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 5th
Edition 5th Editiorn
Combining theory. research. and applications. this popular text guides
college students on how to become self-regulated learners. Students
gain knowledge about human motivation and learning as they improve
MOTIVATION ANO LEARNING
their study skills. The focus is on relevant information and features to
help students to identity the components of academic learning that STRATEGIES FOR COLLEGE SUCCESS
contribute to high achievement. to master and practice effective
learning and study strategies. and then to complete self-regulation A Focus on Self .. Regulated Learning
studies that teach a process for improving their academic behavior.
A framework organized around motivation. methods of learning.
time management. control of the physical and social environment.
and monitoring performance makes it easy for students to recognize
what they need to do to become academically more successful.
Pedagogical features include Exercises. Follow-Up Activities. Student
Reflections. Chapter Reviews. Key Points. and a Glossary.

New In the Fifth Edition

• Discussion of the importance of sleep in learning and memory
• Revised and updated chapter on self-regulation of emotions
• Current research on the impact of students' use of technology
including digitallearning platlorms and tools. social media. and
onJine laaroing
• Updated Companion Website resources lor students and
instructors

Myron H. Dembo is Emeritus Prolessor 01 Educational Psychology in the

Rossier School of Education at the University 01 Southern Calilornia. USA.
Helena SeU is Associate Prolessor of Clinical Education in the Rossier
School 01 Education at the University of Southern California. USA.

EDUCATION / COLLEGE STUDY SKILLS

",M",/.
8@~
1t-<E'8S\'\((..

Please visit the Companion Website at www.routledge.com/cw/dembo

LB2343
S45201S UNAM 1111111111
60
BIBLIOTECA CENTRAL

MYRON H. OEMBO ANO HELENA SEU

 Motivation and Learning
Strategies for College Success
'.

i •

Combining theory, research, and applications, this popular text guides

college students on how to become self-regulated learners. Students gain
knowledge about human motivation and learning as they improve their study
skills. The focus is on relevant information and features to help students
to identify the components of academic learning that contribute to high
achievement, to master and practice effective learning and study strategies,
and then to complete self-regulation studies that teach a process for
improving their academic behavior. A framework organized around
motivation, methods oflearning, time management, control of the physical
and social environment, and monitoring performance makes it easy for
students to recognize what they need to do to become academically more
successful. Pedagogical features inc1ude Exercises, Follow-Up Activities,
Student Reflections, Chapter Reviews, Key Points, and a Glossary.
New in the Fifth Edition:

• Discussion of the importance of sleep in learning and memory

• Revised and updated chapter on self-regulation of emotions
• Current research on the impact of students' use of technology inc1uding
digitallearning platforms and tools, social media, and online learning
Updated Companion Website resources for students and instructors

Myron H. Dembo is Emeritus Professor of Educational Psychology in the

Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California, USA.

Helena Seli is Associate Professor of Clinical Education in the Rossier

School of Education at the University of Southern California; USA.
 Motivation and )~' f;' ., • ••
,iAf--;,;,i: "'l.~;'t-~.,j: , : ..

Learning Strategies
for College Success

A FOCUS ON SELF-REGULATED
LEARNING

Fifth Edition

Myron H. Dembo
Helena Seli

I~ ~~o~;!~n~~~up
NEWYORKAND LONDON
 Fifth edition published 2016
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Miltan Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

UNA" Routledge is an imprint 01 the TayloT & Francis Group, an informa business
CEIITRAL © 2016 Taylar & Frands

CLASIF• ..J.L~8:..:.2",,"3-.1-1./.::::.3_ The right of Myron H. Dembo and Helena Seli to be identified as authors
of this work ha:. been asserteu by them in accorJance wii.h seetians 77 and 78 To Nancy, Lisa, Deborah, Brayden,
-3 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
and Taylor
11)5 ;]0 I Ej AH rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,

M"TRIZ...l.I...J9..:;:,b..;;::5.,:.\1:..;;6~
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, To Gerry, Thomas, Lukas, and Annalisa
,t,OQ. 399 L \6 0 withaut permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are llsed onIy far identificatian
and explanatian without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2000
Fourth edition pubBshed by Routledge 2013
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Dembo, Myron H. 1Seli, Helena.
Title: Motivation and learning strategies for college success : a focus on
self-regulated learning / by Myron H. Dembo and Helena SeBo
Description: New York: Rautledge, 2016.1
Ineludes bibBographical references and indexo
Identifiers: LCCN 2015049701 (print) 1LCCN 2016000507 (ebaok) 1
ISBN 9781138850330 (Hardback) 1ISBN 9781138850347 (Paperback) 1
IsBN 9J813IS124775( eBoak) -- . ~. _--
Subjects: LCSH: College student orientation. 1Achievement motivation.
Learning strategies.
Classificatian: LCC LB2343.3 .D46 2016 (priot) 1 LCC LB2343.3 (eboak) I
DDC 371.26-dc23

ISBN, 978~1·138~85033~O (hbk)

ISBN, 978~1·138·85034~7 (pbk)
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Typeset in Minion Pro and Helvetica Neue

by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK

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Prioted and bound in the United States of America by Sheridan

 Brief Contents

Prelace xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Figure and Table Credits xxiii

UNIT 1: FOUNOATIONS OF LEARNING ANO MOTIVATION 1

1. Academic Self-Regulation 3
2. Understanding Motivation 29
3. Understanding Learning and Memory 71

UNIT 11: MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES 97

4. Goal Setling 99
5. Self-Regulation of Emotions 117

UNIT 111: BEHAVIORAL STRATEGlES .141

6. Time Management 143
7. Self-Regulation ofthe Physical and Social Environment 169

UNIT IV: LEARNING ANO STUOY STRATEGIES 193

8. Learnlng from Textbooks 195
9. Learning from Class 223
lO. Preparing for Exams 243
11. T aking Exams 263
Afterword 285

Glossary 291
Appendix A: A Guide lor Completing a Sell-Regulation Study 295
Appendix B: Examples 01 Sell-Regulation Studies 307
Relerences 329
Author Index 341
SUbject Index 345
 Contents

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Figure and Table Credits xxiii

UNIT 1: FOUNOATIONS OF LEARNING ANO MOTIVATION 1

Chapler 1 Academic Self-Regulation 3

What 1s Academic Self-Regulation? 4

What 1s the Difference Between High School and College? 6
Why Are Sorne Students Less Successful Learners? 7
They Hold Faulty Beliefs about Their Ability, Learning, and
Motivation 7
They Are Unaware ofTheir 1neffective Learning Behavior 8
They Fail to Sustain Effective Learning and Motivational
Strategies 8
They Are Not Ready to Change Their Learning and Study
Behavior 9
How Can 1 Manage My Academic Behavior? 9
Motivation 10
Methods of Learning 12
Use ofTime 13
Physical and Social Environment 14
Monitoring Performance 15
The Six Components of Academic Self-Regulation 16
Exercise 1.1: Self-Observation: Assessing Your Self-Regulatory
Skills 17
How Can 1 Change My Behavior? 18
How Does Self-Regulation Occur in an Academic Context? 22
Key Points 24
Follow-Up Activities 24
11
xiv Contents Contents xv

Exercise 9.2: Practicing the Note-Taking Slrategy 235 Read Each Prompt Carefully to Determine What Is Expected
How Can 1 Ask Good Mirror Questions? 236 in the Response 272
Exercise 9.3: Identifying the Different Levels of Questions Determine How You Will Use Your Time 274
in Class 236 Determine the Order in Which You Will Respond to the
How Do IDeal with Particular Note-Taking Problems or Issues? 237 Prompts 274
Key Points 239 Organize Your Response by Making an Out/ine or
Follow-Up Activities 239 Representation (Map) 274
W rite Your Answer Following Specific Procedures 275
Chapter 10 Preparing for Exams 243 If Given an Opportunity, Review Your Exam Results 275
Evaluating the Two Essay Responses 275
Exercise 10.1: Self-Observation: Assessing Exam Preparation 244 Exercise 11.4: Evaluating Responses to an Essay Prompt 276
How Do 1 Develop a Study Plan? 245 Key Points 281
Step 1: Determine the Content Coverage and Question Format Follow-Up Activities 281
of the Exam 246
Step 2: Organize and Separate the Content inlo Parts 248 Afterword 285
Step 3: Identify Specific Study Slrategies 248 Motivation 286
Slep 4: Identify the Amount ofTime Needed for Each Strategy 251 Methods of Learning/Monitoring of Performance 288
Step 5: Allocate Time for Each Study Strategy in a Monthly or Use of Time 288
Weekly Schedule 251 Physical and Social Environment 289
Step 6: Modify the Plan as Necessary 252
An Example of a Study Plan 253 Glossary 291
Content Coverage and Question Format 255
Appendices 294
Organize the Content for Study 255
Idenhty Specl͡c Study Strategles--- 255 Appendix A: A Guide for Completing a Self-Regulation Study 295
Identify the Amount of Time Needed for Each Strategy 257
Appendix B: Examples of Self-Regulation Studies 307
Allocate Time for Each Study Strategy in a Weekly Schedule 257
Key Points 259 References 329
Follow-Up Activities 259
Author Index 341
Chapter 11 Taking Exams 263 Subject Index 345

Exercise 11.1: Self-Observation: Assessing Test-Taking

Strategies 264
What Slrategies Can I Use to Answer Objective Test Questions? 265
How Should y ou Manage Your Time? 265
How Should y ou Approach Each Question? 266
When Should You Change an Answer? 266
Strategies for True-False Questions 266
Exercise 11.2: Identifying Key Words 267
Strategies for Matching Questions 268
Strategies for Fill-in-the-Blank Questions 268
Strategies for Multiple-Choice Questions 269
Exercise 11.3: Taking a Multiple-Choice Exam 270
What Strategies Can 1 Use for Answering Essay Writing
Prompts? 272
Read the Directions Carefully and Do Exactly What Is Asked 272
 Preface

Many textbooks are available on how to become a more successfullearner.

As instructors of a "learning to learn" course, we have been concerned that
many students who take such a course to improve their learning and study
skills fail to change their behavior during or after the course. We strongly
believe that simply telling students how to learn and providing sorne prac-
tice does not necessarily change attitudes, beliefs, or behavior. Changing
ineffective learning and study habits is a difficult process, as is losing weight
or stopping smoking. This textbook is the result of an instructional program
we developed and evaluated with a wide range of college students identified
as "at risk." We have used the self-regulation approach presented in this text
with students in high schools, community colleges, and four-year colleges.
The primary purpose of the textbook is to help students change aspects of
their motivation and learning strategies.
We place the responsibility for determining what behaviors or beliefs need·
to be changed on the students, not the instructor. The process of change
begins by observing and reflecting on one' s own behavior and then
determining what needs to be changed and learning how to change. The
features of this textbook are designed to identify the components of academic
learning that contribute to high achievement, help students learn and
practice effective learning and study strategies, and then complete self-
regulation studies whereby they are taught a process for improving their
academic behavior.

Features of the Text

We attempt to accomplish our goals by incorporating the following

features in the text. First, we identify six components that students need to
regulate or manage to become successfullearners-motivation, methods of
learning, time management, physical and social environment, and
monitoring performance. These components serve as the basis for organizing
and integrating the content throughout the texto Further, this focus allows
 xviii Prelace
for Ihe integration of both motivation and leaming strategies. As students
leam new leaming strategies, Ihey must deve10p Ihe motivation to use Ihem.
Seeond, the text begins wilh an overview of important researeh and
theory to he1p students understand the reasons why Ihey are asked to use
difierent study and leaming strategies in Ihe text. Most study skill textbooks
are alheoretieal; that is, liule, if any, researeh or Iheory is presented to
students. We believe that learning how to leam is a specific academic
specialization based on scientific knowledge, and students should leam this
knowledge. Furlhermore, we find Ihat students are more motivated to leam
when Ihe course is conducted like a "real" academie course and not as a
remedial experience.
Third, various Exereises are induded in each chapter to help students
observe and evaluate their own learning and study skills. In addition, more
detailed Follow-Up Aetivities at the end of eaeh ehapter allow students to
apply Ihe content to Iheir own academic leaming. The primary purpose of
these experiences is to encourage self-observation and evaluation.
Fourth, we indude Follow-Up Activities that identify a topie for a
self-regulation study. The appendiees provide information as to how to
conducl a self-regulation study (Appendix A) and indude three studies
conducted by students (Appendix B) in a "leaming to leam" course. Note
the instructor's evaluation at Ihe end of each self-regulation study. The
appendiees should be read before students begin their own study.
____________-o!.F~ifth~,'_Ih!±!!e'_S~t~u~d!l;e:!!n~t2R~e;!fi!l;e~c~ti~0:!.'n.~ seetions allow students to read about the
experiences of other students as Ihey aUempt to ehange Iheir behavior and
become more successful students.
Sixth, at Ihe end of each chapter, a review of the specific procedures for
using a learning strategy is provided. This section is particularly useful for
students when they need a quick review ofhow to implement a given strategy.
Seventh, the Key Points at the end of each chapter highlight the important
ideas presented in each chapter.
Eighlh, a Glossary is inc1uded, wilh important terms in bold in the tex!.
Overview of the Chapters
Unit I of Ihe text indudes three ehapters. ehapter l-"Academie Self-
Regulation" -identifies the academic components Ihat students need to
control to attain their academic goals. In addition, the chapter introduces
a four-step process used to change behavior-self-observation and evalua-
tion, goal setting and strategie planning, strategy implementation and mon-
itoring, and strategie-outeome monitoring. This proeess is used as the basis
for eonducting a self-regulation study and is explained in depth in
Appendix A.
ehapter 2-"Understanding Motivation"-helps students understand
how motivation can infiuence leaming behavior. Important exercises are
included to help Ihe reader evaluate his or her own motivation.
Prelace xix
ehapter 3-"Understanding Leaming and Memory"- introduces Ihe
information-processing system and explains why students remember and
forget information. This ehapter emphasizes Ihat Ihe way students leam ofien
determines what they remember.
Uni! II of the text foeuses on motivational strategies. ehapter 4-"Goal
SeUing" -instruets students how to write and implement specific goals.
This chapter emphasizes Ihat students cannot be motivated unless they
have goals to aUain in difierent areas of Iheir life.
ehapter 5-"Self-Regulation of Emotions"-focuses on how to ehange
negative emotions to more positive emotions, managing self-talk and
reducing anxiety.
Unit III of the text deals with various behavioral strategies related to
academie suceess. ehapter 6-"Time Management" -explains how students
can better manage Iheir time rather Ihan having time manage Ihem.
ehapter 7-"Self-Regulation of the Physical and Social Environment"-
foeuses on improving atlention and eoncentration and structuring pro-
ductive study environments. In addition, Ihe chapter provides information
on how to seek help from instructors and conduct efiective group study
sessions.
Unit IV of the tex! introduces important leaming and study strategies:
"Leaming from Textbooks" (ehapter 8), "Leaming from elass" (ehapter 9),
"Preparing for Exams" (ehapter 10), and "Taking Exams" (ehapter 11).
Excerpts are used from textbooks and leetures to help students practiee lhe
skills in ehaplers 8 and 9. ehapter 10 helps students develop a study plan
for each exam, and ehapler 11 provides information aboul speeific strategies
for taking objective and essay tests.
What's New in the Fifth Edition?
Technology is ever-present in our lives. While technology has the potential
lo inerease produetivity and keep us conneeted, it also presents many
drawbaeks. In the fifth edition, we continue our emphasis on Ihe positive
and negative role of technology in leaming situations. In addition, we
incorporate findings from recent key scientifie reviews about leaming
strategies sueh as that by Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, and
Willíngham (2013). The aulhors present recommendations based on
analyzing more than 700 scientific artieles. We incorporate their recom-
mendations into tbis edition. Finally, we retitled ehapler 9 from "Leaming
from Lectures" to "Leaming from elass", recognizing Ihat many professors
are moving away from lecturing to a more interaetive way of delivering
information.
In Ihe fifth edition, we introduce Ihe following:
The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation;
The importance of sleep in leaming and memory (ehapters 6 and 10);
xx Pretace

• The high cost of multitasking (Chapter 7);

Taking notes in discussion and seminar sections (Chapter 9);
Managing anxiety by writing about it prior to an exam or other
evaluative setting (Chapter 10).

