Textbook Multi Layer Pavement System Under Blast Load 1St Edition Jun Wu Ebook All Chapter PDF

Multi layer Pavement System under
Blast Load 1st Edition Jun Wu

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/multi-layer-pavement-system-under-blast-load-1st-edi
tion-jun-wu/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science 1st

Edition Jun Wu
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-beauty-of-mathematics-in-
computer-science-1st-edition-jun-wu/
Intelligent City Evaluation System Zhiqiang Wu
https://textbookfull.com/product/intelligent-city-evaluation-
system-zhiqiang-wu/
Power System Load Frequency Control: Classical and

Adaptive Fuzzy Approaches 1st Edition Hassan A. Yousef
https://textbookfull.com/product/power-system-load-frequency-
control-classical-and-adaptive-fuzzy-approaches-1st-edition-
hassan-a-yousef/
Power System Control Under Cascading Failures:

Understanding, Mitigation, and System Restoration (IEEE
Press) 1st Edition Sun
https://textbookfull.com/product/power-system-control-under-
cascading-failures-understanding-mitigation-and-system-
restoration-ieee-press-1st-edition-sun/
Trade Facilitation in the Multilateral Trading System
Genesis Course and Accord 1st Edition Hao Wu
https://textbookfull.com/product/trade-facilitation-in-the-
multilateral-trading-system-genesis-course-and-accord-1st-
edition-hao-wu/
Multi-sensor System Applications in the Everglades

Ecosystem 1st Edition Caiyun Zhang (Author)
https://textbookfull.com/product/multi-sensor-system-
applications-in-the-everglades-ecosystem-1st-edition-caiyun-
zhang-author/
Multi-physics Coupling Analysis of Clayey Core Wall of

High Earth-Rockfill Dam Yongkang Wu
https://textbookfull.com/product/multi-physics-coupling-analysis-
of-clayey-core-wall-of-high-earth-rockfill-dam-yongkang-wu/
Forced-Flow Layer Chromatography 1st Edition Tyihák
https://textbookfull.com/product/forced-flow-layer-
chromatography-1st-edition-tyihak/
Multi Processor System on chip 1 Architectures Liliana

Andrade Frédéric Rousseau
https://textbookfull.com/product/multi-processor-system-on-
chip-1-architectures-liliana-andrade-frederic-rousseau/
Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering
Jun Wu · Hao Wu
Multi-layer
Pavement System
under Blast Load
Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering (STCE) publishes the latest developments
in Civil Engineering—quickly, informally and in top quality. The series scope
includes monographs, professional books, graduate textbooks and edited volumes,
as well as outstanding Ph.D. theses. Its goal is to cover all the main branches of civil
engineering, both theoretical and applied, including:
Construction and Structural Mechanics

Building Materials
Concrete, Steel and Timber Structures
Geotechnical Engineering
Earthquake Engineering
Coastal Engineering
Hydraulics, Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering
Environmental Engineering and Sustainability
Structural Health and Monitoring
Surveying and Geographical Information Systems
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Transportation and Traffic
Risk Analysis
Safety and Security
To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact: Pierpaolo Riva
at Pierpaolo.Riva@springer.com, or Li Shen at Li.Shen@springer.com
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15088

Jun Wu Hao Wu
•
Multi-layer Pavement System

under Blast Load
123
Jun Wu Hao Wu
School of Urban Rail Transportation College of Civil Engineering
Shanghai University of Engineering Science Tongji University
Shanghai Shanghai
China China
ISSN 2366-259X ISSN 2366-2603 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-10-5000-8 ISBN 978-981-10-5001-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5001-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947490
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
My Beloved Family
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objective and Scope of This Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Development of New Multi-Layer Pavement System Subjected to
Impact Load—Laboratory Large-Scale Drop Weight Test . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Configuration for the Proposed Multi-Layer Pavement System . . . . 8
2.3 Evaluation of the Impact Resistance of Proposed Multi-Layer
Pavement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Large Drop Weight Impact Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 Setup for Large Drop Weight Impact Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Individual Test Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.1 Experimental Results of Sample A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.2 Experimental Results of Sample B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.3 Experimental Results of Sample C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5.4 Experimental Results of Sample D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6 Comparison of 4 Test Specimens and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.1 Physical Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.2 Displacement of Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 Conclusions on Laboratory Drop Weight Impact Tests. . . . . . . . . . 50
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Development of New Multi-Layer Pavement System Subjected to
Blast Load—Full Scale Field Blast Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Test Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Slabs Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vii
viii Contents
3.4 Anchoring of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 59

3.5 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 62
3.6 Test Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 66
3.6.1 Experimental Results of Normal Concrete
Pavement Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 66
3.6.2 Experimental Results of the Proposed Multi-Layer
Pavement Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 78
3.7 Conclusions on Full Scale Field Blast Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 91
4 Property of Interface in the New Multi-layer Pavement System . . . . 93
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2 Laboratory Investigation of Interface Property Between Asphalt
Concrete and High Strength Concrete Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2.1 Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2.2 Shear Box Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.3 Sample Preparing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3 Test Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.1 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.2 Static Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3.3 Dynamic Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4 Numerical Modeling of Interface Between Asphalt Concrete and
High Strength Concrete Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.1 TIEBREAK Contact Type in LSDYNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.2 Numerical Model of Direct Shear Test on Interface
Between Asphalt Concrete and High Strength Concrete
Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5 Conclusion on Interface Property in the New Multi-layer
Pavement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5 Numerical Modeling of Pavement Slab Subjected to
Blast Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.1 Governing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.2 Lagrangian Versus Eulerian Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.1.3 AUTODYN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.1.4 LSDYNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2 Material Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.1 Air and Explosive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.2 Concrete Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.3 Plastic Kinematic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Contents ix
5.2.4 Drucker–Prager Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.3 Validation I -Numerical Simulation for Normal Concrete
Pavement Slab and Comparison with Field Measurement. . . . . . . . 122
5.3.1 Description of Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.2 Strain Rate Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.3 Blast Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.3.4 Details of Numerical Model in Validation I . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3.5 Results and Discussion of Validation I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.4 Validation II—Numerical Simulation for the Proposed Multi-
layer Pavement Slab and Comparison with Field Measurement . . . 146
5.4.1 Asphalt Concrete Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.4.2 Strain Rate Effect for Asphalt Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4.3 Geogrid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.4.4 High Strength Concrete and Engineered Cementitious
Composites Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.4.5 Interface Between Asphalt Concrete and High Strength
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.4.6 Details of Numerical Model in Validation II . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.7 Results and Discussion of Validation II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.5 Parametric Study for the Proposed Multi-layer
Pavement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.5.1 Effect of Property of High Strength Concrete Layer . . . . . . 170
5.5.2 Interface Strength Between Asphalt Concrete and High
Strength Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.5.3 Strength of Subgrade Soil Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.5.4 Effect of Blast Loading from Different Burst Heights . . . . . 196
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.1 Conclusions of This Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.1.1 Conclusions on Laboratory Impact Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.1.2 Conclusion on Full Scale Field Blast Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.1.3 Conclusion on Laboratory Interface Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.1.4 Conclusion on Material Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.1.5 Conclusion on Numerical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.1.6 Development of Design Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.2 Recommendations for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Notations
Nomenclature
Gif Interfacial fracture energy
Kic Interfacial fracture toughness
mg Weight of solid body
h Tilt angle from the horizontal surface
lstatic Static friction coefficient
ldynamic Dynamic friction coefficient
rt Tensile stress at interface
rs Shear stress at interface
GI Energy release rates for tensile strength
GII Energy release rates for shear strength
q Density
V Volume
q0 Reference density
V0 Reference volume
V_ Rate of change in volume
rij Stress tensor
rii Hydrostatic pressure tensor
fi Body force
€u Acceleration
e Internal energy
e_ Change in specific internal energy
e_ ij Strain rate tensor
ev Volumetric strain
ev;yield Volumetric strain at yield
epeff Effective plastic strain

d ep Effective plastic strain increment
es Erosion strain
lcrush Volumetric strain defining equation of state
xi
xii Notations
Dlp Incremental plastic volumetric strain

