to give the false impression that it is possible to restrict
authority. All laws restrict individual freedom and we are threatened with violence Direct democracy
and punishment if we disobey them. To anarchists, the state is the tool of the wealthy Instead of electing
and privileged, so it also creates inequality. To get rid of the state, a revolution will be individuals to make
required — it won’t go down without a fight. However, anarchists reject the highly decisions on our behalf,
organised and disciplined approach of many Marxist revolutionaries. Instead they in a direct democracy we
prefer direct action and civil disobedience. Direct democracy will replace the actively participate in the
facade of representative democracy. decision-making process.
Linked concept
Anarchists believe in direct action and insurrection to achieve goals because
they reject representative democracy and elections, arguing that they lead to
inequality, corruption and restrictions of freedom. (See page 43.)
Emma Goldman (1869–1940)

Emma Goldman argued that it was not possible to restrict the powers of the
state, so voting itself was pointless. The modern state was seen to be a violent
and abusive force and to be truly free the individual had to be in full control of
their working lives.
To be a true anarchist, Goldman believed that you had to live the ideals yourself.
She was a highly influential activist, lecturing continuously across the USA.
She was sent to prison several times, was deported, attacked both the US and
USSR political systems, refused to marry and campaigned for birth control.
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Anarchism
Liberty
Positive freedom is the aim of all anarchists. True freedom is not possible with the
existence of any kind of state or authority, as this will always prevent the individual
from being in full control of their destiny. Anarchists therefore reject hierarchy
and leaders and see liberty as an essential aspect of human nature and personal
fulfilment. There is some disagreement over human nature within anarchism, with
collectivists seeing humans as intrinsically social and altruistic and individualists Altruism The belief that
taking a less optimistic view, arguing that humans are self-seeking and work with humans naturally put the
others only to benefit themselves. However, all anarchists, like liberals, believe in interests of others before
human rationality. their own.
Linked concept
Altruism suggests that human nature is cooperative and collectivist and that
there can be spontaneous peace and harmony in society because without
government, solidarity is natural. (See page 31.)
Anarchy is order
In contrast to the views of conservatives and liberals such as Hobbes, anarchists
argue that it is the state that causes instability and violence, and without the state, the
rational human will live peacefully alongside others. Anarchists reject organisation
and planning, instead believing that natural order and harmony will develop
spontaneously once the state has been abolished by a revolution. They believe that
human beings have the potential to manage their own affairs and live peacefully.
Economic freedom
This is an issue over which anarchists do not agree, apart from their shared rejection Knowledge check 21
of the role of the state in economic affairs. Collectivist anarchists argue for the Name three examples of
abolition of capitalism and its replacement with a system that will create equality, anarchist tactics.
such as direct, face-to-face, voluntary interactions or voucher systems based on hours
of work. In contrast, right-wing anarcho-capitalists believe that the functions of the
state can be carried out much more efficiently and effectively by the free market.
Mikhail Bakunin (1814–76)

Mikhail Bakunin was an anarcho-communist who believed that humans
are naturally social and collective. He rejected all forms of authority and
capitalism, seeing them as incompatible with freedom. Like all anarchists,
he was a revolutionary who believed that people should live in small, self-
governing communes with absolute equality and collective control of the
means of production.
Political ideas 43
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Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

Student Guide 3: Political Ideas 2nd

HE magazine _jan-21_200x140.indd 1 02/02/2021 16:05

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Questions and Answers

Knowledge check answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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■ Getting the most from this book

Knowledge check answers

Questions and Answers

questions Student A answer

One-nation, traditional conservatism and, more recently, the neo-

Read the comments showing

Sample student answers

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■ About this book

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Core ideas and principles

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Key thinkers and their ideas

Edmund Burke (1729–97)

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Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

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Libertarianism (specifically neo-liberalism)

Key thinkers and their ideas

Ayn Rand (1905–82)

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Rand was an atheist, calling for a ‘complete separation’ similar to that of

Differing views and tensions within conservatism

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Neo-conservatives can be described as social authoritarians, believing that due to

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Key thinkers and their ideas

Michael Oakeshott (1901–90)

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Key thinkers and their ideas

John Stuart Mill (1806–73)

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Key thinkers and their ideas

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97)

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Key thinkers and their ideas