We elaborate and extend the discussion of the following:

~ Value orientation and attributions as influences on motivation

(Chapter 2);
Acknowledgments
Strategies to combat procrastination (Chapter 6);
Creating representalions such as matrices in math (Chapter 8);
The benefits and drawbacks of using laptops to take notes in dass
(Chapter 9);
• Self-testing as an effective exam preparation strategy (Chapter 10).
We would like to acknowledge the following individuals who provided
Based on eurrent researeh, we update the diseussion of the following: valuable input on this edition of the book: Dr. Donna Nordstrom; OUT
teaching assistants who eontributed a great deal regarding how to teaeh
• Information-processing system (Chapter 3); students to become more successful students; OUT editor Naomi Silverman
Physical and social environment in the context of multi-tasking and editorial assistant Brianna Pennella, who provided helpful assistanee
(Chapter 7). throughout the project; Heidi Andrade, Kent Cameron, Stephanie Marsh,
Stan Metzenberg, and Sandra 1. Waters for their thoughtful reviews of the
The current edition, as the fourth one, indudes a companion website. lt textbook; and Dr. Christine Mendoza who created the companion website.
indudes helpful information for teaehing the material, sueh as sample essay
test questions, and provides exereises and experiences for students in -Myron H. Dembo
addition to those in the texto Our internet-based experiences eonnect -Helena Seli
students to valuable resources about topics related to areas of self-regulation.
We a1so encourage students to conduct internet research to go more in-depth
with the theories and concepts discussed in the chapters. Finally, it ineludes
information on how students can maintain a portfolio to demonstrate their
acquisition of learning and study skills and guidelines for helping students
complete a self-regulation study of their own academic behavior.
It is suggested Ihat Unit 1 of the text be covered first to provide a
framework for both the content and exercises in the remaining chapters.
The remaining chapters can be covered in any order. One of the difficulties
in teaching a "learning to learn» COUTse is that one would like to cover many
topics during the first two weeks, because everything is important.
Unfortunately, a11 the chapters and topies cannot be taught in the flTst few
weeks. This textbook allows the instructor to sequence the chapters as he
or she sees fit.
Finally, we would appreciate reactions from students and instructors
eoneerning the texto Please email usatdembo@usc.eduorhelena.seli@
rossier.use.edu. We welcome your praise and criticismo
 Figure and Table
Credits

Figure 1.1. Zimmerman, B. J., Bonner, S., & Kovich, R. (1996). Developing
self-regulated learners: Beyond achievement to self-efficacy. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association. Copyright © 1996 by the American
Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

Figure 2.1. From Covington, M. V. & Roberts, B. (1994). Self-worth and

college achievement: Motivational and personality correlates. In R. Pintrich,
D. R. Brown, & C. E. Weinstein (Eds.), Student motivation, cognition, and
learning: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie (pp. 157~ 187). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum. Reprinted with permission from Erlbaum.

Figure 2.2. Pintrich, P. R. (1994). Based on Student motivation in the college

c1assroom. In K. W. Prichard & R. M. Sawyer (Eds.), Handbook of college
teaching: Theory and applications (pp. 23~43). Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Figure 2.3. From Beery, R. G. (1975). Fear of failure in the student experience.
Personnel and Guidance Joumal, 54, 190~203. Reprinted with permission
from American Counseling Association.

Figure 3.2. From Bower, G. H., Clark, M. c., Lesgold, A., & Winzenz, D.
(1969). Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists.
Joumal of Memory and Language Uournal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior), 8, 323~343. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 4.3. From Smith, H. W. (1994). The 10 naturallaws of successful time

and lije management. Copyright © 1994 by Hyrum Smith. Reprinted with
permission of Grand Central Publishing. AH rights reserved.

Table 5.1. Net!, U. E., Goetz, T., & Daniels, L. M. (2010). What to do when
feeling bored? Students' strategies for coping with boredom. Learning and
Individual Differences, 20, 626~638. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier
Publishing.
xxiv Figure and Table CrOOits

Figure 6.1. From Covey, S. R. (1990). The 7 habits ofhighly effective people.
New York: Simon & Schuster. Adapted wilh permission from Simon &
Schuster. Unit 1
Table 2.1. Ames, C. & Archer, 1. (1988). Achievement goals in lhe elassroom:
Students' leaming strategies and motivation processes. Journal of
Educalional Psychology, 80, 260-267. Copyright © 1988 by lhe American
Psychological Association. Adapted with permission. Foundations of
Table 5.2. From Net!, U. E., Goetz, T., & Daniels, 1. M. (2010). Whal to do
when feeling bored? Students' strategies for coping wilh boredom. Learning Learning and
and Individual Differences, 20, 626-638. Reprinted wilh permission from
EIsevier.
Motivation
T.ble 8.1. From Kiewra, K. A. & Dubois, N. F. (1998). Learning lO learn.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Adapted wilh permission.

Table 10.1. From Van Blerkom, D. 1. (2012). eollege sludy ski/Is: Becoming Chapter 1: Academic Self-Regulation
a strategic learner (7lh ed.). Adapted wilh permission from Wadsworth.
Chapter 2: Understanding Motivation
Chapter 3: Understanding Learning and Memory

The purpose of this unit is to explain how you can become a more successfuJ Academic self-
learner by taking charge and managing your own learning. To accomplish regulation:
this goal, you need to understand how you leam and lhe factors that The strategies
students use te
determine your motivation to learn. Learning and motivation are interrelated conlrol Ihe faclors
processes. Simply learning • new skill does not mean lhat you will use it unless influencing their
you are motivated to do so. Therefore, our objectives are to teach you sorne leaming.
new learning stralegies and to convince you lhat there are payoffs for using Cognitive:
them. These payoffs inelude lhe possibility of higher grades, more time to Explanalions 01
participate in enjoyable activities, and lhe confidence to become a successfuJ leaming and
learner in any course. The lhree chaplers in lhis unit provide a framework motivation that
for understanding why you need lo use different strategies lO manage lhe locus on the role
factors influencing your academic achievement. The remaining unils teach 01 the learner's
menlal processes.
you how and when to use these strategies.
Chapter 1 presents a mode! for academic self-regulation, identifying six Social cognitive:
Explanations 01
components lhat you control-motivalion, methods of learning, use of learning and
time, physical and social environment, and monitoring performance motivation that
(Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). These components are organized by explain learning
categories-motivational, behavioral, .nd le.rning .nd study strategies. and motivatien as
Finally, a four-step process is described to help you change aspects of your an interaction
between cognitive,
academic career.
behavioral, and
Chapters 2 and 3 provide .n overview of learning and motivation from conlextua!
a cognitive and social cognitive perspective. Cognitive psychologists believe faclors.
lhal beh.vior is always based on cognition-an act of knowing or lhinking
2 Foundations 01 Learning and Motivatkm
about the situation in which the behavior occurs. As a result, they believe
that learning can be explained by how knowledge is processed and organized.
This means that the way one learns is an important factor in how much is
remembered.
1
The social cognitive view oflearning and motivation focuses on how an
individua!'s internal state (i.e., his or her goals, beliefs, perceptions, and
emotions), as well as external, contextual circumstances influence behavior.
A~ cademic Self- Regulation