llock Plastic volumetric strain for fully compacted material
l Modified volumetric strain
sij Deviatoric stress tensor
si Principal deviatoric stress tensor
p Hydrostatic pressure
q Bulk viscosity
D Damage factor
Dr Principal stress difference
rt Radius of tensile meridian
rc Radius of compressive meridian
w Ratio of tensile to compressive location of the current
failure surface
hL Lode angle
J2 Second invariant of the deviator stress tensor
J3 Third invariant of the deviator stress tensor
g Damage parameter in MAT72 R3
k Accumulated effective plastic strain in MAT72 R3
rf Dynamic increase factor in MAT73 R3
d Scaled damage indicator
aij Parameters defining the strength surface in MAT72 R3
b1 Damage factor defining the softening part of unconfined
uniaxial compressive stress–strain curve
b2 Damage factor defining the softening part of unconfined
uniaxial tensile stress–strain curve
b3 Damage factor defining the softening part of triaxial
tensile
Gc Compressive energy
Gf Fracture energy for tension
wc Localization width
kd Internal scalar multiplier
Dk Incremental volumetric damage
Dry Yield surface
Drm Maximum strength surface
Drr Residual strength surface
Drcme Enhanced strength due to strain rate effect
Kelastic Elastic bulk modulus defining equation of state
K1 ; K2 ; K3 Constants for the material is fully compressed without
voids
Dc Damage factor defining equation of state
a Constant in Drucker–Prager model
k Constants in Drucker–Prager model
C Cohesion of soil
u Friction angle
Notations xiii
m Poisson’s ratio
e_ s Static compressive strain rate
e_ st Static tensile strain rate
n Factor in determining of time step
l The smallest mesh size
c Constant in idea gas equation
A Empirically derived constant for explosive
B Empirically derived constant for explosive
R1 Empirically derived constant for explosive
R2 Empirically derived constant for explosive
x Empirically derived constant for explosive
r0 Static initial yield point
bpk Type of plastic hardening for plastic kinematic model
Cpk Parameter considering strain rate effect for steel
Ppk Parameter considering strain rate effect for steel
fc Compressive strength
ft Tensile strength
0
fc;new Unconfined compression strength to be modeled material
0
fc;old Unconfined compressive strength for a previously mod-
eled material
r Scaling factor
a0n ; a1n ; a2n Parameters for maximum strength surface to be deter-
mined from scaling law
pcnew New pressure from scaling law
kunew New unloading bulk modulus from scaling law
L Length of the notched beam sample
W Width of the notched beam sample
T Depth of the notched beam sample
a0 Depth of notch in noteched beam test
S Loaded span in notched beam test
Ep Plastic modulus for steel
E Young’s modulus
Et Tangent modulus
Z Scaled distance
Acronyms
3D Three-Dimensional
A1, A2, A3 Accelerometers in Laboratory Impact Test
AC Asphalt Concrete
ALE Arbitrary Lagrange–Euler
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CEB-FIP Comité Euro International du Béton-Fédération
International de la Précontrainte
xiv Notations
CFL Courant–Friedrich–Levy condition

CH Calcium Hydroxide
NSC Normal Strength Concrete
DIF Dynamic Increase Factor
ECC Engineered Cementitious Composites
EOS Equation of State
FRC Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
GST Geosynthetics
H1, H2 Horizontal Acceleration of the Slab in Field Blast Trial
HPSFRC High Performance Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
HSC High Strength Concrete
HSFR High Strength Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
ITZ Interfacial Transition Zone
NFLS Normal Failure Stress in Contact Model
P1, P2 Air Pressure Cell in Field Blast Trial
PARAM Critical Displacement at Total Failure in Contact Model
Pot1, Pot2, Pot3 Potentiometers in Laboratory Impact Test
RC Reinforced Concrete
RHSC Reinforced High Strength Concrete
SFLS Shear Failure Stress in Contact Model
SFRPC Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete with Reactive Powder
SG1, SG2, SG3, SG4 Strain Gauges in Field Blast Trial
SHPB Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar
SNB Single Notched Beam
TNT Trinitrotoluene (an explosive)
TPC 1, TPC 2, TPC 3 Total Pressure Cells in Field Blast Trial
V1, V2 Vertical Acceleration of the Slab in Field Blast Trial
VHSC Very High Strength Concrete
w/c Water-to-Cement Ratio
w/cm Water-to-Cementitious Ratio
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 The integrity of the runway was destroyed by blast and impact
load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 2.1 Configuration of the proposed new pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 2.2 Drop weight test machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 2.3 Setup for Sample A, C and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 2.4 Setup for Sample B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 2.5 Compacting of sand in steel strong box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 2.6 Geocell used to reinforce the sand in the steel strong box. . . . . . 14
Fig. 2.7 Small steel frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 2.8 Actual test setup for Sample B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 2.9 Actual test setup for Sample C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 2.10 Positioning of potentiometers and accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 2.11 Schematic diagram of photo diode system (Ong et al. 1999) . . . . 17
Fig. 2.12 Surface of Sample A after first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 2.13 Crack Propagation in Sample A after first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 2.14 Potentiometers for Sample A upon first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 2.15 Peak displacement of Sample A upon first impact. . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 2.16 Damage on Sample A after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 2.17 Potentiometers for Sample A upon second impact. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 2.18 Peak displacement of Sample A upon second impact . . . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 2.19 Surface of Sample B after first impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 2.20 Potentiometers for Sample B upon first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 2.21 Peak displacement of Sample B upon first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 2.22 Surface of Sample B after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 2.23 Crater of Sample B after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 2.24 Potentiometers for Sample B upon second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 2.25 Peak displacement of Sample B upon second impact . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 2.26 Surface of Sample C after first impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 2.27 Side profile of Sample C after first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 2.28 Potentiometers for Sample C upon first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 2.29 Surface of Sample C after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
xv
xvi List of Figures
Fig. 2.30 Side profile of Sample C after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Fig. 2.31 Shift of asphalt layer in Sample C after second impact . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 2.32 Potentiometers for Sample C upon second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 2.33 Displacement of Sample C upon second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 2.34 Surface of Sample D after first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 2.35 Side profile of Sample D after first impact (remove AC layer) . . . 40
Fig. 2.36 Potentiometers for Sample D upon first impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 2.37 Surface of Sample D after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 2.38 Crater size of Sample D upon second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 2.39 Side 1 profile of Sample D after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 2.40 Side 2 profile of Sample D after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 2.41 Potentiometers for Sample D upon second impact. . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fig. 3.1 M107 Placement on Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 3.2 Configuration of Slabs 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fig. 3.3 Details of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 3.4 Minimal reinforcement at bottom of slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 3.5 Completed Slab 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Fig. 3.6 Compaction of asphalt layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 3.7 Completed Slab 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 3.8 Anchoring concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 3.9 Attachment of steel cable to anchor and driving in of the
anchor using an air compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig. 3.10 Extraction of steel cable using excavator and anchoring of steel
plates on surface of slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig. 3.11 Completed Slab 1 with anchoring at site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 3.12 Completed Slab 2 with Anchoring at site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 3.13 Instrumentation layout for Slab 1 (3D View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 3.14 Instrumentation layout for Slab 1 (Front View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 3.15 Instrumentation layout for Slab 1 (Top View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 3.16 Instrumentation layout for Slab 2 (3D View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 3.17 Instrumentation layout for Slab 2 (Front View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 3.18 Instrumentation layout for Slab 2 (Top View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 3.19 Accelerometer mount cast in situ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 3.20 Accelerometer L-shaped plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 3.21 Details of installation of air pressure cells on Site . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig. 3.22 Damaged pattern of the Slab 1 after blast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 3.23 Detail of crater for the Slab 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 3.24 Instrumentation layout for the Slab 1 (3D View) . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 3.25 Acceleration–time history for vertical accelerometer 1 (V1) . . . . 71
Fig. 3.27 Displacement–time history for vertical accelerometers 1 and 2
(V1 and V2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fig. 3.28 Acceleration–time history for horizontal accelerometer 1 (H1) . . . 73
List of Figures xvii
Fig. 3.30 Displacement–time history for horizontal accelerometers 1 and 2

(H1 and H2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 3.31 Stain–time history for strain gages (SG 1 and SG 4). . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. 3.32 Layout of air pressure cell for the Slab 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. 3.33 Pressure–time history for air pressure cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig. 3.34 Pressure–time history for total pressure cell (TPC 2 and
TPC 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 3.35 Damaged pattern of the Slab 2 after blast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 3.36 Removal of top section of the AC layer for the Slab 2 . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 3.37 Crater details for the Slab 2 after removal of asphalt layer . . . . . 79
Fig. 3.38 Detail of crater for the Slab 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 3.39 Instrumentation layout for the Slab 2 (3D View) . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 3.42 Displacement–time history for vertical accelerometers 2 (V2) . . . . 83
Fig. 3.45 Displacement–time history for horizontal accelerometers 1 and
2 (H1 and H2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 3.46 Stain–time history for strain gages (SG 1, SG 3 and SG 4) . . . . 86
Fig. 3.47 Layout of air pressure cell for the Slab 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 3.48 Pressure–time history for air pressure cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 3.49 Pressure–time history for total pressure cell (TPC 2 and 3). . . . . 89
Fig. 4.1 Sample size for direct shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fig. 4.2 Configuration of direct shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Fig. 4.3 Process in preparation of interface sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 4.4 Shear stress and displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 4.5 Shear surface for the AC and HSC after shear test . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 4.6 Relationship for shear stress versus normal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 4.7 Theory of tilt table test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 4.8 Set up for tilt table test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 4.9 Comparison of load-displacement curve from experiment and
numerical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 5.1 Slabs placed in position before blast test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 5.2 Failure surface for MAT72 R3 material model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 5.3 Typical failure surface section for concrete (after Chen 1982). . . . 125
Fig. 5.4 Three failure surfaces (after Malvar et al. 1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 5.5 Location of yield surface (after Malvar et al.1997) . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 5.6 Intersection of the maximum and residual failure surface
represents the brittle–ductile transition point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 5.7 Input value of (η, k) for concrete material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 5.8 Equation of state for concrete under isotropic compression
(after Loria et al. 2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
xviii List of Figures
Fig. 5.9 Kinematic hardening material yield surfaces in deviatoric