As readers of this book, you are a diverse group with varied backgrounds
and goals. Some of you are beginning your education al a college or
university, whereas others of you have selected community colleges. Some
of you may have taken college courses lasl lerm, whereas others are returning
lo school after an absence. Sorne of you are laking a learning and study skills
course because it is required, whereas others are enrolled in the course as
an eleclive. Some of you are looking forward to taking the course, whereas
others may doubt its usefulness. Although we recognize the wide range of
interests, motivation, and abilities of those of you reading this book, we have
one goal: to help all those who read this volume become more successful
learners. Once you learn how lo learn, you can apply these skills to any
academic or work setting in which you participate.
Who is a successful learner? Most of us know, read aboul, or have
observed successfuJ and expert individuals in some field or profession (e.g.,
a plumber, musician, athlete, teacher, or artist). These individuals have
special knowledge and skills in a particular field. Similarly, successfuJ learners
also possess special knowledge and skiUs that differentiale them from less
successfullearners.
Successful sludenls are not simply individuals who know more than
others. They also have more effective and efficient learning strategies for
accessing and using their knowledge, can molivate themselves, and can
monitor and change their behaviors when learning does not occur.
Just as individuals cannot learn to become expert musicians, dancers, or
golfers without practice, learning to be a successfullearner requires more
than simply reading and listening lo class lectures. For this rcason, you wiU
be asked throughoul this book lo respond to questions and exercises, and
to aclually practice some new ways of learning. The key to success is
practicing the learning strategies taught here so they become automatic. As
you practice, you wiU be able to learn more material in less time Ihan prior
lo using these new strategies. Thus, you wiU learn to study "smarter," not
necessarily harder.
4 Foundations 01 Learning and Motivation
Most of you have expertise in sorne activity or hobby. y ou have spent
considerable effort and persisten ce in acquiring knowledge and developing
your skills, and probably feel competent and motivated to excel. You are
now beginning the process of developing the necessary expertise to meet the
academic demands of college learning. Much ofthe same self-discipline and
self-molivation you apply lo your present area(s) of expertise will be needed
in your pursuit of academic excellence. After studying this chapter, you will
be able to:
Identify specific behaviors Ihat influence the leve! of academic
success;
• Use a process to self-regulate your academic behavior.
What Is Academic Self-Regulation?
At one time, it was thought Ihat intelligence was the main factor determining
academic success. After years of research in leaming and motivation,
educators have found that students can learn how to become more successful
leamers by using appropriate strategies to manage their motivation,
behavior, and leaming.
The word regulation is a key term in understanding successfulleamers.
They self-regulate or control the factors influencing their leaming. They
establish optimum conditions for leaming and remove obstacles that
interfere with their leaming. Educators use a variety of terms to describe
these students (e.g., self-regulated, self-directed, strategic, and active). No
matter what term is used, the important factor is that these students find a
way to leam. It does not matter if the instructor is a poor lecturer, the textbook
is confusing, the test is difficult, the room is noisy, or if multiple exams are
scheduled for the same week, successfulleamers find a way to excel.
Let's look at an example of how one student managed his academic
leaming:
It was Thursday night and Robert was completing his final
preparation for the following day's history exam. On the previous
Sunday evening, he developed a plan far how he would prepare
for the exam during the week. He identified what he had to learn,
how he would study, and when he would accomplish each task.
He began his study on Monday, attempting to gain a general
understanding of the main ideas and recall the mosl important
facls. He paraphrased each section 01 the readings, underlined
the important information, and rnonitored his own progress during
study by developing possible questions that might be asked on
the exam. While studying Wednesday night, he realized that he
had difficulty cornparing and contrasting some of the battles
diseussed in class. Therefore, he decided to develop a chart listing
the different battles on top and different characteristics down the
Academic Sell-Regulation 5
side. When he filled in the information on the chart, he found he
was better able to answer the questions that might be asked
regarding the material.
Around 10 p.m., Thursday, Robert 's roornmate came home
from the library with some friends and began discussing a concert
they planned to attend over the weekend. They were finished
studying for the night. Robert decided to go to the study lounge
down the hall to complete his last hour of studying. He told his
friends that he would return for pizza around 11 p.m. As he
returned to his study, he noticed sorne information in his notes
that he did not understand. He made a quick telephone call lo a
friend far clarification about the notes.
Alter another 20 rninutes of sludying, Robert got tired and
started thinking of the double cheese and mushroom pizza he
would be eating in a short time. He decided that he needed about
30 minutes to finish his studying far the evening. Therefore, he
decided to take a five-minute break and go for a walk. He came
back and finished his study for the evening.
What actions did Robert take lo ensure optimum leaming? First, he
established a goal and action plan for how he was going to prepare for the
examination. The plan started four days before the exam. Second, he used
a variety of leaming strategies, such as underlining, developing and
answering questions, and making a chart to better compare and contrast the
relevant information. In other words, when he found that he was not
leaming, he did something aboul it by changing his leaming stralegy. Third,
he monitored his underslanding of Ihe material as he studied. He changed
learning strategies and asked for help when he failed to understand his notes.
Fourth, when his friends retumed from the library, he decided that he
would not be able lo sludy in his room, so he left for lhe lounge. Finally,
when he began to gel tired and became less motivated to complete his
sludying, he took a break and was then able lo retum to his wori<. AlI of
Rober!'s decisions played a major role in his abiJity to do well on the history
exam the following day.
Given the same situation, think about how another student with less
knowledge aboul learning and study stralegies, and fewer self-regulation skills
might have behaved in the same situation. The example just presented carne
from a student's joumal. The situalion occurred exactIy as slated, only "the
name was changed lo protect the innocent." Robert did not come to college
as an A student. As a matler of fact, he struggled during the first few weeks
of the first termo When he began to learn how to learn and to take responsi-
bility for his own learning, his academic performance improved dramatically.
As you develop the personal qualities to manage your leaming, you wiIl
find Ihat you can apply the same skills to situations outside the classroom,
even at wori<. It does not matler what course, seminar, lecture, or job you
experience, once you manage the factors influencing your leaming, you can
be more successful in any tasi<.
6 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
One of the first author' s students carne to his office to discuss the amount
of work she had to do in the learning course. She tended to turn in
assignments late and, in general, appeared to have difficulty managing her
time and motivation. During the conversation, she stated that she only
wanted a e in the course. The first author stated that he had no problem
giving her a e, but that many students who set this standard often
underestimate their achievement and earn a D. He decided to pursue the
issue further by asking the student the following question: "Are you also
willing to find an average job and get an average salary?" "Oh no!" she stated,
"1 want a rewarding career and plan on making a great deal of money!"
Many individuals fail to realize that the self-regulation strategies used to
become more successful learners often generalize to their personal and
work lives. Who is more likely to be promoted in a jobo an employee who
can work independently and set and attain goals, or an employee who needs
constant supervision and direction in his or her daily work? Educators who
emphasize the importance of self-regulation take the position that students
can do a great deal to promote their own learning through the use of
different learning and motivational strategies. In other words, these learners
"view academic learning as something they do for themselves rather than
as something that is done to or for them" (Zimmerman, 1998b, p. 1).
Think about Zimmerman' s quotation and what it means to you as
someone who is attempting to become a more successfullearner. What are
some of the changes you think you may have to make?
We have taugIit thousands' ()f undergraduates and have come to the
conc1usion that we as instructors cannot make students learn if they do not
want too We can help them and guide them, but we cannot make them learn.
It is a joy to work with students who take an active role in their own
learning. However, some students say they want to learn but do not want
to do the things that are necessary to manage their own learning. How many
times have you observed parents and teachers prodding or almost begging
students to learn? In many cases, these students really want to be successful,
but they do not fully understand their responsibilities in the learning process.
What Is the Difference Between High School and College?
One of the major differences in the transition from higb school to college
classrooms is the change from a teacher-directed to a student -directed
environment. In high school, many teachers tend to guide students' learning
by telling them what, when, and how to learn. For example, when
assignments are given, higb school teachers frequently help students manage
the tasks necessary to complete the assignment, such as requiring outlines
or drafts of papers. In college, students are on their own. They can ask
questions and obtain more information about an assignment, but rarely does
a college instructor monitor students' progress. In college, students are
expected to manage their own learning (Bembenutty, 20ll).
Academic Self-Regulation 7
Another difference between high school and college is that high school
teachers often spend considerable time attempting to motivate students to
learn, whereas college instructors generally expect students to be self·
motivated. Although students are told about the demands of college, many
freshmen experience culture shock when they enter learning environments
that differ from their past experiences. The following are comments written
in a journal by a student in her first term in college:
My prolessor was completing his last lecture on the lirst unit 01
the course and asked il we had any questions. We had to read
chapters in three different textbooks, and I had about 40 pages
01 notes. I simply asked: "Could you tell us what are some 01 the
important ideas you might cover on the exam?" He looked at me
and said: "That's lor you to determine!" Well, I lelt like crawling
under my desk. In high school, most 01 my teachers would
summarize the key ideas that would direct our studying behavior.
Here, I quickly leamed that I have to do this work on my own!
This student had some difficulty in her first college termo She realized that
she had to change some of her learning and study strategies. When she
learned how to identify the main ideas in lectures and textbooks, she had
little trouble predicting most of the test questions in her courses. Her ability
to modify and manage her methods oflearning was an important factor in
her improvement toward the end of the termo
Why Are Some Students Less Successful Learners?
When discussing the reasons for low achievement, we are not including
students who have serious learning disabilities, poor language skills, or who
have experienced an inadequate education because of factors beyond their
control. Instead, we are referring to students who should be achieving
higher than their present performance. In many cases, more than one
explanation may be appropriate for a given student.
They Hold Fau lty Beliefs about Their Ability, Learning,
and Motivation
Students' beliefs about learning and motivation influence their behaviors.
The following beliefs can impact achievement: If students believe they are
less capable than others, they may spend considerable time using failure-
avoiding strategies in the c1assroom (e.g., trying not to be called on, copying
material from friends, and appearing to be trying hard when they really are
not). Other students who believe they can achieve are more likely to spend
their time using effective learning and study strategies, and tend to persist
longer on difficult tasks.
 8 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
Sorne students believe tbat ability or intelligence is flXed. That is, people
are born witb a certain amount of ability, and tbere is not much tbat can be
done about it. This misperception often causes sorne students to accept tbeir
low achievement or to become satisfied witb a B or C average, tbinking that
only the brightest students obtain an A. Psychologists have found tbat
intelligence is the result of how much information students know and tbe
strategies tbey use to control tbeir thinking and learning. In other words,
"smart" students do not possess abilities that other students cannot learn.
"Smart" students study more effectively than otber students. If otber students
learn and use these same metbods, tbey become "smart."
It is unfortunate tbat many students go tbrough school thinking they are
not good learners and tbat little can be done to improve tbeir achievement.
This faulty belief often remains witb individuals throughout their lives and
limits their goals and aspirations. The problem is not that tbese students are
incapable ofbeing successfullearners; they simply have not been taught how
to study and learn effectively.
They Are Unaware of Their Ineffective Learning
Behavior
Many students believe tbat if tbey simply spend a good deal of time studying,
tbey will be successful. Successfullearners do work hard, but they realize
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-1tHa.t....:a.Qw-th~ty..Q.y_is-mQ1::@-important iban how much time fuey spend
studying. For example, many college students report that they spend
considerable time reading a book many times before an examination. Sorne
students are not aware tbat tbe practice of underlining (highlighting) words
and phrases in textbooks and simply rereading is generally an ineffective
learning strategy, because it consists of relatively passive activities involving
little tbinking. It is possible to spend considerable time underlining or
rereading a chapter and still not remember many of the important ideas
presented. Reading and remembering are two different tasks. Unless students
are actively involved in outlining, organizing, questioning themselves, and
summarizing tbe material while tbey read, much of the time is wasted
(Cortina et al., 1992).
They Fail to Sustain Effective Learning and Motivational
Strategies
Students usually take more exams and quizzes in high school. Therefore,
if tbey score well on most of the evaluations but low on one or two,
tbey can still maintain a high grade. In college, tbe situation is different.
Fewer evaluations are given throughout the termo For example, a course
may require a paper, two exarns, and a final; each evaluation may involve
20 percent to 30 percent of the final grade. Students who want high grades
cannot afford to let down during the semester.
Academic Self-Regulation 9
Many students demonstrate the knowledge of how to learn and do
well at times, but fail to attend class regularly, do not keep up with tbeir
assignments, and, in general, get behind in their work. Altbough tbese
students have the potential for doing well, they cannot sustain their
motivation and effort throughout the termo The end result is lower academic
performance.
They Are Not Ready to Change Their Learning and
Study Behavior
Sorne students are not convinced they need to change. After all, tbey got
tbrough high school and were able to get into college. These students often
raise questions, publicly or privately: "Why do 1 need to change?" "1 gradu-
ated rrom high school," or "1 was accepted to tbis college." It is not until tbe
first midterm exams that sorne students realize that many of the learning
and study skills used in high school are insufficient for academic success in
college. The earlier students become aware of tbis fact, tbe quicker they can
begin to make the necessary changes.
Altbough many students realize tbey need to improve, tbey tend to stick
with familiar strategies, even tbough tbey are not achieving the best results.
They simply are not motivated to change. Sorne students believe tbat it takes
too much effort and time to learn new metbods oflearning. Learning to play
a new song on the gu.itar or a ncw dai'lcc routinc takcs effort. Yet, bccause
individuals enjoy tbe activity and gain special satisfaction from excelling in
an area, they do not consider it work. When students use their effort and
time more wisely and use more effective metbods oflearning, tbey find tbat
the amount of effort and time does pay off in terms ofhigher grades, greater
knowledge and confidence, and more time for fun.
How Can I Manage My Academic Behavior?
The following are six major components of academic self-regulation.
Learning tbe self-regulatory skills related to each of these components can
help you exert control over your own learning and promote your own
academic achievement (adapted from Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997):
• Motivation
• Metbods oflearning
• U se of time
• Physical environment
• Social environment
• Monitoring performance.
 10 Foundations 01 Learning and Molivation
Motivation
"Each semester I write down goal s that I want to attain."
"When I feel down, I talkto myselfto motivate meto keep on task."
A1though there are many different ways to define motivation, the approach
taken in this book views motivation as the internal processes thal give
behavior its energy and direction. These intemal processes include your goals,
beliefs, perceptions, and expectations. For example, your persistence on a
task is often related to how competent you believe you are to complete the
task. AIso, your beliefs about the causes of your successes and failures on
present tasks influence your motivation and behavior on future tasks. For
example, students who attribute failure to lack of ability behave differentIy
from students who attribute failure to lack of effort.
In Chapter 2, you will leam that when you change your beliefs and
perceptions, you change your motivation. During a presentation on self-
motivation at a high school, a student asked one of the authors: "you mean
that if you are bored, you can do something about it?" It was obvious that
the student had nOI thought about the extent to whieh she had the ability
to control her own motivation.
Think about the pilot of a 747 who wakes up in the moming knowing
that she must fly a few hundred people from Los Angeles to New York, or
- - - - - - - - - - - - -t;h=e::..:
su=r.:.g-e-o-n- w=h"'o- m=u:-:s"t-,p:-:e:::rfl':o=rm a delicate heart operation. The public is
fortunate that these individuals know how to motivate themselves even when
they do not feel like doing something. lt would be a1arming lo hear a pilot
say: "1 don'l feellike flying today," or a surgeon say: "Not another operation,
['m not in the mood."
One of the major differences between successful and less successfuI
individuals in any field or specialization is thal successful individuals know
how to motivate themselves even when they do not feellike performing a
task, whereas less successful individuals have difficulty conlroJling their
motivation. As a result,less successful individuals are less likely to complete
a task, or more likeJy lo quit or complete a task at a lower level of proficiency.
A1though successful leamers may not feel Iike completing required tasks,
they leam how to motívate themse!ves to completion to mainlain progress
toward achieving their goals.
Another issue is whether one has a problem in motivation or persistence.
A sludent may be motivaled to engage in a task but have difficulty persisting
because he or she easily becomes distracled while engaging in the task.
Think about your own behavior. Identify a situation in which follow-
through, not motivation, was a problem. Thal is to say, you realiy wanted
to complete a lask, but you had difficulty persisting because you were easily
distracted. A1so, think about a situation in whieh you were successfuI in
controJling your behavior in a potentially distracting situation. Which self-
regulatory strategies do you use to maintain your persistence in a task?
Academic Self-Regulation 11
To be a successfuI learner in college, sludents muSI be able to concentrale
and deal with the many potential personal and environmental distractions
that may interfere with learning and studying. Sludenls use many differenl
processes to conlrol aspects of their behaviors. The following are examples
of self-reguIatory processes:
"When 1 am in the Iibrary and distracled by a conversalion, I move lO
another table."
• "When I start worrying on an exam, I immediately begin convincing
myself that I can do well if 1 take my time."
"When 1 starl thinking that I don'l have Ihe ability to achieve, I remind
myself that more efforl is needed."
Dealing with dislracting factors in learning is an imporlant aspect of self-
regulation because it helps proteet one's commitment lo learn.
A number of important motivational self-regulatory techniques can be
used to develop and maintain these important beliefs. The first is goal
setting. Educational research indieates that high achievers report using
goal setting more frequentIy and more consislentIy than low achievers
(Zirnmerman, 2011). When individuals establish and attempl lO attain
personal goals, theyare more attentive to inslmction, expend greater elforl,
and increase their confidence when they see themselves making progress.
It is difficult lo be motivated to achieve without having specific goals. '
A second motivational self-regulation technique is self-verbalizalion,
or self-talk. This procedure takes many forms. For example, verbal rein- Self-Ialk: The
forcement or praise can be used following desired behavior. You simply tell inner speech we
yourself things like: "Great! I did it!" or "I'm doing a great job concentrating use lo make
on my readings!" Reinforce yourself either covertIy (to yourselt) or aloud. evaluative
statements about
At fusl, you may think it sounds slrange or silly to use self-verbalization. our behavior.
Once you gel familiar with it, you wiIl find thal it works. Don'l underestimale
the power oflanguage in self-control of motivation. World-c1ass ath1etes have
been trained to use verbal reinforcemenl for years.
More e1aborale self-laIk training programs are available to help individuals
control anxiety, mood, and other emolional responses (e.g., Ollens, 1991).
These programs are based on the belief thal what one says to oneself is an
importanl factor in determining altitudes, feelings, emotions, and behaviors.
This speech or self-Ialk is the running dialogue inside our heads. Sorne of
our speech motivales us lo try new lasks and persisl in difficull situations;
other self-talk is unproductive and inhibits our molivation lo succeed. The
goal of these programs is lo change negative self-talk lo posilive self-talk.
Chapler 5 describes this process in more detail.
Another motivational self-regulation lechnique is arranging or imagining
rewards or punishments for success or failure at an academic task. Students
who control their motivation by giving themselves rewards and punishments
outperform students who do not use this control technique (Zimmerman
& Martinez-Pons, 1986). What self-control slralegies have you used in the
pasl lo control your motivation? The following are examples reported by
 12 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
our students: "If 1 study for 50 minutes, 1'li allow myself to speak on the
phone for 10 minutes"; or "If 1 work on my term paper for an evening,
1'11 treat myself to a pizza"; or "IfI find lhat 1'm keeping up with my work,
1'11 go to a movie on a weeknighl."
In summary, to control your motivation, you need to set goals; develop
positive beliefs about your ability to perform academic tasks; and maintain
lhese beliefs while faced with lhe many disturban ces, distractions, occasional
failure experiences, and periodic interpersonal conflicts in your life. You will
have difficulty managing your behavior if you do not have confidence in
your ability to succeed. In turn, you develop confidence in your ability by
learning how to use different learning and study strategies that lead to
academic success.
Methods of Learning
"While reading my sociology textbook, 1write important questions
to answer after reading each main heading."
"1 use a time line to recall the dates of major battles in my history
courS8."
Learning Anolher term for melhods of learning is learning strategies. Learning
_____"st"'r.,at"ei,9"ie"'s;¡O:ñF_ _-=-st::,r;'-at':e=g"ie:..:s:...:;:
ar;..:e:.,:th:..:e:;-:m
=et=h:..:o:..:d:..:s".s,-,tudents use to acquire information. Higher
I ecnnlques or achieving students use more learning strategies than do lower achieving
methods that
students use to students (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1988). Underlining, summarizing,
acquire and outlining are examples oflearning strategies. You willlearn in Chapter
information. 3 lhat different learning strategies serve different purposes.
Think about lhe large array of tools a plumber brings to each jobo If he
arrived at jobs wilh only a few wrenches or pliers, he would not be able to
complete many jobs. Just as there are different tools for different jobs, there
are different learning strategies for different academic tasks (Levin, 1986).
Successfullearners also need a large number of "tools" to make schoolwork
easier and to increase lhe probability of their success. For example, knowing
how to use maps or representations to organize information and how to
generate and answer questions from notes and textbooks are important
learning tools. Many students who have difficulty learning in school allribute
lheir problem to a lack of ability when lhe problem actualiy may be that lhey
have never been properly taught how to learn. Sorne students use one or
two major learning strategies for all tasks in all courses. These sludents often
do not have lhe necessary tools to learn the complex material lhey encounter
in the courses they are required to take. For example, on exams, many
instructors ask questions relating to topics lhat lhey did not directly diseuss
in lectures. Students must be able to organize and analyze notes so lhey are
prepared to answer questions such as: "How does the government effect lhe
allocation of resources through tax policy?" or "Why does lhe temperature
of the water influence the velocity of sound?"
Academic Self-Regulation 13
The plumbing example can be used to provide a practical example of
understanding the relation between learning and motivation. The first
aulhor is going to admit something: He doesn't have confidence in his ability
to do many household chores. Therefore, he procrastinates, fails to purchase
the tools lhat could help him complete tasks, and doesn't pay much allention
when friends try to explain how he can be a successful handyrnan. When
his wife tells him lhat a water faucet is leaking and asks him to fix it, he often
tells her to wait a few days-perhaps the leaking will stop! Even if he had
lhe tools, he still might not allempt to complete lhe job himself.
y ou cannot become a successfullearner merely by acquiring new learning
and study skilis. You also must deal with your motivation (Le., beliefs and
perceptions) regarding a task Even if you know how to use an effective
strategy, you may not be motivated to use il. Sorne educators (e.g., Paris,
1988; Weinstein et al., 2011) describe lhese two important components of
learning as the skill (Le., learning strategies) and will (Le., lhe motivation to
use strategies).
Use of Time
"1 keep a weekly calendar of my activities."
"1 start studying at least one week befare exams."
Educators have found a relation between time management and academic
achievemenl. Students wilh beller time-management skills tend to have a
higher grade-point average (GPA) than students with poorer time-
management skilis. In fact, Brillon and Tesser (1991) found lhat time-
management skilis measured in lhe freshman year were more predictive of
GPAs in lhe senior year lhan were Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT)
scores. Similarly, West and Sadoski (2011) found lhat time-management skills
along wilh self-testing skilis were beller predictors of first semester medical
school grades lhan lhe Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) scores.
Why does time management appear to be so important in determining
academic success? One explanation is lhat use of time impacts self-
regulation. If a student has difficulty dealing wilh time, he or she ends up
doing what is most urgent when deciding which task to do firsl. If a paper
is the next task lhat needs to be done, one works on lhe paper; if an exam is
the next challenge, one studies for lhe exam. Little time is spent on any long-
term planning to consider lhe importance of different tasks and how lhey
can best be completed (Zimmerman et al., 1996).
How many times have you heard individuals state: "1 don't have time."
The problem for most individuals is not lhat there is not enough time to
accomplish what needs to be done, but lhat lhey do not know how to manage
the amount of time lhat is available each day. When students analyze their
use of time, they find a great deal of it is wasted.
 14 Foundations 01 Learning and Motivation
A close friend of the first aulhor is a manager at IBM. Each year he sends
members of his sales force to time-management workshops. He explained
that effective use of time by his total sales force can result in hundreds of
thousands of dollars in increased sales. Many of his sales staff are experts
in technology, have excellent interpersonal skills, and are highly motivated
to succeed. The problem is that many of them do not know how lo man-
age their time, and this deficiency prevents them from becoming more
successful.
Physical and Social Environment
"1 turn off the TV or my cell phone so I can concentrate on what
I am doing."
"1 go to the library to study belore exams."
"When I find that I don't understand any material, I immediately
make an appointment with my instructor."
"1 organize a study group belore an examination."
Another important aspect of self-regulation is the ability of learners to
____________-':'re"'s,.tr..,u""c"t."u!;re"-'th=ei"'r"p"'h"-y'-'s'-'"a
ic ",lc:a,:;n_d social environments to meet their needs.
Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1986) found that higb achievers reported
greater use of environmental restructuring and were more likely to seek help
from others than were low-achieving students. For the most part, environ-
mental restructuring refers to locating places to study that are quiet or not
distracting. Although this task may not appear difficult to attain, il poses
many problems for students who either select inappropriate environments
initially or canoot control the distractions once they occur.
Self-reguIation ofthe social environment relates to an individual's ability
to determine when he or she needs to work alone or with others, or when
it is time to seek heIp from instructors, tutors, peers, or nonsocial resources
(such as reference books). Knowing how and when to work with others is
an important skill often not taugbt in school.
Educational research indicates that higb-achieving students are more
Iikely than low-achieving students to seek heIp from instructors, just the
opposite ofwhat one might expect (Newman & Schwager, 1992). Newman
(1991) stated: "Seeking beIp from a knowledgeable other person can be more
beneficial than giving up prematurely, more appropriate than waiting
passively, and more efficient than persisting unsuccessfully on one's own"
(p. 154).
It would seem logical that everyone would want to use aII available
resources and seek assistance from teachers and peers. Unfortunately, this
is not tbe case. Sorne students do not seek heIp beca use they do not want to
appear "dumb" or incompetent in the eyes of their peers or fail to seek help
Academic Self-Regulation 15
because of the extra effort it may entail. For example, in a class discussion,
one of the students mentioned that she did not do well on a biology exam
beca use she did not understand the instructor's expectations of the response
to the essay questions. The second author suggested that she meet with the
instructor to discuss his expectations. She agreed that this would be a good
strategy. However, the following week she stated that too many sludents were
waiting to talk to the instructor, so she got frustrated and left. The second
author' s response was that meeting with her instructor was a task that ,he
had to accomplish. lt was her responsibility to call for an appointment, wait
to meet him after class, or at the beginning or end of the school day. If her
success in the course depended on learning how to prepare and take his
exams, then her job was to get to the instructor, one way or another.
Here is another example of the need to seek assistance. A student
approached the first author at the end of the second lecture in the term and
stated: "You're not going to count my quiz today? I haven't had an
opportunity to buy my textbook?" The first author stated that the quiz would
count and that he had numerous opportunities to locate the required five
pages of reading for the quiz. He could have read the material at the reserve
section of the Jibrary, where numerous copies of the reading had been
placed. He could have borrowed the reading from another student in the
class or asked the first author ifhe had a copy to loan him. In other words,
it was his responsibiJity to get the material.
Both ofthese interactions with students provide excellent examples ofthe
importance of managing one's learning. In both situations, !he students failed
to understand their responsibility in the learning process. Think about
situations in your past where you would have benefited from managing sorne
aspect of your physical or social environment.
Monitoring Performance
"1 evaluate the results 01 each 01 my exams to determine how I
can better prepare lor future exams. "
"11 I find that I don't understand what I'm reading, I slow down
and reread the material."
The final factor that you can manage is your academic performance.
Whether writing a paper, completing a test, or reading a book, you can learn
how to use self-regulation processes to influence the quality of your
performance. One of the important functions of a goal is to' provide an
opportunity for you to detect a discrepancy between it and your present
performance. This analysis enables you to make corrections in the learning
process. When you learn to monitor your work under different learning
conditions (e.g., test taking and studying), you are able to determine what
changes are needed in your learning and studying behavior. It is interesting
that successful students tend to be aware of how well they ha"e done on a
 16 Foundations 01 Leaming and Motwation Academie Self-Regulalion 17

lesl even before getting il back from an inslruclor (Zimmerman & Martinez-
Pons, 1988).
World-dass athleles are good examples of individuals who learn how to
self-regulale their performance. For example, competitive skiers often
imagine themselves going through each slalom gate befare making an actual
run and concentrate on remaining relaxed during their run (Garfield, 1984).
After each run, they observe and assess their performance (both from their
perceptions and on videotape) to determine what modifications are needed
to reach greater accuracy on the next runo They often use subvocal specch
or self-lalk lo guide their behaviors and maintain attention to avoid
distractions Ihal may inlerfere with their performance.
When you learn how lo monitor and conlrol your own performance, you
become your own coach or menlor. You can practice skills on your own,
critique your own performance, and make the necessary changes to meet
your goals al a high level of success.
following faclors: motivalion, methods of learning, use of time, physical
environmenl, social environmenl, and moniloring performance.
Throughout this book, you will be asked to set goals and develop a plan
of action lo attain them . During Ihis process, you willlearn how lo manage
differenl aspecls of your academic learning that will affect your level of
success. In each chapter, we provide examples of studenls' perceptions or
beliefs about the learning strategies discussed in Ihis textbook. These
perceptions or sludent reflections, as we cal! iliern, are from students who
have taken our course in learning slralegies. As you read each reflection,
think aboul your own perceptions, beliefs, or behavior related to the topic
or issue. The following reflection illuslrales how learning to manage one's
academic behavior can also influence olher aspecls of ones Iife.