space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 5.10 Drucker–Prager failure criteria in meridian space in LSDYNA . . . 129
Fig. 5.11 DIF data on compressive strength of concrete (after Bischoff
and Perry 1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 5.12 Input compressive DIF curve versus strain rate for the
concrete with fc = 90 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fig. 5.13 Transmitted stress pulse versus time (each curve was time
shifted to be clearly compared with experimental data) . . . . . . . . 132
Fig. 5.14 DIF data on tensile strength of concrete (after Malvar and Ross
1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Fig. 5.15 Compressive and tensile DIF curve for the normal concrete
with fc = 40 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 5.16 2D axis-symmetry model for pavement slab under blast loading . . . 137
Fig. 5.17 Comparison of reflected pressure and impulse from
AUTODYN and CONWEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fig. 5.18 Air pressure from field test and numerical model . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 5.19 Finite element model of the normal concrete slab sitting on soil
mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 5.20 Displacement of mid-bottom for the normal concrete slab . . . . . 142
Fig. 5.21 Damage contours for the normal concrete slab using different
mesh sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 5.22 Damaged pattern in field test for the normal concrete slab . . . . . 143
Fig. 5.23 Damaged pattern in numerical model for the normal
concrete slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 5.24 Layout of total pressure cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 5.25 Determination of parameters from experimental data. . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 5.26 Validation of failure surface using experimental data . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 5.27 Strength surface for the AC with fc = 4.6 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 5.28 Damage factor used for the AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 5.29 Stress–strain curve of uniaxial compressive test for the AC . . . . 153
Fig. 5.30 Stress–displacement curve of uniaxial compressive test for
the AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 5.31 Typical load–deflection curve from SNB test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Fig. 5.32 Compressive DIF curve versus different strain rates from
lab test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 5.33 Three DIF curves used in the simulation of compressive
SHPB test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 5.34 Transmitted stress pulse versus time for the AC (each curve
was time shifted to be clearly compared with
experimental data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 5.35 Tensile DIF curve versus different strain rates from lab test . . . . 159
Fig. 5.36 Tensile and compressive DIF curve used in numerical model
for the AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
List of Figures xix
Fig. 5.37 Load–strain relationship of MG-100 GST reinforcements . . . . . . 161

for the HSC with fc = 55 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
for the ECC with fc = 64 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Fig. 5.40 Finite element model of the proposed multi-layerpavement slab
sitting on soil mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 5.41 Damage of proposed multi-layer pavement after blast . . . . . . . . . 167
Fig. 5.42 Damage of proposed multi-layer pavement after blast
(Removing AC layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Fig. 5.43 Damaged pattern for each layer of the proposed multi-layer
pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 5.44 Damaged pattern for HSC layer with different compressive
strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 5.45 Damaged pattern of ECC layer overlaid by HSC layer with
different compressive strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 5.46 Stress–displacement curve of uniaxial compressive test . . . . . . 173
Fig. 5.47 Stress–displacement curve of uniaxial tensile test . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Fig. 5.48 Damaged pattern of the HSC layer with compressive strength
of 110 MPa under different peak pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 5.49 Damaged pattern of the HSC with different fracture energies . . . 177
Fig. 5.50 Damaged pattern of the cross section of HSC layer . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 5.51 Damaged pattern of the ECC overlaid by HSC with different
fracture energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fig. 5.52 Damaged pattern for the HSC layer with different thicknesses
(Set 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 5.53 Damaged pattern of the cross section of HSC layer with
different thicknesses (Set 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 5.54 Damaged pattern for the ECC layer with 100 mm thickness
overlaid by different thicknesses of HSC layer (Set 1) . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 5.55 Damaged pattern of the cross section of ECC layer overlaid by
different thicknesses of HSC layer (Set 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 5.56 Damaged pattern for the HSC layer with equal thickness of
HSC and ECC layer (Set 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 5.57 Damaged pattern of the cross section of HSC layer with equal
thickness of HSC and ECC layer (Set 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 5.58 Damaged pattern for the ECC layer with equal thickness of
HSC and ECC (Set 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig. 5.59 Damaged pattern of the cross section of ECC layer with same
thickness of HSC and ECC (Set 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig. 5.60 Comparison of the ECC cross section in Set 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . 185
Fig. 5.61 Damaged pattern of the HSC layer for different tensile fracture
energies GI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
xx List of Figures
Fig. 5.62 Damaged pattern of the ECC layer for different tensile fracture
energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig. 5.63 Damaged pattern of the HSC layer for different shear fracture
energy GII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig. 5.64 Damaged pattern of the ECC layer for different shear fracture
energy GII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fig. 5.65 Damaged pattern of the AC layer for two types of soil
foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 5.66 Damaged pattern of the HSC layer for two types of soil
foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Fig. 5.67 Damaged pattern of the cross section of HSC layer with two
types of soil foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Fig. 5.68 Damaged pattern of the HSC layer under two types of soil
foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 5.69 Damaged pattern of the cross section of the ECC layer with
two types of soil foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 5.70 Enlarge of center portion of the ECC cross section with two
types of soil foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 5.71 Settlement at middle point of the proposed multi-layer
pavement slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 5.72 Blast pressure acted on the proposed multi-layer pavement
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 5.73 Damaged pattern of the AC layer under different burst heights . . . . 198
Fig. 5.74 Damaged pattern of the HSC layer under different burst
heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 5.75 Damaged pattern of the ECC layer under different burst
heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 5.76 Damaged pattern of the cross section of HSC layer under
different burst heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 5.77 Damaged pattern of the cross section of ECC layer under
different burst heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Fig. 5.78 Damaged pattern for the proposed multi-layer pavement under
different scale distant charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Cases for damaged runway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 2.1 Cross-section of Sample A, B, C and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 2.2 Mix proportions for normal concrete in drop weight test . . . . . 10
Table 2.3 Mix proportions for HSC in drop weight test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 2.4 Mix proportions for ECC in drop weight test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 2.5 Properties of materials used in drop weight test . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 2.6 Aggregate gradation and binder content for AC used in drop
weight test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 2.7 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample A, first Impact . . . . 20
Table 2.8 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample A, first impact . . . 21
Table 2.9 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample A, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 2.10 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample A, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 2.11 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample B, first impact. . . . 26
Table 2.12 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample B, first impact . . . 28
Table 2.13 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample B, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 2.14 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample B, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 2.15 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample C, first Impact . . . 34
Table 2.16 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample C, first Impact . . . . 34
Table 2.17 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample C, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 2.18 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample C, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 2.19 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample D, first impact . . . 41
Table 2.20 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample D, first impact . . . 42
Table 2.21 Peak readings of potentiometers for Sample D, second
impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
xxi
xxii List of Tables
Table 2.22 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample D, second

impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 2.23 Summary of impact test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 2.24 Summary of peak readings for accelerometers and the
average rebound of each sample for all tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 3.1 Mix proportions for ECC in field blast trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 3.2 Mix Proportions for HSC in field blast trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 3.3 Properties of materials cast for field blast trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 3.4 Technical specifications of accelerometers and air pressure
cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 3.5 Technical specifications for soil pressure cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 3.6 Technical specifications for strain gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 3.7 Peak acceleration recorded in the Slab 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 3.8 Peak strain recorded in the Slab 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 3.9 Peak air pressure recorded in the test of Slab 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Table 3.10 Peak total pressure recorded in the Slab 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 3.11 Peak acceleration recorded in the Slab 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Table 3.12 Density, volume and weight for the Slab 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 3.13 Peak strain recorded in the Slab 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Table 3.14 Peak reading of air pressure for the Slab 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Table 3.15 Peak reading of total pressure cell for the Slab 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 3.16 Vertical acceleration results for the Slab 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Table 3.17 Stain gages recorded for the Slab 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Table 3.18 Peak reading of air pressure for the Slab 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Table 4.1 Parameters for interface simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table 5.1 Parameters of idea gas (after AUTODYN 2003). . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 5.2 Parameters of JWL EOS for TNT explosive (after
AUTODYN 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Table 5.3 Material properties of the normal concrete
with fc = 40MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Table 5.4 The EOS data for the normal concrete with grade 40 . . . . . . . . 130
Table 5.5 Steel material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 5.6 Material properties of soil mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 5.7 Comparison with experimental data using the
rate-independent DIF curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 5.8 Comparison with experimental data using the CEB
DIF curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 5.9 Comparison with experimental data using the modified
CEB DIF curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 5.10 Mesh data and computing time for the normal concrete
slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 5.11 Vertical acceleration of the normal concrete slab . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Table 5.12 Peak reading for total pressure cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table 5.13 Three surface parameters for the AC with fc = 0.311 MPa . . . . 147
List of Tables xxiii
Table 5.14 Parameters for the AC with fc = 4.6 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Table 5.15 EOS parameters for the AC with fc = 3.8 MPa
(Tang et al. 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Table 5.16 EOS input data in MAT72R3 for the AC with fc = 3.8 MPa . . . . 151
Table 5.17 EOS input data in MAT72R3 for the AC with fc = 4.6 MPa . . . . 152
Table 5.18 b1 value for different mesh sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Table 5.19 Sample size for SNB test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Table 5.20 Parameters from SNB and single element simulation . . . . . . . . 155
Table 5.21 Comparison with experimental data using the
rate-independent DIF curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 5.22 Comparison with experimental data using the two-branch
DIF curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 5.23 Comparison with experimental data using the modified DIF
curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 5.24 Parameters for Geogrid MG-100 GST using plastic
kinematic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Table 5.25 Material properties of the HSC in numerical model . . . . . . . . . 162
Table 5.26 Material properties of the ECC in numerical model . . . . . . . . . 163
Table 5.27 Vertical acceleration of the proposed multi-layer pavement
slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Table 5.28 Peak reading for total pressure cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Table 5.29 Material properties of the HSC used in parametric study . . . . . 171
Table 5.30 Fracture energy for the HSC layer in proposed multi-layer
pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Table 5.31 Thickness of the HSC and ECC layer used in the parametric
study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Table 5.32 Interface properties used in parametric study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Table 5.33 Material properties of treated and untreated soil . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Summary
Runways for military and civilian airports are among the most important facilities
today. It is necessary to ensure their functionality at all time not only for a nation’s
security but also for its economy and safety. Military airports are among the first
targets that are easily damaged with air attacks and artillery fire during wartime.
Civilian airports runway are the prime target for terrorist attacks. In such time, it is
extremely important to ensure that the runways are in good conditions to enable the
taking-off and landing of fighters or aircraft. Furthermore for civilian airports, the
emergencies such as air plane crash may destroy the runway, which will in turn
affect the normal commercial function of airports, which will result in huge eco-
nomic lost.
There are many aspects of runway functionality, one of which is the integrity
of the runway pavement with its service life span. The functional quality of the
pavement can be maintained through regular servicing. If damaged do occur on the
pavement, the repair must be rapid such that disruption is minimized to the service.
It will be even better if the extent of the damage on the pavement can be kept to a
minimum, and then rapid repair can be carried out.
The current pavement systems are designed for normal aircraft landing and
taking-off and thus inadequate to provide the required resistance to impact and blast
loading arising from bombing and blasting. It is observed that the existing materials
used in pavement such as concrete and asphalt concrete do not provide enough
resistance against impact and blast. Due to their relatively brittle properties and
limited penetration resistance, conventional surface pavements are not durable and
the damage by explosive may be too serious to be mitigated. Thus new pavement
materials need to be developed to make the better resistance to impact and blast
loading.
Thus, there is an urgent need to find a new pavement system that can withstand
high impact and blast load, thereby increasing the durability of pavement and
reducing the amount of repair needed. This in turn improves the operational
readiness of the pavement runway.
In this study, the performance of High-Strength Concrete (HSC), Engineered
Cementitious Composites (ECC) and asphalt concrete (AC) with geosynthetics
xxv
xxvi Summary
(GST) subjected to impact and blast loading were investigated. This is because each
of these materials has its unique characteristics of high compressive strength, high
toughness and high tensile strength under impact and blast loading. However, each
of these materials has its own advantages and disadvantages for blast and impact
mitigation. The dynamic loading from blast and impact events requires the material
to be stable under various states of stress; hence it is difficult for one single material
to fully satisfy. Thus, adopting advanced composite system for the protection of
runways is an attractive solution.
In this study, the concept of the multi-layer system was proposed in order to
satisfy the above blast resistance requirement for pavement design. The “soft”
material (AC) in the proposed multi-layer pavement system functioned as the
sacrificial surface layer to absorb some portion of the dynamic energy. Thereby, the
energy transmitted to the following layers was greatly reduced. With the inclusion
of the high strength geosynthetic (GST) within this AC layer, the tensile strength of
this layer was increased and in turn reduced the damage to the AC layer. Below the
AC layer, HSC which was a “strong” material was used. This HSC layer served as
the main body to sustain the dynamic load. Under the dynamic loading, the tensile
stress tends to develop at the rear face of the material due to the reflection of the
compressive stress propagating from the top face. However, it is well known that
the concrete has low tensile strength. Furthermore, the HSC is very brittle and may
develop cracks easily. Hence, another “soft” and ductile material (ECC) is deemed
to be needed at the base of the “strong” HSC layer to absorb the energy. This
ductile material can develop micro crack to dissipate and attenuate the impacted
dynamic energy.
A series of large-scale laboratory impact tests was carried out to prove the
usefulness of this concept and showed the advantage of this proposed multi-layer
pavement over other conventional pavement. Furthermore, the field blast tests were
conducted to show the actual behavior of the proposed multi-layer pavement under
blast load in the field condition. From the laboratory and field test, it could be
concluded that combination of ECC, HSC and AC with GST could improve the
blast resistance of pavements significantly. The proposed multi-layer pavement was
found to perform better than conventional pavement structures (concrete rigid
pavement and asphalt concrete flexible pavement). The concept of the multi-layer
system was successfully used in the design of new pavement subjected to blast load.
This multi-layer pavement design consisting of all three materials (HSC, ECC and
GST) fully utilized their pronounced properties.
The interface property among the multi-layer system usually plays an important
role in the pavement performance subjected to load. However, there were no
well-established data on the interface property in the proposed multi-layer system,
i.e., interface between AC, and HSC and interface between HSC and ECC. Hence,
it is necessary to conduct the test to determine the interface strength between these
layers. The direct and tilt table test were conducted to determine the interface
strength between AC and HSC layer was conducted.
It is more productive to carry out the numerical simulation of multi-layer
pavement system subjected to blast load, due to the high cost and resources needed
Summary xxvii
for the field blast test. However, a reliable numerical simulation should be devel-
oped for accurate results. There are many factors that will affect the results of
simulation. Among these factors, the material model plays a key role because it
should reproduce the essential physical mechanisms of the material under severe
dynamic loading condition. There are many material models that may be suitable to
represent the static behavior of the material, but only a few material models may be
relevant to the dynamic behavior of the material. Hence, the determination of the
advanced material model to reflect the actual behavior of material under dynamic
load condition is a challenge. In this study, the advanced material models were
discussed and evaluated to simulate the dynamic behavior of materials under severe
dynamic loading. The key parameters for the advanced material model were cali-
brated by the laboratory dynamic tests. The Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) for AC
material was first purposed and implemented into the advanced material model.
Lastly, the 3D numerical model of the proposed multi-layer pavement was devel-
oped and validated based on the results from the field blast test. Then the parametric
study was conducted. It was found that some methods such as increasing thickness
of HSC and ECC, incorporation of steel fiber in HSC and using treated subsoil
ground condition increased the blast resistance of proposed multi-layer pavement.
Finally, the design chart of the proposed multi-layer pavement under different
explosive charge was developed.

Keywords Multi-layer Drop Wight Impact Test Field Blast Test High Strength

Concrete Engineered Cementitious Composites Geosynthetics 3D Numerical

model Dynamic Increase Factor
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstarct The background of this research is given. The dynamic behavior of four
engineering materials (High Strength Concrete, Engineered Cementitious
Composite and High Strength Geosynthetics, Asphalt Concrete) will be discussed.
The relative strength and weakness of these materials will be highlighted.
1.1 Background
Runways for military and civilian airports are among the most important facilities
today. It is necessary to ensure their functionality during all time not only for a
nation’s security, but also for its economy and safety. Military airports are amongst
the first targets that are easily damaged with air attacks and artillery fire during wars
. Civilian airports runways are the prime target for terrorist attacks. In such time, it
is extremely important to ensure that the runways are in good conditions to enable
the taking-off and landing of fighters or aircraft, especially for countries like
Singapore which have a limited number of airports. Furthermore for civilian air-
ports, the emergencies such as air plane crash may destroy the runway, which will
in turn affect the normal commercial function of airports, which will result in huge
economic lost. Table 1.1 summarizes the cases in which runway was destroyed by
air crash or terrorist attack.
There are many aspects of runway functionality, one of which is the integrity of
the runway pavement with its service life span. The functional quality of the
pavement can be maintained through regular servicing. If the pavement is damaged,
the repair must be rapid such that disruption is minimized to the service. It will be
even better if the extent of the damage on the pavement can be kept to a minimum,
and then rapid repair can be carried out. Figure 1.1 shows the crater occurred on
runway and destroyed the integrity of the runway pavement.
Literature review shows that current pavement systems are inadequate in pro-
viding the required resistance to impact and blast loading. Existing materials for
typical pavements such as normal concrete and asphalt concrete do not provide
enough resistance against impact and blast load. The damage caused by bombings
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

J. Wu and H. Wu, Multi-layer Pavement System under Blast Load,
Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5001-5_1
2 1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Cases for damaged runway. (From http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/database.cgi)