The Six Components of Academic Self-Regulation

5tudent Reflections
I first thought Ihal sell-regulation was conlined
lo academic leaming. Now I sce thal " is also
schoolwork, even clothes) everywhere. 1always
was looking lor Ihings, losing things, and
9
a great 1001 lar lile in general. As I leam more making a mess. Now I'm much more organized.
about sell-regulation and practice Ihe related 1put things back when I'm linished with Ihem, 1
The following example is how one sludent, Josh, exhibited self-regulatory ski lis, I find Ihal I'm mueh more organized. keep my mail and outside school malerial in
behavior in each of Ihe components just discussed: Josh's goal was to join Most important, I'm getting my work done certain areas where 1 can lind things, and my
the debate team during the second term of his freshman year. He believed instead o/ putting it off and procrastinating, roommate is especlally pleased, because 1 keep
as I have always done. As the elass has pro- the room clean now. I'm also more preparad for
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-'h;:e;.;c:;;o:.:ul::d::..::a::::
tt~al~·n:..hc;l:·s-'
:: g'-'o:;::a:..
l _;:
by:--7
ex:pending effort (motivalion) in preparing for
gressed, it has affected my dai~y life. I'm whatever I have te de. ! stick te schedules and
the tryouts. He first decided to study the topics that would dominate the starting to see that my life outside 01 school is plan lar the events in my lile. Basically, my life
debate season by reading magazine and newspaper artides (methods of starting to run more smoothly as well. is more enjoyable! I'm happy now because 01 my
learning). He then decided to practice his argumenls with another friend I was always an incredibly unorganized continuing success at sChool, and this success
(social environment) who also was interesled in joining the team. They persono I would throw all my stuff (Irom mail, has translated to my day-to-day lile.
decided to reserve space at the speech c1inic two evenings each week (time
management) and use the available recording equipment (physical
environment) to videotape their presentalions and spend time critiquing
themselves (monitoring performance). Exercise 1.1: Self-Observation: Assessing Your
Would Josh and his friend be successful if they failed to manage one or Self-Regulatory Skills
more factors influencing learning? Perhaps so, but we really do not know.
For example, could they have been as successful practicing Iheir arguments Direclions: Rate the extenl lo which you generally regulate or rnanage the factors
in their dorm rooms or whenever they found some time to meel, or without influencing your learning by checking Always, Sometimes, or Never in the corresponding
the recording machine? Could Josh have been as successful preparing by box and be prepared to offer a short explanalion of your ratings. What areas are your
himself? strengths and weakncss? Explain why you raled each dimension as you did.
Although il is possible lo self-regulale behaviar in all six of the areas
discussed, not all sludenls do so. A reasonable goal is lo manage as m uch Always Somellmes Never
of one's behavior and Ihoughts as possible. In the example discussed, Josh
Motivation (e.g., "1 can self-motivate when 1 need to").
and his friend believed they would be beller prepared lo make the debate
team following Iheir plan of action. If you were in the same situation, you Use 01 Time (e.g., "1 plan how 1 use my time").
may have approached Ihe lask differently. Melhods 01 Leaming (e.9., "1 use different study
Remember the example we provided earlier in Ihe chapter about Robert's methods for different types 01 assignments and tests").
study behavior for his hislory exam? Return lo the description ofhis learning Physical Environment (e.g., "1 modify or change my
and studying behavior (p. 4) and identify how he managed each of the sludy environment so 1can concentrate").
 18 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
Social Environment (e,9', "1 seek help when I need il"),
Monitorin9 Performance (e,9" "1 evaluale my work
to determine my progress toward meeting personal
and academic 90als"),
Comments:
• One problem is that some students study and prepare for examinations
How Can I Change My Behavior?
Zimmerman et aL (1996) suggested a process that students can use to
develop the self-regulatory skills necessary for academic success (see Figure
-------------;:L.:,I~),::;T;:,h¡;.l,'s::.
.:. p.:.r.:.o;.;c.:.es.:s.:.w
'Srilrlh""e"'lép-=y=ou develop control over the six components of
motivation and behavior identified in the previous section, Self-regulation
involves the four interrelated processes defined here:
Self-observation and evaluation occur when students judge their
personal effectiveness, often from observations and recordings of
prior performances and outcomes,
Each semester, students come into the office to discuss a poor performance
on an examination, They tell us they were prepared for the examination
because they read each chapter two or three times, Obviously, these students
have not leamed to check their understanding, Baker (1989) referred to this
situation as the illusion of knowing, Students ofien think they understand
but do not test themselves to confirm or deny their belief, This lack of
understanding is one of the reasons why many students are so confident of
their performance during the first few weeks of college, They do not know
they are in trouble, They wait for an examination for feedback, and then
leam they don't know the materiaL
Think about a science or mathematics examination you have taken, How
ofien have you memorized formulas, but could not solve new problems
because you did not understand the basic principies involved? You may have
convinced yourself that you understood the material before the examination,
but you really did nol.
Academic Self-Regulalion 19
Self-Observation and
Evaluation
Strategic-Outcome Goal Setting and Monitoring
Monitoring Strategic Planning
Strategic Implementation and
Monitoring
FIGURE 1,1 A process lor sell-regulation 01 academic behavior (adapted Irom
Zimmerman et al" 1996)
in the same way that they did in high schooL They have yet to realize the
differences in the two academic environments, In high school, teachers take
most of the responsibility for their students' level of comprehension, High
school teachers actively monitor the degree to which content is understood:
They constantIy quiz students, ask questions as they present new material,
and place key ideas on the board, In contrast, college instructors expect
stud~nts to do their own monitoring of their understanding, Therefore,
problems arise early during the first college term if students do not know
how to monitor their own understanding, An important par! of becoming
a more successful student is developing the ability to monitor one' s
knowledge and recognize when something is not understood,
Think about expert performers in a variety of fields, In sports, elite
athletes begin observing their performances by viewing videotapes, Afier a
short period of time, they are able to modify their performances from the
feelings and feedback they obtain by viewing their own physical movements;
dance studios place handrails next to mirrors to enable students to self-
observe as they practice their routines; musicians learn to listen to their
playing to critique their own performances (Glaser, 1996),
Behavior cannot be regulated or managed unless you are aware of it,
Therefore, you will be asked throughout this book to observe and evaluate
your current leaming and study methods to determine those that are
ineffective so they can be replaced by better methods, Most important, you
need to become aware of when and how these new leaming and study
methods improve your leaming,
Each semester we ask students to assess their use of time for a week. They
usually are surprised to leam how much time they waste, They appear more
motivated to change their time management afier they have monitored and
observed their use of time, Self-observation is an important first step in
motivating students to consider changing their leaming and study behaviors:
-
20 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
Goal setting and strategic planning occur when students analyze
the learning task, set specific goals, and plan or refine the strategy
to attain the goal.
(Zimrnerrnan et al., 1996, p. 11)
This second step is important in all academic tasks, ineluding writing a paper.
When given the task of writing a paper, you should start by analyzing your
strengths and weaknesses. Then analyze the assignment to determine the
nature of the paper and what needs to be done. Next you should establish
a goal for completion, with a number of intermediate or subgoals (e.g.,
locating necessary references and proofreading) for completing different
sections of the paper. Finally, you should develop a strategy for completing
each of the intermediate goals. We discuss this process in more detail in
Chapter 4.
The same procedure can be used in test preparation. After analyzing
previous tests as well as your present knowledge of the content (using self-
observation and evaluation), you should determine what course material
will be examined, establish goals for preparing for the exam, determine how
you will study (Le., what strategies will be used), and, finally, plan a time-
management program consistent with your goals.
After you better understand your current behavior (through self-observa-
tion and evaluation), you will be in a better position to determine what needs
to be accomplished (goals) and to develop a strategy to do it. Much of the
-------------'cc:o-n=:t:..en.::t~i::n::t?'
h is:;b:;;o.::o:¡k:..f~,o"'c:..:u=se'"s-o=n"this step in the cyele. Strategy-implementation
and monitoring occur when students try to execute a strategy in structured
contexts and to monitor their accuracy in implementing it.
The third step in the cyele focuses on the effectiveness of your learning
strategy. Is the strategy working? Are you attaining each of your goals in
completing your paper? Are you learning the necessary content for your
exam? If your strategy is working, keep going. If not, you had better consider
what needs to be done to change your behavior.
When you learn anything new, there is a tendency to revert back to familiar
methods (even though they may be less successful). This happens to athletes,
dancers, and students. Therefore, performers and learners need to monitor
their behaviors elosely to determine whether they are applying new strategies
appropriately. The result of this monitoring may indicate a need to adjust
lhe learning strategy to improve progress toward lhe attainment of your goal.
y ou may even decide lhat it is time to seek help.
When an individual realizes lhat he or she does not understand a portion
of the text, he or she rereads the difficult section, slows the reading pace
lhrough difficult or unfamiliar material, reviews course material lhat was
not understood, or skips certain questions on an examination, returning to
lhem afler easier questions are answered. It is important that students learn
how to modify lheir study behavior to improve their understanding.
All students need to learn "fix-up" strategies to remedy learning prob-
lems. That is, they need to learn what to do after lhey find lhat they do not
Academic Self-Regulation 21
understand certain content. aften, different methods or strategies for
learning must be undertaken (e.g., asking and answering questions) instead
of continuing with lhe same ineffective strategy (e.g., underlining lhe content
in a textbook).
Strategic-outcorne rnonitoring occurs when students focus their
attention on links between learning outcornes and strategic
processes to deterrnine effectiveness.
(Zirnmerman et al., 1996, p. 11)
The final stage in lhe cyele involves expanding your monitoring to inelude
performance outcomes. The following questions must be answered: "Did the
learning plan or strategy help me attain my goal?" "Did 1 have to make
changes in my learning and study methods?" For example, you may have
developed a strategy for studying for an objective test for the first examination
of lhe termo You used lhe same strategy for a second examination, an essay
test. Was the study strategy effective for bolh tests?
The cyele keeps going as self-observation is used to evaluate your exam
performance by determining what questions you missed and lhe location
of the information (Le., notes or readings). A self-directed learner is
constantIy monitoring learning outcomes to determine whether different
strategies are needed to attain goals and maintain a high level of academic
SUCCeSS.
When researchers study expert performance in such fields as music,
sports, medicine, chess, and reading, they find a common element in their
learning. Initially, experts depend on instruction from olhers, and, wilh time,
lhey increasingly rely on lheir self-observation and self-judgments about lheir
behavior. The ability to self-regulate enables experts to profit a great deal
from practice and study by themselves wilhout assistance from lheir coaches
and teachers (Glaser, 1996).
Zimmerman et al. (1996) believe lhat one of the major advantages of using
the self-regulatory process is lhat it cannot only improve one' s learning, but
also enhance one' s perception of self-confidence and control over the
learning process. By learning to self-observe your current learning and
study behavior, and by determining for yourself what melhods are effective
and ineffective, you can begin replacing ineffective melhods wilh better ones
and can become more aware of lhe improved effectiveness of these new
strategies. This process helps you to become a more self-directed or self-
regulated learner.
The first exercise in the Follow-Up Activities section of this book,
beginning with Chapter 2, identifies a topic and questions related to each
of lhe four processes just discussed to change or modify your behavior. These
questions provide the structure for conducting your own self-regulation
study. Take a moment to look at the self-regulation study at the end of
Chapter 5, focusing on reducing anxiety.
 22 Foundations of Learning and Motivation Academic Self-Regulation 23

Appendix A provides detailed procedures for how to conduct such a study.

y ou will leam in Appendix A how to identify a problem, observe your
behavior, and develop a plan to improve and evaluate your academie
!
Motivational
leaming. Read Appendix A as soon as possible. Appendix B provides three Strategíes Learníng .nd
examples of such studies. You will find an evaluation of each self-study at
Goal Settíng 1---- Study Strategíes
the end of each reporto Your instructor will provide specific directions about
Emotionand
conducting such a study. Effort
You may want to conduct a self-regulatory study to improve your time Learning from
management, study environment, test preparation, motivation, or any other
study-related skill. Read ahead in the textbook if you wish to conduct a study
!
Beh.vioral
Textbooks
Le.rníng from
Academic
Performance
Class
on a topie that will be discussed later in the termo Str.tegíes Preparíng for
Time Management 1---- Exams
Physícal aud Social Takíng Exoms
How Does Self-Regulation Occur in an Academic Context? Environment

Figure 1.2 is useful for understanding the organization of the remaining t t

chapters in this book. Although all the components of self-regulation
interact, it is easier in a textbook to present content in a linear fashion.
Therefore, we have grouped the components into three different units. The
self-regulation cyde can help you gain competence in each of the areas
identified.
There are four key skills that must be mastered to perform successfully
- - - - - - - - - - - - -m-any-a-eatlemie-sett ing:-leaming from k Kl, leaming in dass, preparing for
exams, and taking exams. W riting, another important skill, is discussed under
learning how to respond to essay exams.
The main factor influencing the effectiveness of your learning these skills
is your ability to manage the various elements of your behavior. We group
goal setting and management of emotion and effort under motivational
strategies, and time management and management of physical and social
environment under behavioral strategies. It is important to note that
behavioral and motivational self-control are interrelated. The academie
performance box in Figure 1.2 represents the performance dimension aspect
of self-regulation.
The process we described here places a great deal of responsibility on you,
the learner. We wish there were an easy way to become a more successful
learner. Unfortunately, we do not koow any other way. Educational research
dearly indicates that students who take charge of their own learning are more
likely to achieve at a higher level than students who fail to take this
responsibility (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008).
Al! students need to have effective academie beliefs, study skills, and habits,
but self-regulatory skills are especially important in the context of online
learning. Chances are that you will take a fully or partially online dass at
sorne point in your academie career. Over the nine years from 2002 to 2011,
the number of college students taking at least one dass online quadrupled
from 1.6 million to over 7.1 million (Al!en & Seaman, 2014) and the trend
FIGURE 1.2 Academic self-regulation
of online learning is on the rise. Because the online learning environment
is ofien less structured than the traditional dassroom, online courses require
students tú takc complete rcsponsibility for t.~cir GVYl1 lcarning.
Whether you are taking courses in the traditional or online learning
environment, you will acquire important strategies to assist you in managing
your learning behavior in each chapter of this book. For each strategy
discussed, you willlearn why it is important, when it can be used, and how
it can be implemented. The key to success in this course is practicing the
different strategies so they become automatic. As you practiee, you will be
able to learn more material in less time than you did prior to using these
new strategies. In other words, you willlearn to study smarter, not harder.
y ou are not alone on your journey to become a more successful student.
y our instructor and peers will provide support and encouragement. You will
be asked to complete various individual and group exercises and assignments
as you read this book. You will find that working collaboratively with peers
and giving and receiving feedback will be a valuable experience throughout
the course.
Finally, you will only be taught strategies that thousands of students have
found useful in learning academic material. Afier learning and practicing a
strategy, only you will decide whether it is worth the effort and time to use
it regularly in school. If the strategy proves useful, you will use it. Likewise,
if you do not find the strategy helpful, you will modify it or disregard it. Try
each new strategy before you reach any condusions. Do not make the
mistake of rejecting something new before you have the opportunity to see
how it works.
24 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
CHAPTER REVIEW
KEY POINTS
1. Successful learners use specific beliefs and processes to motivate and
control !beir own behavior.
2. Sorne sludents fail to recognize !be differences between high school and
college learning during !be first weeks in college.
3. Students can self-manage six key components of academic learning that
can intluence !beir achievement level: motivation, me!bods of learning
(Le., learning strategies), use of time, physical environment, social
environment, and monitoring performance.
4. The self-regulation cycle involves four interrelated processes: self-
observation and evaluation, goal setting and strategic planning, strategy-
implementation monitoring, and strategic-outcome monitoring.
5. An important part of becoming a more successful student is developing
the ability to monitor knowledge, recognize when something is not
understood, and do something about il.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES
1. Evalnate Your Self-Regulatory Skills
Read !be following two descriptions of community college students and use
the criteria presented below to describe the extent to which each of!be two
students can be classified as self-regulated learners.
Components of Self-Regulation
1. Motivation
2. Use ofTime
3. Me!bods of Learning
4. Control of one' s physical environment
5. Control of one' s social environment
6. Monitoring performance
Maria On Sunday night, Maria reviews her work for!be coming week and
writes sorne short-term goals !bat she would like to accomplish. She then
opens her weekly calendar and determines how much time is needed to
complete her tasks. Maria works 10 hours a week and realizes !bat she needs
more time to prepare for her midterm in biology!be following Monday. She
makes plans to study for !be exam on Monday, Wednesday, and Sunday.
She realizes !bat her family is planning to attend her niece's birthday party
Academic Self-Regulation 25
next Sunday afternoon, but she needs !be time to prepare for !be exam. She
calls her aunt to tell her that she can't attend !be party on Sunday.
On Monday, Maria contacts two students in her biology class and asks
!bem if they would be interested in forming a study group to review sorne
possible questions !bat she !binks may be on !be exam. She tells her two
friends to create possible exam questions beforehand, so that they will be
prepared for!be study session. She also calls!be librarywhere she can reserve
a study room for her group. After the study session on Monday, Maria a¡ld
her friends determine that !bey have many unanswered questions about the
blood circulation of the human hear!. They write down these questions and
decide !bat one of them would go to !be instructor's office hours to get!be
questions answered and !ben email !be instructor's response to the rest of
!be group.
After her study session on Sunday afternoon, Maria reviews all the
material !bat will be on the exam the next day and makes a list of content
material she feels that she doesn't fully understand. She reviews !be course
syllabus, notes, and textbook and decides !bat she needs to review two
chapters in her textbook and a few lecture notes on Sunday evening before
she is ready for the exam on Monday.
Jan Jan is a freshman at a local college and wants to enter a journalism
programo She recently purchased a car and feels !bat she has many expenses
thaL neeu tu be paid. As a result, she agrees Lo work 25 hours a week al i.he
local electronics store. Jan sometimes works evenings so her best time for
study is early in !be morning and late in !be afternoon. She usually attempts
to complete her reading assignments early in !be morning. However, she is
often tired and frnds it difficult to concentrate. Since she doesn't have a
computer at home, she uses !be computers in the library to complete her
writing assignments. However, she often finds it difficult to get to !be library
during her free time. As a result, she attempts to complete her assignments
at her boyfriend's house. She spends time talking wi!b her boyfriend and
often finds that !be time goes by very fast and she needs to go to work before
her assignment is completed.
Jan would like to complete her work without asking for assistance, even
though her instructor has office hours. She doesn't want her instructor to
think she is not capable; !berefore she would rather ask her friends for help
Iban meet with her instructor. When Jan studies for exams, she rereads her
textbook and notes, even !bough she admits that sometimes she doesn't
understand sorne of the notes she takes. Jan often complains !bat her English
instructor speaks too fast and taking notes is very difficult in her class.
2. Analyze Yonr Beliefs abont I.earning and Motivation
Read each of the following statements and place !be corresponding letter or
letters whether you agree (A), disagree (D), or are not sure (NS) about the
 26 Foundatíons of Learning and Motivation Academic Self-Regulation 27