No. Date Country Target Runway damage reason
1 1993 Georgia Alexeyevka Airport Aircraft crash due to missile attack
2 1993 Iran Military Airport Collision of two military aircraft
3 1994 UK Heathrow Airport Mortar bomb
4 1994 Rwanda Military Airport Missile attack
5 1998 Sir Lanka Civilian Airport Aircraft crash due to missile attack
6 2000 Nairobi Bujumbura Airport Aircraft crash due to shooting
7 2001 Sir Lanka Civilian Airport Missile attack
8 2001 Angola Dundo Airport Aircraft crash due to engine problem
9 2001 Colombia Yopal Airport Aircraft crash due to fuel exhaustion
10 2002 Luxembourg Findel Airport Aircraft crash due to fog weather
11 2003 USA Memphis international Aircraft crash due to landing gear
Airport failed
12 2006 Nigeria Abuja Airport Aircraft crash due to poor weather
condition
13 2006 Iran Mashad Airport Aircraft crash
14 2007 Russia Samara Airport Aircraft crash due to poor weather
condition
15 2007 Brazil Sao paulo Airport Aircraft crash due to rainy weather
16 2008 Spain Madrid Airport Aircraft explode
17 2009 Russia Makhachkala Airport Collision of two aircraft
18 2009 Japan Narita Airport Aircraft crash
19 2010 Mexico Monterrey Airport Aircraft crash
20 2010 Libya Tripoli international Aircraft crash
Airport
or plane crashing is definitely too serious to allow the pavement to function

properly.
Thus, there is an urgent need to find a new pavement system that can withstand
high impact and blast load, thereby increasing the durability of pavement and
reducing the amount of repair needed. This in turn improves the operational
readiness of the pavement runway.
Meanwhile, from recent studies, it was found that some materials such as
High-Strength Concrete (HSC) (Zhang et al. 2007) and Engineered Cementitious
Composites (ECC) (Li et al. 1994; Li and Maalej 1996) and Geosynthetics (GST)
(Koerner 1998), which had shown its unique characteristics of either high com-
pressive strength, or high ductility or high tensile strength. They have some
potential to be used as a new pavement material for enhanced blast and impact
resistance.
Proper choice of component materials and mix proportion has been found to be
able to produce concrete with very much higher strength and better toughness than
conventional concrete with conventional mixing methods and at reasonable cost
1.1 Background 3
Craters on runway
Fig. 1.1 The integrity of the runway was destroyed by blast and impact load. (after Chew et al.
2009)
(Mindness et al. 2002). Recent researches (Hanchak et al. 1992; Dancygier and
Yankelevsky 1996; Zhang et al. 2005a, b) indicated that an increase in the com-
pressive strength of concrete could reduce the penetration depth when the concrete
was subjected to projectile impact. However, it was also well known that concrete
with high compressive strength was too brittle for impact and blast loading
(Hanchak et al. 1992).
Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) are composite materials using
micromechanically optimized fiber-reinforced cement. Unlike most of the cemen-
titious materials, ECC is ultra-ductile under tensile and shear loading indicated by
multiple micro-cracking behaviors (Li et al. 1994). These micro-cracks allow ECC
to exhibit pronounced strain-hardening behavior similar to ductile metals. Besides
the excellent behavior under tensile and shear loading, ECCs also possess high
fracture energy and notch insensitivity (Maalej et al. 1995; Maalej et al. 2005).
Recent researches (Yong 2005; Chew and Lim 2006) also showed that inclusion
of some geosynthetics (GST) like geogrid or geotextiles in asphalt pavement not
only could improve the resilience properties of the pavement but also provides
some form of added ductility when it is subjected to impact load. This has the
potential for blast mitigation in terms of reducing the crater size when the pavement
is subjected to blast and impact load. Thus, the repair effort can be reduced to
manageable scale and within shorter possible time.
4 1 Introduction
However, each of these materials has its own advantages and disadvantages for
blast and impact mitigation. The dynamic loading from blast and impact events
requires the material to be stable under various states of stress, hence it is difficult
for one single material to fully satisfy. Thus, adopting advanced composite system
for the protection of runways is an attractive solution. A new pavement design
consisting of all 3 materials (HSC, ECC, and GST) will be considered in order to
fully utilize their pronounced properties. It is expected that an optimized combi-
nation of the advantages of each material will provide a composite material system
for a better impact-resistant runway pavement. Ideally, the new pavement design
should have high penetration resistance, strength, ductility and multiple resistance
capability.
In this study, the concept of the multi-layer system is proposed in order to satisfy
the above blast resistance requirement for pavement design. In the multi-layer
system, the “soft” material will be used as the sacrifice surface layer to absorb some
portion of the dynamic energy. With this consideration, the Asphalt concrete
(AC) will be used as the top layer in the proposed multi-layer pavement system.
Thereby the energy transmitted to the following layers will be greatly reduced. It
should be noticed that the asphalt layer could be very easily repaired. With the
inclusion of the high-strength geosynthetic (GST) within this AC layer, the tensile
strength of this layer will be increased, and in turn reduce the crack and local failure
in the AC layer when subjected to dynamic load. Below the AC layer, a “strong”
material may be used and it served as the main body to sustain the dynamic load.
For this purpose, the high-strength concrete (HSC) may be a suitable choice due to
its super high compressive strength. Under the dynamic loading, the tensile stress
tends to develop at the rear face of the material due to the reflection of the com-
pressive stress propagating from the top face. However, it is well known that the
concrete has low tensile strength. Furthermore, the HSC is very brittle and may
develop cracks easily. Hence, another “soft” and ductile material (ECC) is deemed
to be needed at the base of the “strong” HSC layer to absorb the energy. This
ductile material can develop micro crack to dissipate and attenuate the impacted
dynamic energy.
The interface property among the multi-layer system usually plays an important
role in the performace of pavement subjected to load. However, there was no well
established data on the interface property in the proposed multi-layer system, that is,
interface between AC, and HSC and interface between HSC and ECC. Hence, it is
necessary to conduct the test to determine the interface strength between these
layers.
As discussed above, the concept of multi-layer system will be studied for the
design of airfield runway under dynamic load. A series of large-scale laboratory
impact tests will be carried out to prove the usefulness of this concept and show the
advantage of this proposed multi-layer pavement over other conventional pave-
ment. Furthermore, the field blast test will be conducted to show the behavior of the
proposed multi-layer pavement under blast load in the field condition. Due to the
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
conditions of life. The foundations of ethnical experimental
psychology were thus laid.
Professor R. W. Woodworth sums up the conclusions arrived at
from his own observations and those of others as follows: “We are
probably justified in inferring that the sensory and motor processes
and the elementary brain activities, though differing in degree from
one individual to another, are about the same from one race to
another.”[64]
64. Science, xxxi., 1910, p. 179.
Lately an attempt has been made, under the auspices of the Royal
Anthropological Institute, to provide travellers with instructions for
psychological investigations in the field.
Eugenics. During the last few years the subject of race
improvement, or Eugenics, has been greatly to the
fore, and it has been in this country mainly connected with the name
of Sir Francis Galton, who as long ago as 1865 published his views
on the subject. Eugenics is officially defined in the Minutes of the
University of London as “the study of agencies under social control
that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations,
either physically or mentally.” A eugenics laboratory has recently
been established in University College, London, in connection with
Professor Karl Pearson’s biometric laboratory.
Chapter VI.
THE CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MAN
Race After the age of race discrimination comes the age

Description and of race description and classification; and, as we
Classification. should expect, this second stage is not reached
until the close of the Dark Ages and the dawn of the Renaissance,
when thought had been emancipated from the bondage of scholastic
authority and stimulated by the new impulse which infected all forms
of intellectual activity.
Bernier. The first attempt at the classification of mankind
was that of a French traveller, F. Bernier (1625-
1688), whose scheme appeared in an anonymous article in the
Journal des Scavans, 1684, entitled “A new division of the earth,
according to the different species or races of men who inhabit it,” etc.
[65]
65. See T. Bendyshe, Mem. Anth. Soc., I., 1865, p. 360.
He distinguished “four or five species or races”: (1) The inhabitants

of Europe, North Africa (including the Egyptians), and a great part of
Asia (including the Indians). He notes that the Egyptians and Indians
are black or copper-coloured, but considered the complexion to be
due to climate. (2) The Africans, with thick lips, flat noses, and black
skins, due not to climate but nature, with scanty beard and woolly
hair. (3) The Asiatics not included in the first group, white, with
“broad shoulders, a flat face, a small squab nose, little pig’s-eyes
long and deep-set, and three hairs of beard.” (4) The Lapps, “little
stunted creatures, with thick legs, large shoulders, short neck, and a
face elongated immensely; very ugly, and partaking much of the
bear; they are wretched animals.” He hesitates whether to put the
Americans or the inhabitants of South Africa, who are unlike the
Negroes, into a fifth class. The latter are probably the Hottentots or
Bushmen, in spite of his statement that “some of the Dutch say they
speak turkey.”
Linnæus. The next classification was that of Linnæus. His
service to Anthropology by fixing the place of
Homo sapiens in the animal kingdom has already been noted (p.
19). In the first edition of the Systema naturæ (1735),[66] Man is
classed as a quadruped, and together with the Ape and Sloth
constitutes the order Anthropomorpha. Four varieties of Homo are
recorded: H. Europæus albesc., Americanus rubesc., Asiaticus
fuscus, Africanus nigr. In the second edition (1740) Homo is divided
into the same four varieties, which are distinguished by the colour of
their skin, located severally, one in each of the then known
continents—Europæus albus, Americanus rubescens, Asiaticus
fuscus, and Africanus niger.
66. These accounts have been taken from the original editions; but the reader is
referred to the verbatim copy given by Bendyshe in the Mem. Anth. Soc., I.,
1865, p. 421.
In the tenth edition (1758) more divisions are recognised: the

genus Homo consists of two species—Sapiens, 1 H. diurnus. Ferus,
including hairy men without speech who run about on all-fours, of
which six records are given; Americanus (α) and Europæus (β),
Asiaticus (γ), Afer (δ), Monstrosus (ε), which include (a) Alpini
(small), Patagonici (large); (b) Monorchides—Hottentotti, Junceæ—
Europæ; (c) Macrocephali—Chinenses, Plagiocephali—
Canadenses. A second species being Troglodytes 2. H. nocturnus
(Homo sylvestris Orang-Outang). This classification was retained in
the twelfth edition (1772). In these two latter editions the genera
Simia, Lemur, and Vespertilio were classed with Homo in the order
Primates.
In Fauna Suecica, published in 1746, Linnæus made a more
detailed classification of the population of Sweden, recognising three
main types, distinguished by their stature, hair, and eye colour.
These were the Goths, tall, hair white and straight, iris of the eyes
ashen blue; Finns, with muscular body, hair long and yellow, and
dark iris; and Lapps, with small, thin body, straight black hair, and iris
blackish.
Blumenbach. Blumenbach (1775) based his classification not
only on skin colour, but also on skull form. To the
four groups of Linnæus he added a fifth, dividing the one species
into five varieties—the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the
American, and the Malayan. The last group included the then little
known Australian, Papuan, and pure Malay types.
Blumenbach was the originator of the unfortunate title
“Caucasian”[67] to represent the typical European and the inhabitants
of Eastern Asia and Northern Africa. He chose the name partly
because the Caucasus produces the most beautiful race of men, and
also on account of the fine Georgian skull in his collection.[68] It was
unfortunate, since, as Ripley points out (1900, p. 436), nowhere else
in Europe is found such a heterogeneity of physical types—the only
one conspicuously missing being the fair-haired, blue-eyed
European—and such a diversity of language, sixty-eight dialects
being here jumbled together, and only one possessed of (possibly)
Aryan origin. The name “Caucasian” has, therefore, not led to
clarification of ideas in the complex problem of European ethnology.
Keane (1899), however, supports its use, saying: “Those who object
to Caucasic are apt to forget the vast field that has to be embraced
by this single collective term.” “Caucasic, when properly understood
... cannot be dispensed with until a more suitable general term be
discovered” (p. 447).
67. Anthrop. Treatises of Blumenbach, translated by T. Bendyshe, 1865, pp. 265,
269.
68. Waitz, 1863, p. 233, f.n., who adds: “without any intention on his part to
express thereby an opinion as to the cradle of these peoples.” Keane, 1896,
p. 226.
Other The next important classification was that of
Classifications. Cuvier, who derived mankind from the three sons
of Noah, Japhet being regarded as the parent of the Caucasic, Shem
of the Mongolian, and Ham of the African races. The divergence of
type between the three brothers is not explained, except that the
blackness of the descendants of Ham was attributed to the curse
imposed by Noah on Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen. ix. 25).
Other classifications followed, the divisions varying from two
species, white and black, Virey (1801), to the fifteen or sixteen of the
Polygenists, Desmoulins (1825-6), and Bory de Saint-Vincent
(1827), and the thirty-four of Haeckel (1873).
In America L. Agassiz, an uncompromising opponent of evolution,
asserted, in 1845,[69] the unity of mankind as a species; but in
1850[70] we find him distribute eleven or twelve, in 1853 (in Nott and
Gliddon) eight, human species in as many geological and botanical
provinces. But this theory had been previously promulgated by
Desmoulins (1826) and by Swainson (in 1835).[71] As Waitz rightly
says: “They are completely in error who, adopting the views of
Agassiz, assume as many original types of mankind as there are
typically different peoples on the globe” (1864, p. 203).
69. Smith, 1850, Unity of the Human Races, p. 349.
70. Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850.
71. Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals.

It was not until the nineteenth century that a really scientific
method of classification was adopted. In the majority of these
schemes the character of the hair was chosen as the primary race-
characteristic.
Pruner Bey. The hair had already been studied by Heusinger
(1822), by Blower, of Philadelphia, and by Kölliker,
the histologist, before the publication of Pruner Bey’s classic memoir,
read before the Paris Anthropological Society in 1863, and published
in the same year. Dr. Pruner Bey claimed that the quality of the hair
constituted one of the best means of race-identification, and even
that “a single hair presenting the average form characteristic of the
race might serve to define it.”
Bory de St. Long before this, in 1827, Bory de Saint-Vincent
Vincent. had chosen the hair as the chief test in race-
classification, and divided mankind into the Leiotrichi, or straight-
haired, and the Ulotrichi, or woolly-haired—a nomenclature
afterwards adopted by Professor Huxley (1870).[72] But Bory de
Saint-Vincent’s classification was robbed of permanent scientific
value by his inclusion as distinct races of such vague abstractions as
“Scythians,” “Neptunians,” and “Columbians.”
72. Journ. Eth. Soc. (N.S.), II.
Isidore Geoffroy Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1858) distributed
Saint-Hilaire. his eleven principal races primarily according to
the character of the hair, sub-divided according to the flatness or
projection of the nose, skin-colour, the shape of the skull, and the
character of the face.[73]
73. Cf. Topinard, 1885, p. 264.
Haeckel. Professor Ernst Haeckel adopted the following
classification from Friedrich Müller:—I. Ulotriches
(woolly-haired). A. Lophokomoi (tufted): Papuans, Hottentots; B.
Eriokomoi (fleecy): Kafirs, Negroes. II. Lissotriches (lank-haired). A.
Euthykomoi (straight): Malay, Mongol, American, Arctic, Australian;
B. Euplokomoi (curly): Dravidas, Nubians, Mediterranean.
Broca, Topinard. Broca and Topinard (1885) have three main
classes—Straight, Wavy or Curly, and Woolly—
sub-divided first by head-form, then by skin colour.
Many of the earlier classifications were based on insufficient or
erroneous evidence, and the general tendency has been to increase
the divisions as the physical characters of the populations of the
earth became gradually better known. Thus the twelve races of
Haeckel in 1873 had advanced to thirty-four in 1879; the sixteen of
Topinard in 1878 had grown to nineteen in 1885; and the thirteen
races and thirty sub-divisions of Deniker in 1889 were increased in
1900 to seventeen groups, containing twenty-nine races.
Flower. Sir William Flower (1831-1899), a distinguished
zoologist and physical anthropologist, in 1885[74]
adopted the old three-fold classification:—I. Ethiopian, Negroid, or
Melanian. A. African or typical Negroes; B. Hottentots and Bushmen;
C. Oceanic Negroes or Melanesians; D. Negritos. II. Mongolian or
Xanthous. A. Eskimo; B. Typical Mongolian (including the Mongolo-
Altaic and the Southern Mongolian groups); C. Malay; D. Brown
Polynesians or Malayo-Polynesians; E. American Indians (excluding
the Eskimo). III. Caucasian or “White.” A. Xanthochroi; B.
Melanochroi. As Flower himself says, this scheme of classification,
“in its broad outlines, scarcely differs from that proposed by Cuvier
nearly sixty years ago.... Still it can only be looked upon as an
approximation.” Although he places skin-colour first, he tacitly admits
its insufficiency as a main diagnostic character, and his three groups
coincide with a classification based on the nature of the hair.
74. Journ. Anth. Inst., xiv., pp. 378-393.
Deniker. Among the later classifications a new tendency
may be noted. The earlier schemes aimed at
producing a series of water-tight compartments into which the races
of the globe could be isolated. Further research, however,
encouraged the growing conviction that a pure race is practically
non-existent, and a different method had to be followed. This is
described by Deniker (p. 284): “Taking into account all the new data
of anthropological science, I endeavoured, as do the botanists, to
form natural groups by combining the different characters (colour of
the skin, nature of the hair, stature, form of the head, of the nose,
etc.).” This results in the formation of seventeen ethnic groups,
containing twenty-nine races, and these are ingeniously arranged (p.
289) in a two-dimensional grouping, to show their affinities, which is
a modification of his suggestive earlier scheme.[75]
75. Bull. Soc. d’Anth., 1889.
The “pigeon-hole” system of classification had, however, been

discredited in the fourth edition of Prichard’s Natural History of Man,
edited and enlarged by Edwin Norris (1855), since on p. 644 it is
stated:—
The different races of men are not distinguished from each other by
strongly-marked, uniform, and permanent distinctions, as are the several
species belonging to any given tribe of animals. All the diversities which
exist are variable, and pass into each other by insensible gradations; and
there is, moreover, scarcely an instance in which the actual transition
cannot be proved to have taken place.
This is practically the same result at which Waitz arrived in 1863.