accuracy of each statement. After identifying your beliefs, think about how • Review each syllabus and identify major assignments and demands
they influence your motivation and learning. Discuss your ratings with during the semester (e.g., papers, projects, weekly papers, etc.).
other students in your dass. • Analyze each textbook to determine what learning aids are induded
(Le., glossary, questions, summaries,objectives, or test questions) that
1. "1 can't do well in a course ifI'm not interested in the content." help you comprehend the material. AIso, identify any other
2. "1 will not learn much ifI am bored in dass." characteristics of the books that make them easy or hard to read (e.g.,
3. "Competition is a great motivator." bold headings, graphics, small type).
4. "Human intelligence is fixed by the time a student begins school." • Analyze the instructor's teaching style to determine whether it will make
í 5. "Sometimes there is not enough time in the day to do everything that
needs to be done."
it easy or hard to take good notes. What do you like most and least
about his or her style? How does she or he let you know what is
6. "If 1 simply listen in dass and read my assignments, 1 should do well important? What note-taking problems do you encounter? Identify any
in college." of the following characteristics about your instructor: speaks rapidly,
7. "The most important aspect of studying is finding enough time." speaks slowly, speaks loudly, speaks softly, does or does not use board
8. "The key to success in college is having good instructors." or overheads, is well organized or is disorganized, and so forth.
9. "Procrastination is a personality trait that can't be changed."
What are your general impressions of the instructor and course demands?
3. Analyze tbe Meaning of Two Statements Identify your interest level and expectancy for success in each course.
Identify any concerns you may have about doing well in a course and the
An educational researcher has stated that self-regulated individuals believe steps you can take to deal with your concerns.
that "Iearning is not something that happens to students; it is something that
happens by students" (Zimmerman, 1989, p. 22). What do you think this
statement means? What implications does it have for improving ones Courses Syllabus Textbooks Professor
~~____________________~I~
ear
~ n~ing~?____~__~~______
General Comrnents
How does the following statement relate to your own learning
experiences? 1.
2.
Part 01 being a good student is learning to be aware 01 the state
3.
01 one's own mind and the degree 01 one's own understanding.
The good student rnay be one who often says that he does not 4.
understand, simply because he keeps a constant check on his 5.
understanding. The poor student, who does not, so to speak,
watch hirnsell trying to understand does not know most 01 the
tirne whether he understands or not. Thus, the problem is not to
get students to ask us what they don't know; the problem is to
rnake thern aware 01 the difference between what they know and
what they don't.
(Holt, 1982, p. 17)

4. Analyze Course Demands

y ou learned in this chapter that a successful student takes charge of his or

her own learning. Therefore, it is important to understand the demands of
each of the courses you are taking this termo In this way, you can set goals
and develop a plan for achieving them. U se the summary sheet provided
to analyze the syllabus, textbooks, and professor in each course. W rite
comments in abbreviated form so you can discuss them in dass:
 2

Understanding
Motivation

As you consider the various components of academic self-regulation, you

may find that you have no difficulty managing your motivation. You may
exhibit a great deal of effort on tasks, persist even under difficult situations,
and maintain positive beliefs about your academic abilities. lf this is the case,
this chapter will simply help you understand why you are motivated to
succeed. However, if you have some difficulty managing your motivation,
this chapter provides important background information to help you change.

Motivational Problems

Many of our students frequentIy state in class or in written assignments: "1

have no motivation" or "1 need to get motivated." Unfortunately, we find
that many students do not understand the meaning of these statements.
ActuaJly, everyone is motivated. Educational researchers, such as Covington
and Roberts (1994), have found that many different motivational pattems
can be identified in any group of students. These motivational pattems are
based on our relationship with success and failure.
AH individuals can be characterized by two opposing motives: a motive
to seek success and a motive to avoid failure. That is, some of us are
motivated to achieve success and anticipate the feeling of pride and
accomplishment related to our success while others are motivated to ensure
that they do not fail and experience the shame and humiliation related to
failure. But do we only desire success or seek to avoid failure? Obviously
no!. Most of us experience a combination of motives and can be categorized
into one of four different motivational profiles as represented in Figure 2.1.
Le!'s look at these four types of students: the success-oriented students,
fallure avoiders, failure acceptors, and overstrivers.

• Successful Sheila/Success-oriented student: This student, high in motive

for success and low in fear of fallure, is likely to be highly engaged in

30 Foundations of Learning and Motivation
Low High
Motive to Low Failure Acceptors Success-Oriented Students
A void Failure
High Failure Avoiders Overstrivers
FIGURE 2.1 Quadripolar model lor need achievement (Covington & Roberts.
1994)
academic activities and not anxious about her performance. The
success-oriented student uses effective learning strategies, sets goals,
and self-regulates her learning.
• Defensive Dimitri/Failure avoider: For this type of student, the desire
to avoid failure outweighs the anticipation of success. He puts rus energy
into preventing anyone from interpreting his poor performance as
evidence of lack of ability. He uses a number of failure-avoiding
strategies, such as studying at the last minute so that if he fails he has
a ready excuse. He relies on memorization as the easiest way to get an
adequate grade and puts in a great deal of time the last day or so as a
way of making up for weeks of neglect and disinlerest in coursework.
Underneath the seeming apathy, though, he remains concerned about
the implications of failure and defensively maneuvers to avoid looking
_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _...!'n"(lLcaRa~le,'_
. ~_ _~_
• Anxious Anna/Overstriver: This student is high in both motives: She
seeks success but greatly fears failure at the same time. In fact, she can
be characterized as attempting to avoid failure by succeeding. This
student is highly anxious about her performance, ofien over-prepares
for assignments and exams, and seeks extra credit whenever possible.
Though in the short term, it may seem that she is successful as her
grades are exemplary, in the long term, her excessive worry about failure
and doubts about her adequacy may result in exhaustion and actual
health problems.
• Hopeless Henry/Failure acceptor: Tms sludent is low in both motives,
reflecting an absence ofbolh hope and fear. He is basically indifferent
to achievement, believing that more effort and better learning strategies
wil1 make no difference in rus history of academic failure. In addition
to loss of hope, lhis indifference may also reflect hidden anger. He is
not concerned about lhe implications of academic failure as at some
point he has told himself lhat the lessons to be learned in school hold
no relevance for his Iife.
Understanding Motivatian 31
anything he does will make a difference io succeeding in college. He has
learned to be helpless. Anxious Anna wants to be successful but her constant
worry causes considerable anxiety that interferes with her success and heallh.
Do any of these students resemble anyone you know? As you read lhis
chapter, think about how lhe content can help you better understand eaeh
of lhese students. Afier studying this chapter, you will be able to:
• Identify lhe factors that bfluence motivation.
• Assess your beliefs and perceptions to account for your own
motivation.
What 18 Motivation and What Factors Influence It?
Student motivation in the college classroom involves three interactive
components as described in Figure 2.2 (adapted from Pintrich, 1994). The
first component is sociocultural factors, made up of such influences as one's
prior educational experiences, socioeconomic status, as well as peer, family,
and cultural experiences. The second component, classroom enVlronmental
factors, ineludes the college and classroom environment, instructional
methods and behavior, and type of assignments given to sludents. The third
component in the model ineludes internal factors such as students'
perceptions and beliefs.
Each of the ¡hree components has an effect on motivated behaviors,
depicted in the middle of the model. You've heard lhe saying: «Actions speak
t
MOTIVATED
BEHAVIORS
• Choice
• Level 01 activlty
and involvement
• Perslstence and
management 01
effort

Each of lhese students has a different set of beliefs and perceptions. Three
of these students have motivational problems lhat Iimit their present and
possibly future academic success. Defensive Dimitri is more con cerned
about failure lhan success and uses failure-avoiding strategies lhat ofien result
FIGURE 2.2 A model 01 motivatlon in college (adapted Irom Pintrlch, 1994)
in creating lhe very failure he fears. Hopeless Henry does not believe lhat
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par un sacrifice, il la lui conservait par un autre sacrifice. Oh ! très
doux, celui-ci.
Et lentement s’insinuait en lui, par l’habitude de la voir tous les
jours, le besoin de la voir encore. Maintenant, à son insu, il croyait
avoir droit à cette joie quotidienne… Rien ne lui ôterait plus ce triste
bonheur accoutumé. Oh ! il n’était plus question de départ. Il la
voyait, l’écoutait, la frôlait, — et il était heureux comme ça.
La mère de Paul ne cessait de se tourmenter, d’appeler l’abbé au
secours, de l’interroger sans obtenir d’autre réponse du digne prêtre
que le pieux mensonge auquel Paul l’avait contraint :
— Mais non ! mais non ! je vous assure. Il n’y a rien d’alarmant.
L’abbé cherchait ce qu’il y avait à faire dans l’intérêt de tous, et
ne trouvait pas. Il revoyait la jeune comtesse de temps en temps,
l’observait avec attention, ne démêlait pas en elle, — qui était sur
ses gardes, — l’esprit de mal dont lui avait parlé Paul avec une
exaltation si maladive, et il suppliait son jeune ami de mieux juger,
de reviser le procès de la malheureuse femme… « A tout péché
miséricorde. »
Tout demeura inutile. Ancré dans son soupçon, surtout dans sa
méfiance de lui-même, dans sa terreur d’être la dupe de cette
femme, de se laisser entraîner par elle et pour elle à une vie de
passion physique où il oublierait toute la gloire de son passé moral,
où il perdrait la force de vivre pour autre chose, le comte Paul
maintenait fermement l’attitude qu’il avait prise vis-à-vis de Rita.
Pourvu que sa mère ne pût connaître le fond des choses, il était
encore assez heureux. Il laissa l’abbé mentir pieusement à sa place.
Il ne parla pas à sa mère.
Un jour enfin, elle lui dit :
— Vous semblez soucieux, mon fils. Qu’y a-t-il ? Rien de grave,
j’espère, dans votre vie ?
Il voulut couper court à toute inquisition, et baisant la main de sa
mère :
 — L’abbé m’avait dit vos inquiétudes, ma mère. Je ne vous en
parlais pas, moi, espérant, comme il me l’a affirmé ensuite, que vous
étiez rassurée, tout à fait rassurée… Non, ma mère, je n’ai rien, que
le souci de mes pauvres, de mes malades ; mais c’est bien quelque
chose. Savoir et voir qu’il y a par le monde tant de malheureux, tant
de douloureux qu’on ne peut pas soulager, voilà ma douleur, mon
malheur à moi. Ma conscience, trop subtile peut-être, se reproche
les bonheurs de ma vie. Voilà ce qui me donne souvent l’air
soucieux. Mais si vous ajoutez à mes troubles le tourment de vous
savoir inquiète à mon sujet, alors, je serai vraiment un malheureux
— car vous êtes la seule chose que j’aime en paix.
En parlant ainsi, il ne disait pas tout, mais il ne mentait pas.
Il avait touché juste. La crainte d’ajouter aux peines de son fils la
rendit circonspecte, muette pour toujours, — mais, au-dedans d’elle-
même, elle se torturait ; elle avait mille visions.
Fidèle à sa promesse, elle se faisait petite, demeurait, avec
Annette, dans ses appartements, ou sortait en voiture, et passait la
journée chez Madame de Barjols. Les deux dames et les deux
jeunes filles vivaient positivement ensemble.
Pauline consolait toujours Annette des froideurs d’Albert. Elle
avait fort à faire. Il était toujours pressé. Le matin, il sortait à cheval ;
l’après-midi, il allait chez Marie, presque tous les jours, causer ou lire
avec elle, en réalité goûter le bonheur d’être près d’elle. Il lui lisait
des vers, de la prose, et il y avait toujours quelque phrase qui parlait
d’amour, de silence éloquent, de trouble muet. Il ne s’avouait pas
qu’elle pouvait y voir l’expression de ses sentiments à lui — mais
déjà il se plaisait à l’aimer derrière l’obstacle, à avoir conscience du
plaisir qu’il prenait à savourer son inutile amour.
Chez lui, où il ne restait plus beaucoup, on le voyait rêver, absent
de lui-même. Il était toujours pressé, facilement de mauvaise
humeur. Il finissait, insensiblement, par regarder sa propre maison
comme le lieu où il devait demeurer le moins, un endroit de passage.
Lui qui adorait sa mère, il éprouvait maintenant des impatiences
physiques dès qu’il était assis près d’elle, un besoin de marcher,
d’être debout. C’est que, debout, il se faisait l’effet d’être plus près
du départ, en route pour la rue Saint-Dominique, — qui était,
heureusement, toute voisine. Quand il s’agitait ainsi, sa mère disait
en souriant : « C’est apparemment l’habitude de faire le tour du
monde. Tu trouves la maison étroite : c’est bien naturel. La jeunesse
et la santé ont besoin d’espace. Allons, va, mon enfant. Moi, pourvu
que je te sente content, — je suis heureuse. Je n’ai pas besoin de te
voir avec mes yeux. »
Elle mentait, celle-là aussi. Le voir de ses yeux, c’était le grand
bonheur… Elle n’avait plus beaucoup de temps à le voir, songeait-
elle. La mer le lui reprendrait bientôt. La retrouverait-il à son retour ?
Elle chassait ces idées noires, et tendrement, lui répétait : « Va !
va-t’en vite. »
Alors, il sortait ; et, si Annette était là, c’est Annette qui paraissait
la plus triste. Elle se rapprochait toujours davantage de la
paralytique, la petite Annette, lui faisait la lecture, quand Pauline était
fatiguée, se faisait aimer de la mère de celui qu’elle aimait… « C’est
toujours ça ! » pensait-elle.
Ainsi coulèrent plusieurs semaines. Et au bout de deux mois,
comme Paul songeait à ouvrir son cœur à Albert, Pauline se décida
à parler à Paul pour s’en faire un allié en faveur d’Annette. C’était
chez les de Barjols, dans un instant où elle le trouva seul au salon.
Elle raconta les sentiments de sa petite amie, supplia Paul de parler
à Albert, et termina par ces mots :
— Ne faisons pas encore une malheureuse.
Paul leva les yeux sur elle, et il allait demander : « A quelle autre
malheureuse faites-vous allusion ?… » quand elle se troubla, rougit,
puis, furieuse d’avoir rougi, sentit des larmes lui monter aux yeux, et
enfin, effrayée de se trahir ainsi, perdit contenance…
Ce fut assez. — Paul avait compris !
— Ma chère Pauline, dit-il, comptez sur moi pour essayer de faire
le bonheur d’Annette et celui d’Albert. Il y a en effet assez de
malheureux par le monde.
Ils se serrèrent la main, comme deux hommes.
 IV