Keane. Professor Keane (1895, p. 228), though
returning to the four-fold grouping proposed by
Linnæus, uses these divisions to represent, not actual varieties or
races, but “ideal types,” differentiated by somatic characters, and
also by language, religion, and temperament. “Although man had but
one origin, one pliocene precursor [Pithecanthropus], men had
several separate places of origin, several pleistocene precursors. In
our family tree four such precursors are assumed.” From each “ideal
type” he traces the development of the present varieties arranged in
the scheme of the family tree.
Man’s Place in Since the time of Linnæus it has been
Nature. recognised that a place for man must be found in
classification of animals; and he was naturally put at the top of the
tree. The main question, however, was his exact relationship to the
higher apes. Linnæus (p. 90) included man and apes in the
Primates, one of his seven orders of Mammalia. Cuvier divided the
Mammifères into nine groups, man being included in the Bimanes,
and apes and monkeys in the Quadrumanes. The most noteworthy
attempt to put man in his place was made when Huxley published
his Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature (1863), based on lectures
given in 1860, in which he proved that man was more nearly allied to
the higher apes than the latter were to the lower monkeys.
Concerning this book, he wrote to Mr. E. Clodd, thirty years later,
“that a very shrewd friend of mine [Sir William Lawrence[76]] implored
me not to publish, as it would certainly ruin all my prospects.”[77]
Doubtless one reason why Huxley wrote the book was to impress on
the public that the evolution of man as an animal is perfectly
comparable with that of other mammals, since Darwin only hinted in
his Origin of Species (1859) that “Light will be thrown on the origin of
man and his history” (p. 488). His silence, he confesses in the
Introduction to the Descent of Man (1871), was due to desire “not to
add to the prejudices against his views.” Professor Haeckel fully
discussed his views concerning the genealogy of man in 1868,[78]
and several times subsequently.
76. In the Preface to the 1894 edition Huxley writes: “It was not so very long
since my kind friend Sir William Lawrence, one of the ablest men whom I
have known, had been well-nigh ostracised for his book On Man, which now
might be read in a Sunday-school without surprising anybody.”
77. Folk-Lore, VI., 1895, p. 67, f.n.
78. Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte.

Vogt. Carl Vogt (1864), who, like so many other
zoologists then and since, was led to study
anthropology, pointed out that “the ape-type does not culminate in
one, but in three, anthropoid apes.” On examining the species of
mankind and their history, he arrived at similar results (see also p.
66).
In the second volume of his Generelle Morphologie (1866)
Haeckel applied the theory of evolution to the whole organic
kingdom, including man, and drew up the first “genealogical trees.”
This attempt was improved and treated in a more popular form in his
Natural History of Creation (1868), and again in the Evolution of Man
(1879), an enlarged edition of which was published in 1905.
There is now a practical agreement among zoologists and
anthropologists that man is included in one of several families that
constitute the sub-order Anthropoidea of the order Primates.
As has previously been mentioned, the discovery of
Pithecanthropus raised great discussions, some of which were
concerning the exact position of man with regard to the various
higher apes. It is now generally admitted that Pithecanthropus may
be regarded as a member of a separate family of the Anthropoidea,
the Pithecanthropidæ, between the Simiidæ and the Hominidæ. The
re-examination of the previously known skulls of palæolithic age, and
the discovery of fresh specimens in recent years, have re-opened
the question whether the genus Homo contains more than the one
species, H. Sapiens. Duckworth[79] (1904) has given a careful
summary of the morphological characters of the Neanderthal, Spy,
and Krapina remains, and states as his opinion that “the individuals
thus characterised are associated in a group specifically distinct from
the modern Hominidæ, to which the name Homo primigenius or
Homo neanderthalensis has been applied.”[80]
79. L.c. pp. 520-542; cf. also Man, 1902, p. 186.
80. See also W. J. Sollas, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., B. 199, 1907, p. 281.
Those authors who describe and classify the various races and
peoples of mankind at the same time indicate their geographical
distribution, and in some instances notify some of the shiftings and
migrations that have taken place. Many maps have been prepared to
illustrate the human distribution in whole or in part, and these are to
be found in various memoirs and books. An atlas such as Dr. G.
Gerland’s Atlas der Völkerkunde (1892) summarises a vast amount
of information.
Our knowledge is very imperfect concerning the movements of
mankind. Historical records give some information on the subject. A
certain amount has been gleaned from traditional sources, but
doubtless much more remains to be garnered. The spoils of the
archæologist afford important data, but there are immense tracts of
country which are yet totally unexplored, or very imperfectly
investigated. All shiftings of peoples are mainly controlled by climatic
and geographical conditions; but these are continually varying, and it
is the business of the geographer and geologist to indicate what
these have probably been at various periods since the appearance
of man on this earth. It is not too much to say that, when maps have
been prepared which indicate these various changes, great light will
be thrown upon the early history of mankind.
Chapter VII.
ETHNOLOGY: ITS SCOPE AND SOURCES
Definition. “Ethnology” is a term which is often loosely used

as synonymous with “Anthropology,” to cover the
whole field of the science of man. It was in this sense that it first
came into prominence, being chosen by M. W. F. Edwards as the
title for the Société ethnologique de Paris, in 1839. The society was
concerned with what we should now call Anthropology; but it was
more especially interested in the origins and relationships of the
historical races of Europe, which was the etymological justification
for its name. The English Ethnological Society, established in 1843,
imitated the French title, and did much to fix the vague and general
interpretation of the word. Unfortunately, Professor Tylor, first and
foremost of English ethnologists, seems purposely to avoid the use
of the word in his Primitive Culture, which he refers to as “rational
ethnography.” But, with the development of the subject, its scope
became gradually more defined, until it is now generally restricted to
the comparative and genetic study of human culture and of man as a
social animal.
The materials for the study of ethnology have been always with us,
but the study itself is of very recent development, and almost alone
among the sciences can reckon its founders among the living.
Professor J. L. Myres gives excellent reasons for this “late
adolescence” in his opening address at the meeting of the British
Association at Winnipeg, 1909:—
Anthropology ... gathers its data from all longitudes, and almost all
latitudes, on this earth. It was necessary, therefore, that the study of man
should lag behind the rest of the sciences, so long as any large masses
of mankind remained withdrawn from its view; and we have only to
remember that Australia and Africa were not even crossed at all—much
less explored—by white men, until within living memory, to realise what
this limitation means. In addition to this, modern Western civilisation,
when it did at last come into contact with aboriginal peoples in new
continents, too often came, like the religion which it professed, bringing
“not peace, but a sword.” The customs and institutions of alien people
have been viewed too often, even by reasonable and good men, simply
as “ye beastlie devices of ye heathen,” and the pioneers of our culture,
perversely mindful only of the narrower creed, that “he that is not with us
is against us,” have set out to civilise savages by wrecking the civilisation
which they had (pp. 589-590).
Sources. There are, as Professor Myres points out, two

kinds of anthropologists:—
There is an anthropologist to whom we go for our facts: the painful
accurate observer of data, the storehouse of infinite detail; sometimes
himself the traveller and explorer, by cunning speech or wiser silence
opening the secrets of aboriginal hearts; sometimes the middleman, the
broker of traveller’s winnings, insatiate after some new thing, unerring by
instinct rather than by experience, to detect false coin, to disinter the
pearl of great price.... To him we go for our facts....
And there is an anthropologist to whom we look for our light. His
learning may be fragmentary, as some men count learning; his memory
faulty; his inaccuracy beyond dispute; his inconsistency the one
consistent thing about him. But with shattered and ricketty instruments he
attains results; heedless of epicycles, disrespectful to the equator, he
bequeaths his paradoxes to be demonstrated by another generation of
men. He may not know, or reason, perhaps; but he has learnt to see; and
what he sees he says (1908, p. 124).
Herodotus. In the earliest times Herodotus may be cited as

one of the most distinguished names in the former
of the two groups, and Lucretius in the latter. The writings of
Herodotus (circa 480-425 B.C.) are a veritable storehouse of
information, from the highest civilisations down to the veriest
savagery, and his work has lost none of its freshness or value
through lapse of time. As a matter of fact, modern investigations
carried out in the areas treated of by him more frequently confirm
and exemplify than refute his statements.
Lucretius. Lucretius (99 or 98-55 B.C.), the poet, teacher,
and reformer, boldly declared that there was no
Golden Age from which man has degenerated, but that his progress
has continually been slowly upward from a condition of pure
savagery:—
Arms of old were hands nails and teeth and stones and boughs broken
off from the forests, and flame and fire, as soon as they had become
known. Afterwards the force of iron and copper was discovered; and the
use of copper was known before that of iron, as its nature is easier to
work and it is found in greater quantity. With copper they would labour the
soil of the earth, with copper stir up the billows of war.... Then by slow
steps the sword of iron gained ground and the make of the copper sickle
became a byword; and with iron they began to plough through the earth’s
soil, and the struggles of wavering war were rendered equal.[81]
81. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Translated by H. A. J. Munro. Bohn’s