Paul résolut de parler à Albert dès le lendemain. Il profiterait de

l’occasion pour vider son cœur de l’affreuse confidence. Il lui
montrerait enfin son propre malheur pour lui faire mieux comprendre
le bonheur d’épouser une Annette, une Pauline.
Mais Pauline devança Paul.
Ce qui la décida à parler, c’est qu’elle avait réfléchi aux
perpétuelles absences de son frère, aux distractions, aux
impatiences, parfois brutales, qu’il avait depuis quelque temps avec
les domestiques… Elle le sentait en péril.
— Albert, lui dit-elle, dans l’après-midi de ce jour, et juste au
moment où il allait sortir, — Albert, j’ai à te parler.
— Tout le monde a donc à me parler aujourd’hui ! C’est une
conspiration !… Que veux-tu, ma bonne Pauline ?
Comme elle le regardait tristement, la triste jeune fille !
Tout en prononçant « ma bonne Pauline », il avait eu, lui,
autrefois si doux, si affectueux avec sa sœur, — un ton d’impatience
comme s’il eût avoué : « Tu m’ennuies ! Dépêche-toi ! »
Il regarda sa montre. Il était l’heure de se rendre chez Paul, — s’il
voulait en avoir fini avec lui assez tôt pour trouver Marie à l’heure
fixée… Oui, on l’eût étonné si on lui eût dit qu’il ne pourrait plus sans
désespoir se passer de l’entrevue quotidienne. Mais c’était ainsi. Il
était attiré inéluctablement, et, forcé d’obéir, il se croyait libre.
— Mon cher Albert, commença Pauline, tu m’as confié le grand
chagrin de ta vie, comme je t’ai dit le mien…
De quoi lui parlait-elle ? Il l’écoutait avec une demi-attention. « Le
grand chagrin de ta vie ? » Ces paroles éveillaient en lui à peine
l’idée vague d’une confidence qu’il avait faite, il y avait longtemps…
Longtemps, c’était quelques mois tout au plus… Mais il ne sentait
plus de même. Il ne se trouvait plus, comme alors, séparé d’elle, de
Marie. Il avait maintenant sa grande part du charme qu’elle répandait
autour d’elle ; il en jouissait tous les jours. De quel grand chagrin lui
parlait-on ? La veille encore il lui avait lu à haute voix les vers de
Musset :

. . . . . . . Je vis sans espérance,

Mais non pas sans bonheur : je vous vois, c’est assez.

Il avait même hésité une seconde, prêt à s’arrêter, comme si le

texte imprudemment choisi et parlant pour lui, en disait trop, faisait
un aveu coupable.
— Eh bien ! fit-il avec impatience. Dis vite, ma chère Pauline.
Paul m’attend.
C’est justement parce que Paul l’attendait qu’elle voulait parler à
son frère, le préparer…
Elle lui dit, d’un seul coup :
— Je t’apporte le bonheur, Albert, si tu en veux, si tu sais le
reconnaître. Écoute. La sœur de Paul, Annette…
Il était si loin de s’attendre à ce qu’elle allait lui dire, qu’il
questionna, curieux :
— Eh bien ?
— Elle t’aime si bien, si gentiment, si tendrement ! C’est une
douce, une dévouée. Le bonheur, la tendresse attentive que je n’ai
pu donner, moi, à celui que j’aimais, — elle te les donnerait, les
mêmes ; quelque chose de sûr, d’immuable… Il ne faut pas
repousser cette petite main-là, ce petit cœur qui bat si fort pour toi,
entends-tu ?…
Elle songea à Marie. Elle eut peur, et se hâta d’ajouter :
— Avant de me répondre, — il faut réfléchir avec tout ton grand
esprit de justice, d’indulgence, de bonté ; — ne te laisser égarer par
rien ; peser tout ; et tu me répondras… plus tard, demain, un jour…
Nous attendrons… je serai si heureuse, moi, de voir, autour de moi,
ma petite amie et mon frère heureux du même bonheur que je n’ai
pas pu faire pour moi !…
Il écoutait, debout, l’œil très ouvert, le doigt immobilisé sur la
chaînette de sa montre, étonné de ce qu’il entendait et de
l’impossibilité où il se sentait de débrouiller le sens de son
étonnement.
Alors, le voyant dérouté, elle crut qu’il songeait à l’autre, et elle
ajouta, pour l’attendrir :
— Et s’il vient des petits enfants, ils seront bien aimés, ceux-là !
Ils auront deux petites mères, jalouses de les servir, car votre
bonheur, Albert, je te dis que votre bonheur sera le mien. Je ne peux
plus en avoir d’autre.
Cet homme d’esprit, cet honnête homme au cœur bon, prodiguait
à sa sœur d’ordinaire les expressions de sa tendresse ; il savait
surtout, quand elle lui parlait d’un chagrin, la consoler. Celui auquel
elle faisait allusion en ce moment, — le dernier, — était le plus
grand ; c’était le chagrin terrible ; elle le lui avait avoué pour le
consoler du sien propre, de son désespoir d’amoureux ; il l’en avait
remerciée… Eh bien, tout cela était oublié ! Ou, encore une fois, s’il
s’en souvenait, il n’en était plus ému. A peine le souvenir lui en
arrivait-il comme d’une chose très lointaine, déjà perdue dans le
passé, inutile, morte — et un peu gênante !
L’égoïste passion faisait sourdement son œuvre. A quel point
d’esclavage elle l’avait conduit, il ne s’en doutait pas encore lui-
même. Ce qu’il goûtait de bonheur auprès de Marie, le charme dont
il s’imprégnait autour d’elle, à l’entendre, à la regarder, à serrer sa
main en entrant, à s’asseoir près d’elle, à l’effleurer, à sentir son
souffle quand, parfois, elle se penchait sur le livre, — tout cela c’était
l’attrait physique de l’amour, déjà accepté comme une invisible
chaîne, mais solide, aux maillons scellés ; tout cela, c’était la force
impondérable mais matérielle du désir, — assez pareille à celle de
cette montagne d’aimant, des Mille et une Nuits, qui attirait les
navires de la haute mer, les contraignait de venir à elle. Ils luttaient,
mais alors, de loin, l’invisible montagne aimantée leur arrachait leurs
clous, par centaines, et, peu à peu, toutes leurs ferrures. Tant que
l’influence mystérieuse n’est pas contrariée, tant qu’on lui obéit, on
ne se doute pas de sa force, mais essayez de la résistance : vous
vous sentirez mutilé.
Albert, — la bonté même, — contrarié dans sa volonté de sortir
pour aller où l’appelait la magique attirance, attristé de s’apercevoir
qu’il obéissait depuis quelque temps à une influence plus forte que
sa volonté, fut irrité, comme par un reproche de sa conscience, de
l’intervention de sa sœur. On l’humiliait, en lui montrant les
sinuosités de la route qu’il suivait, en lui désignant la ligne inflexible
du bonheur, — celle du devoir.
— Depuis quand, dit-il, les petites filles chargent-elles leurs
petites amies de pareilles missions ? Et depuis quand les jeunes
filles raisonnables les acceptent-elles ? Aussi bien, ma chère
Pauline, je suis pressé. Nous causerons plus tard de tout cela.
— Je ne te reconnais plus, Albert… Comment peux-tu croire ?…
C’est à moi seule, à moi seule, entends-tu ? qu’est venue cette idée,
parce que j’ai vu dans le cœur de cette petite. Ce cœur est digne de
toi.
Il la regarda, ne sut que répondre.
— Allons, nous reprendrons cette conversation, fit-il. Pour
aujourd’hui, en voilà assez. Laisse-moi sortir. Ta petite amie est une
colombe, mais c’est un oiseau. Voilà.
— Est-ce ainsi que tu parles de la sœur de ton ami, de notre ami
à tous ?… Qu’y a-t-il donc de changé en toi ? et par quoi ? Albert !
Albert ! je t’en conjure ! surveille-toi ! prends garde !
Elle se trouvait par hasard près de la porte.
— Allons, dit-il, bonsoir.
Il avait pris son chapeau et voulut passer. Alors elle se plaça
devant la porte en disant :
— Non, deux minutes, mon bon frère, deux minutes seulement.
Je veux que tu te souviennes de mes paroles, — et je veux que tu
ne puisses pas m’accuser un jour de ne pas t’avoir averti… Tu es
distrait depuis quelque temps, distrait et toujours pressé. Crois-tu
qu’on ne s’en aperçoive pas ?… Notre mère ne t’en dira rien, mais
elle s’en attriste… Où tu vas, cela ne nous regarde point, Albert,
mais veille bien sur ton cœur honnête, et prends garde qu’une
illusion mauvaise ne te détourne du bonheur que je te montre…
Mécontent de lui, il se sentit colère lorsqu’elle toucha si juste. —
Il ne voulait pas parler de cela, fût-ce avec lui-même. Il fronça le
sourcil.
Et comme, vaillante à l’idée de combattre pour sa petite amie,
elle ajoutait quelques paroles de sagesse :
— De quoi te mêles-tu !… gronda-t-il brutalement. Laisse-moi
tranquille ! Tu es folle !
Et, lui meurtrissant le bras d’une étreinte brusque, il la repoussa,
en sortant, — d’une façon si inattendue et si mal mesurée, qu’elle
glissa et dut étendre les mains pour se retenir au chambranle de la
porte.
Elle ne jeta pas un cri ; elle ne dit rien, mais il l’entendit qui
éclatait en sanglots… et il ne se retourna même pas… La force par
laquelle il était attiré rend aveugle et sourd, et ceux qui vont où elle
veut, marchent inflexiblement, du pas mystérieux des somnambules
visionnaires, dont la volonté est fatale et dont l’âme a été dérobée.
 V

Il ne s’était pas retourné, mais le sanglot de sa chère sœur avait

retenti dans son cœur. L’écho s’en prolongeait en lui, tandis qu’il
courait au plaisir dangereux. Tout à coup, il s’arrêta. Le dernier écho
de ce sanglot de douleur venait de lui révéler enfin sa passion telle
qu’elle était, le vœu impérieux et secret de son être entier. Son
amour pour Marie, dont il était jusque-là inconscient, il venait de le
reconnaître tout à coup et de le mesurer, à la brutalité même qu’il
avait montrée à sa sœur.
Il se dit : « Oui, j’aime la femme de Paul. J’avais renoncé à sa
fiancée. Mais maintenant je lui prends sa femme. Maintenant, elle
est à moi ! Je la lui prends tous les jours, je m’en empare. Je sais
qu’elle n’est pas à lui, et sous prétexte de la consoler, de la lui
garder, je la lui vole tous les jours un peu ! Ah ! malheureux !!
malheureux que je suis ! Et pour aller à ce larcin d’amour, j’oublie ma
mère adorée, ma mère infirme, — et quand ma sœur, la douce
victime, veut m’avertir, tendrement, doucement, — je la repousse,
avec des paroles rudes, telles qu’elle n’en a jamais entendu ! J’ai
dit : « Deviens-tu folle ! » Je l’ai dit ! Et je l’ai vue chanceler, la pauvre
chère enfant, sous ma poussée de goujat, et glisser, forcée de se
retenir pour ne pas tomber. Peut-être s’est-elle blessée… J’ai
entendu son sanglot ! Et je n’ai même pas tourné la tête !… »
Il eut envie de rebrousser chemin, de revenir d’un trait sur ses
pas, de courir à sa sœur, de lui faire cette joie, de lui montrer son
élan de repentir. Et il s’en retournait en effet, mais au bout de trois
pas, il reprit sa direction première, celle de la pente irrésistible où
roulait sa volonté, devenue inconsistante comme de l’eau ! Et,
honteux de lui, il songeait : « Comment ai-je changé si vite !… Ah !
oui ! c’est que je l’aimais ardemment, depuis deux années. Je
l’aimais, je l’appelais, là-bas, dans ma solitude, sur le pont de mon
bateau ! Je la désirais ! Je songeais à elle sans cesse… Et alors, il
m’a suffi de la revoir, d’apprendre qu’il la repousse… de la savoir
malheureuse !… »
Ici, sa pensée se faisait bonne pour l’ami. En somme, il croyait
Paul coupable d’exagération, de psychologie outrancière, et il se
trouvait indulgent de le traiter, dans sa pensée, sur le ton de la
gronderie bourrue, mais affectueuse :
« Ah ! le butor, songeait-il, le fou ! Avoir ce trésor à lui, et ne pas
être heureux ! Chicaner sur des fautes d’enfant, sur du passé !
Couper des cheveux en quatre, en mille ! Se livrer au petit travail de
tous ces analystes, de ces destructeurs d’âme qui désagrégeront le
monde, à la fin ! »
Il marchait d’un pas précipité. « Où vais-je donc si vite ? » Il se
répondit : « Je vais faire mon devoir. Je vais la sauver ! Je vais parler
à Paul, — puisque justement il m’appelle, — je vais lui ouvrir les
yeux, lui dire qu’il me doit d’être heureux, puisque j’ai perdu mon
bonheur pour faire le sien ! Je vais lui avouer tout ce que j’éprouve
aujourd’hui, ce que je sais d’elle, de sa pureté, de sa noblesse, de
ses regrets… Je la sauverai… Ou bien… »
Sa pensée s’arrêta. Il s’arrêta lui-même comme si un trou
s’ouvrait devant lui, infranchissable.
Après un temps où il ne vit plus rien en lui, sa pensée se remit en
mouvement.
« Et pourquoi pas ?… De quel droit exigerait-il que deux êtres, —
qui s’aiment parce qu’ils se comprennent, — se sacrifient à lui ? »
Et brutalement, il acheva : « S’il n’en veut plus, eh bien ! je la lui
reprendrai ! » Ne la lui avait-il pas donnée en effet ? A cette heure, il
n’en doutait plus !
Il s’arrêta encore de penser, puis s’avoua : « … car je l’aime ! je
l’aime ! je l’aime !… »
A présent qu’il avait osé se le dire, il se le répétait follement, mille
fois. Brusquement il se roulait dans la volupté de sa douleur, de son
remords même ; il commençait à goûter les âpres joies diaboliques
de l’égoïsme d’amour. Son sang criait vers elle. Le désir, ramassé
tout au fond de son cœur, dans les ténèbres, tapi, noué, muet
longtemps, se redressait, sifflant, la gueule ouverte, appelant la
proie, et s’élançait.
 VI

Albert arriva chez Paul :

— Tu as à me parler : moi aussi…
— Ah ! lui répondit Paul, te voilà bien pâle ? Qu’est-il arrivé ?
— Rien, tout. Voici, dit Albert très vite. Je ne suis pas, comme toi,
un inquiet et un mystique. Nous pensons de même à peu près sur
beaucoup de choses, mais nos pensées ont des allures différentes,
des tempéraments presque opposés. Ce qui fait que ton jugement,
sur tel cas particulier, peut différer absolument du mien… Mais avant
tout nous sommes honnêtes, sincères, et nous nous aimons.
— Avant tout, nous nous aimons, souligna Paul, qui lui prit la
main et la lui serra… Où diable veux-tu en venir ? Voilà un exorde
bien solennel !
Paul retint un moment la main d’Albert. Il fut étonné de trouver
cette main tremblante, et cependant presque inerte sous la pression
de la sienne.
— Parle vite ! dit-il alors. Tu me fais peur.
— Paul, dit gravement Albert, tu ignores, et tu aurais dû ne
jamais connaître, que mon amitié sûre, ferme, inébranlable, a fait un
jour à la tienne le plus grand des sacrifices. Mais comme la pensée
de ce sacrifice doit peser dans la balance, pour les décisions que tu
as à prendre aujourd’hui, j’ai le devoir de te le dire.
Paul, les yeux fixes, écoutait ardemment.
Albert reprit :
— Quand tu m’as révélé ton amour pour Mademoiselle
Déperrier…
 Il s’arrêta. Il y eut une demi-seconde de silence pendant laquelle
ils entendirent battre leurs cœurs…
Le marin acheva d’un seul coup :
— … je l’aimais !
— Albert ! cria Paul.
Et, frappé de douleur et d’effroi, comprenant, avec tout le passé,
tout le présent, il chancela, cachant ses yeux avec ses mains, et
tomba de tout son long sur un divan. Un sanglot lui gonfla la gorge et
ne sortit pas.
Et se relevant aussitôt :
— Albert ! Albert ! mon ami, mon frère, mon ami d’enfance,
Albert ! Albert !
Il ne pouvait dire autre chose : il semblait pleurer un mort !
Le marin, rendu pour l’instant presque insensible à l’amitié
comme il l’était tout à l’heure à l’affection fraternelle, dit, presque
durement :
— Eh bien, quoi ?
Le comte Paul fit un effort violent sur lui-même, s’assit, et il
répliqua doucement :
— Viens près de moi. J’ai à te parler un peu de temps. Viens là…
Écoute.
Albert s’assit, ayant dans toute son attitude virile, on ne sait quoi
de la physionomie boudeuse des petits enfants qui ne veulent pas
être consolés. Car c’était lui maintenant qui devait être consolé. Il le
pensait ainsi. Et peut-être, avait-il raison, puisque son malheur,
moins grand que celui de son ami, était plus présent à cette heure,
plus nouveau pour lui. Et Paul, tendrement, pensa de même.
— Mon ami, mon frère, dit alors Paul, d’une voix caressante,
écoute. Il y a trois ans, j’aimais d’une affection discrète, profonde, et
qui s’ignorait elle-même, — ta sœur Pauline. La passion que
m’inspira subitement Marie me fit oublier Pauline. Le bonheur était
là, pourtant. Je l’ai laissé derrière moi. Voilà mon histoire… Elle va
devenir la tienne…
Albert leva sur lui des yeux surpris, pleins de questions… et
pleins de douleur.
Paul conclut d’une voix persuasive et nette à la fois :
— Épouse Annette.
Albert se leva, — et se rassit aussitôt d’un mouvement
involontaire, car Paul, qui n’avait pas lâché sa main, le ramenait à
lui.
— Tu aimes Annette de cette affection douce, calme, profonde,
qui suffit… Qu’est-ce que je dis là ? C’est la meilleure, c’est la seule,
c’est le sentiment sublime. Le reste, toute femme jeune et belle peut
l’inspirer, fût-elle mauvaise… Les plus perfides même sont celles qui
l’inspirent le mieux, le plus vite, et à un plus grand nombre
d’hommes.
Il s’anima :
— Tu aimes Annette, sans y songer, d’un amour fait d’amitié, de
respect, de tendresse, de tout ce qui est immortel comme l’âme, ou,
si tu veux, plus durable au moins que la jeunesse et la beauté.
Épouse Annette. Le bonheur est là.
Et comme, stupide, ne trouvant rien à répondre, Albert demeurait
anéanti, osant à peine penser à ce qu’il était venu dire, — Paul se
leva.
Il comprenait.
Puisque Albert aimait Marie depuis trois ans, — comme lui, —
alors tout changeait. Ses assiduités révélaient une situation toute
nouvelle. La coquette l’attirait, le séduisait…
Debout, Paul réfléchissait ; et le plan de la chasseresse de cœurs
et de dots lui apparaissait, net, comme illuminé : « Elle veut me le
prendre, se venger en m’arrachant cette amitié, en enlevant cet
homme — parce qu’il est mon ami, et riche, — à sa mère, à sa
sœur, à tous ces gens qu’elle hait puisqu’elle les envie… Oh ! mon
pauvre Albert ! mon pauvre Albert ! »
 Un grand flot de tendresse lui monta au cœur pour ce jeune
homme au cœur pur, son meilleur ami, le frère de son choix, le petit
camarade de ses jeux, le frère de la bonne Pauline, le bien-aimé de
sa douce Annette.
— Ah ! répéta-t-il tout haut, mon pauvre Albert !
Pendant qu’il le plaignait avec sa tendresse d’enfance, l’autre,
Albert, armé à ce moment contre l’obstacle, et se sentant un besoin
de lutte immédiate, d’attaque et de défense, — fut presque blessé :
— Pourquoi me plains-tu ? demanda-t-il un peu fier.
— Pourquoi ? dit Paul. Et cette simple question fit éclater, dans
sa mémoire, toutes les raisons à la fois qu’il avait de redouter, pour
Albert, l’ambitieuse et perfide nature de sa femme.
— Pourquoi je te plains ? cria-t-il… Parce qu’il y a ici péril de mort
pour ton cœur naïf et sincère. Pourquoi je te plains ?… Parce que
cette femme t’abuse comme elle m’a abusé ! Elle t’aveugle. Elle te
change en bête.
Il s’animait :
— Tu brûles de lui sacrifier Annette et ta sœur, et ta mère et la
mienne, et moi ! notre vieille amitié de toujours ! Malheureux !
malheureux !… Pourquoi ? pourquoi je te plains ?… Parce que j’ai
éprouvé ce que tu éprouves ! J’ai cru en elle comme tu y crois. Je l’ai
aimée comme tu l’aimes. Ma mère a voulu me sauver en
m’avertissant comme je t’avertis ! Et je ne l’ai pas écoutée, et tu ne
m’écouteras pas !… Pourquoi je te plains ?
Il s’arrêta ; puis prononça avec douleur :
— Parce que tu me recommences !
Il vint s’asseoir près de son ami, en continuant, avec douceur :
— Oh ! je t’en supplie, je t’en supplie, Albert, — j’ai, moi,
heureusement, pour te prévenir contre elle, des moyens que ma
mère n’avait pas. Je puis t’affirmer, moi, en connaissance de cause,
qu’elle est mauvaise, qu’elle est fausse, — et d’un seul mot, je te
sauverai : Albert, mon ami, mon frère… ne va pas par là : j’en viens !
 Albert l’écoutait, sombre, obstiné à son rêve, aveugle et sourd à
tout le reste.
— Ah ! je t’attendais là ! cria-t-il enfin. L’histoire de la nuit de
noces, n’est-ce pas ? Les lettres ? les fameuses lettres ? Un éclat de
rire inopportun ?… Voilà bien des raisons suffisantes pour faire le
malheur d’une femme ! Tu es un de ceux qui analysent, toi, un de
ceux qui devinent, qui scrutent les consciences, qui pèsent les
intentions ! Tu es celui qui sonde les reins, comme dit la Bible quand
elle parle de Dieu ! Et alors, sur de pauvres indices, tu as tout
pénétré, tout jugé, et tu as condamné une malheureuse femme. Tu
la brutalises, à toute heure, en paroles. Tu l’insultes, tu l’écrases…
Tu vois, je sais tout, elle m’a tout expliqué. Et je venais, moi, te dire :
Frère, comme tu m’appelles, — je l’aimais. J’ai renoncé à mes
espérances pour toi. Tu me dois compte de son bonheur… Parlons-
en ; veux-tu ?
Paul ne releva pas l’ironie de ces reproches ; son esprit suivait le
chemin par où Rita avait fait passer Albert pour le conduire là.
— Ainsi, répliqua-t-il froidement, elle t’a tout dit ? C’est fort, c’est
même très fort. Et c’est très simple. J’aurais dû le prévoir, mais je ne
suis qu’un enfant, auprès d’elle. Ah ! vraiment, la puissance des
femmes est invincible ! Les choses qu’elles racontent prennent aux
yeux d’un homme, la couleur qu’elles veulent !… Ainsi, elle t’a tout
dit, tout ?
— Tout ! fit Albert.
— Tout, l’éclat de rire, les lettres, ce qu’elles disaient, son passé
bohème, la ruse par laquelle elle a essayé de me les soustraire ?…
— Tout, oui tout, répéta Albert.
— Ah ! dit Paul le plus tranquillement du monde ; et il commença
de se promener par la chambre, à son habitude…
A mesure qu’il comprenait mieux, il s’attristait davantage. Hélas !
il fallait renoncer, pour l’instant, à détromper sur elle son malheureux
ami. Cette certitude le navra.
 — Et, poursuivit-il, cette manœuvre de femme adultère, le soir
même de ses noces, — cela est, à tes yeux, un pauvre indice ? cela
ne révèle pas une perversité redoutable ?
— Ce n’est pas ce que tu dis, fit Albert prenant malgré lui le ton
calme de Paul. Ce n’est pas un crime irréparable. Elle a eu peur,
sottement, follement, — ce qui était bien naturel. Elle avait lu de
méchants livres, soit ; elle a eu la pensée brusque, involontaire, de
cet expédient romanesque… Elles font de ces choses-là à leurs
maîtresses de pension, les petites filles. Elles ont tort, mais ça ne se
punit pas avec le malheur de toute une vie !
Le comte Paul eut, de nouveau, un éclat :
— Je ne trouverai donc pas de paroles pour te convaincre ! pour
te sauver d’elle, entends-tu ? — Car cela seul m’importe, te sauver
d’elle !… Non ! et mon impuissance m’épouvante pour toi !… Elle a
su me devancer, te raconter, la première, notre horrible nuit de
noces… Mais l’attitude, le regard, la voix qu’elle avait, voilà ce
qu’elle ne t’a pas raconté, ce qu’elle ne t’a pas révélé, ce que je ne
peux pas te rendre, et ce sont mes preuves à moi !
— Des mots ! des mots, tout cela ! fit Albert tristement en
secouant la tête…
Puis, avec une certaine violence :
— La réalité simple, les faits positifs, c’est que ta métaphysique
la tue ! Elle gémit, elle se tord dans un enfer…
A mesure qu’il parlait d’elle, quelque chose en lui s’exaspérait,
qui était son impuissant désir, tourné en rage…
— Tu perds cette âme, Paul, poursuivit-il, d’un ton où il entrait
déjà de la menace : et il faut lui pardonner, comme je lui
pardonne !… Ou si tu dois être son bourreau…
Le comte Paul leva la tête et regarda Albert fixement. Dans cette
attitude de défi, l’exaltation d’Albert trouva l’excitation suprême…
— Si tu dois être son bourreau, entends-tu ! eh bien !…
Il lança l’irréparable menace :
— Je la reprendrai ! oui ! fût-ce en te l’arrachant !
 Paul à son tour secoua tristement la tête…
— En attendant, dit-il d’un ton calme, il faudra cesser de nous
voir. C’est tout indiqué. Ce n’est pas ma volonté, c’est la nécessité
qui parle. Tu ne la verras plus. Il le faut… ou plutôt nous nous
verrons seulement aux jours où nos familles se réunissent. Nous
devons cacher cette horrible querelle à nos mères, à nos sœurs, aux
chères femmes que nous aimons de la seule affection véritable. Il ne
faut pas que deux familles d’honnêtes gens soient malheureuses —
pour une (… il sourit)… pour si peu de chose, corrigea-t-il.
Heureusement Albert n’avait pas compris.
Paul saisit son chapeau.
— Sortons ensemble, allons, viens, dit-il. Le grand air est bon…
Et mettant son bras sous celui d’Albert, et le poussant tout
doucement vers la porte, il lui parlait bas, disant :
— Tu comprends, une seule pensée me guide : il ne faut pas
qu’elle vienne à bout de notre amitié. Et, tu vois, elle a déjà
commencé à la détruire. C’est commencé. Nous nous sommes
querellés… Allons, donne-moi ta main… Adieu… A bientôt, chez toi ;
nous irons tous ; à bientôt…
Et, dans la rue, serrant la main d’Albert étonné, presque
décontenancé, il lui dit d’un ton ferme, comme s’il lui faisait la plus
heureuse et la plus sûre des promesses, ratifiée par cette poignée
de main :
— Je te sauverai !
— Sauve-la, elle, de toi ! répliqua Albert sombre, devenu furieux.
Paul, qui avait fait un pas pour le quitter, revint sur lui :
— Quant à tes fonctions de sauveur de femme, dit-il durement,
elles n’ont plus à s’exercer auprès de moi, — jamais, tu entends ? Je
te défends, à l’avenir, de me parler d’elle. Garde ta douleur. J’ai
assez de la mienne… Bonsoir !
Ils se quittèrent avec la tristesse, pleine de remords, de deux
frères qui, tout en s’adorant, combattent dans des camps ennemis.
 Paul avait une course à faire. Il la fit à pied, parce qu’il voulait
réfléchir sagement, avant de parler à sa femme. Et comme il devait
aller dîner en ville ce soir-là, avec elle, il rentra s’habiller, comptant
bien avoir, avant le dîner même, une explication décisive au sujet
d’Albert. Il songeait : « Où en sont-ils ? »