edition, 1908, p. 214.
It is evident from his poems that Lucretius was a keen observer

and a philosopher, who summed up existing Epicurean knowledge;
and we are justified in believing that these particular generalisations
were based upon tales told by travellers in distant lands, and upon
traditional lore, which, with the exception of the recently acquired
archæological evidence, is practically all upon which we have to rely.
The philosophic poet apprehended the significance of various facts,
and welded them into a consistent theory of the development of
culture, and thereby earned the honour of being the first evolutionary
anthropologist.
Strabo. Nor should we overlook the versatile Strabo
(circa 63 B.C.-21 A.D.), who was interested in many
things, from climate to botany, and from sport to Druidism and
Brahmanism. Alexander von Humboldt considered that he surpassed
all other geographical labourers of antiquity by the diversity of the
subject and the grandeur of the composition. His Geography
contains much information on the early history and traditions of
numerous peoples, their character, dress, dwellings, and mode of
life.
In the writings of the earlier travellers (to mention but three names)
—Marco Polo, in Cathay (1254-1323), Ibn Batuta (1304-1377), in
Asia; and Joao de Barros (1496-1570), who was considered the
greatest authority on Portuguese, African, and Asiatic travels of his
time—and in the records of travels contained in collections such as
those of Hakluyt (1552-1616), Purchas (1577-1626), and Pinkerton
(1758-1826), much ethnological information can be sifted from
among the marvellous tales. Sometimes the marvellous tales
themselves can, by ethnology, be interpreted in fact, as when the
“tailed men” of the Nicobars are found to owe their origin to the tail-
like method of wearing the loin-cloth.[82] These were followed by the
travellers and explorers of the nineteenth century, who brought back
a vast amount of new information, both physical and cultural, from
the lands they visited. Among these the names of Admiral Byron,
James Bruce, L. A. Bougainville, Sir John Barrow, Captain Cook, de
Lesseps, and Pallas may be mentioned.
82. E. H. Man, Journ. Anth. Inst., xv., p. 442.
Other sources of information were the works of the Jesuit
missionaries of the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, such as
José d’Acosta (1539-1600), J. F. Lafitau (1670-1740), and F. X. de
Charlevoix (1682-1761), who worked among the Canadian Indians,
and M. Dobrizhoffer (1717-1791).
Next come the missionaries of the nineteenth century, such as
William Ellis (1794-1872), who laboured in South Africa and
Madagascar, but is best known for his work in Polynesia; John
Williams (1796-1839); George Turner (1818-1891); W. Wyatt Gill
(1828-1896), and others who also worked in the Pacific. In Africa we
may mention Bishop Callaway (1817-1890) and David Livingstone
(1813-1873). At the same time the Roman Catholic missionary E. R.
Huc (1813-1860) was working in China and Tartary, while the Abbé
Dubois (1770-1848) was laboriously investigating the manners,
customs, and ceremonies of the Hindus.
Besides the missionaries, we owe a deep debt of gratitude to the
early explorers and civil servants in all parts of the world, who have
provided, consciously or unconsciously, a vast amount of information
about the peoples among whom they travelled or over whom they
ruled. Scientific expeditions, even before these were undertaken in
the interests of anthropology, collected further material. Lastly come
the various anthropological expeditions, consisting of trained
workers, who, besides amassing fresh evidence, check, correct, or
amplify the work of earlier writers.
These were the data on which the science of Ethnology, in its
restricted sense, was to be built. The earliest ethnologists utilised the
material mainly with a view to elucidating ethnic relationships, and to
producing systematic classifications of the various races of mankind.
Later workers such as Ratzel and Reclus produced systematic
descriptions of races, peoples, and areas. A third method was that of
Tylor, the chief exponent of Comparative Ethnology.
Systematic The earlier attempts at race classification were
Works on based merely on physical characters, and are
Ethnology. dealt with elsewhere (Chap. VI.). During the
eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth centuries geographical
discovery brought a mass of new facts to light, especially in the
realm of natural history; and in no branch of that science were the
effects so marked as in that of Anthropology.
The marshalling of a vast array of new observations and
deductions required a broad mind, wide knowledge, and shrewd
reasoning powers. These, together with a sound training in anatomy,
an unusual acquaintance with philology, and some eminence in
psychology, produced the monumental work of Prichard.
J. C. Prichard.
James Cowles Prichard (1786-1848) showed,
Prichard. when a boy, a remarkable aptness for foreign
languages. He was never sent to school, but was taught by various
tutors, from whom he learnt Latin, Greek, French, Italian, and
Spanish. His father, a merchant, and member of the Society of
Friends, lived for a time in Bristol, and there the boy began his
practical study of anthropology, spending his time by the docks,
watching the foreign sailors, and chatting with them in their own
tongues. Later on he chose medicine for his profession, less on
account of any special liking for it than because it afforded him
opportunities for indulging his anthropological tastes. His first
contribution to the science was his thesis for the degree of Doctor of
Medicine in the University of Edinburgh, which was entitled De
generis humani varietate, published in 1813 in an expanded form as
Researches into the Physical History of Man. It was still further
expanded in 1826, and a five-volume edition was issued between
1836 and 1847. In 1843 appeared another monumental work, The
Natural History of Man, “comprising inquiries into the modifying
influence of physical and moral agencies on the different tribes of the
human family.”
Speaking of Prichard at the meeting of the British Association in
Bristol in 1875, Professor Rolleston remarked: “His works remain,
massive, impressive, enduring—much as the headlands along our
southern coast stand out in the distance in their own grand outlines,
while a close and minute inspection is necessary for the discernment
of the forts and fosses added to them—indeed, dug out of their
substance in recent times.” The services of Prichard in the field of
Anthropology have often been compared with those of his
contemporary Blumenbach, by whose fame during his lifetime he
was overshadowed; but, though the latter was unequalled on the
side of physical anthropology, there is no doubt that Prichard had a
wider grasp of the subject, and his works formed the cornerstones of
Anthropology in England.
Other While Prichard was expanding his thesis,
Generalisations. Antoine Desmoulins was writing his Histoire
naturelle des races humaines, which appeared contemporaneously
with Prichard’s revised Researches in 1826. He attempted to
discover the origins and relations of the peoples of north-east
Europe, north and east Asia, and South Africa, by the evidence of
archæology, physiology, anatomy, and linguistics.
The work of systematising the mass of anthropological data and
producing an orderly scheme must always be regarded as an almost
superhuman task, and those who have attempted it deserve our
grateful recognition.
The next Englishman after Prichard was Latham, who published
his Natural History of the Varieties of Man in 1850 (the same year as
Knox’s Races of Man), and his Descriptive Ethnology in 1859. In the
latter year appeared the first instalment of the Anthropologie der
Naturvölker of Waitz, the six volumes of which were completed in
1872—a work which largely assisted in laying a secure foundation
for the new science. In 1873 Friedrich Müller published his
Allgemeine Ethnographie. The following year saw the publication of
Peschel’s Völkerkunde. Ratzel’s great work, Völkerkunde, appeared
in 1885-88. In America Pickering’s Races of Man was published in
1848, and Nott and Gliddon’s Indigenous Races of the Earth in 1857.
Paul Topinard’s L’Anthropologie (1876) is mentioned elsewhere (p.
38).
The earlier of these generalisations were composed before the
acceptance of the theory of evolution, in the new light of which all
biological sciences had to start afresh, and all were written before
the masses of new material collected by ethnologists and
archæologists, working in the field, had brought so much fresh
evidence to bear upon the whole geographical and historical aspect
of man that it was impossible “to see the wood for the trees.” Thus
the time for synthesis had arrived, and with the hour came the man.
A. H. Keane’s Ethnology appeared in 1896, to be followed by his
Man, past and present in 1899. J. Deniker’s Les races et les peuples
de la terre, together with the English translation, appeared in the
following year.
Ethnology and In summarising the sources from which the
the Classics. materials for the science of ethnology are derived,

Textbook Multi Layer Pavement System Under Blast Load 1St Edition Jun Wu Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Textbook Multi Layer Pavement System Under Blast Load 1St Edition Jun Wu Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Multi layer Pavement System under

Blast Load 1st Edition Jun Wu

The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science 1st

Intelligent City Evaluation System Zhiqiang Wu

Power System Load Frequency Control: Classical and

Power System Control Under Cascading Failures:

Multi-sensor System Applications in the Everglades

Multi-physics Coupling Analysis of Clayey Core Wall of

Forced-Flow Layer Chromatography 1st Edition Tyihák

Multi Processor System on chip 1 Architectures Liliana

Construction and Structural Mechanics

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15088

Multi-layer Pavement System

ISSN 2366-259X ISSN 2366-2603 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

3.4 Anchoring of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 59

5.2.4 Drucker–Prager Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Dlp Incremental plastic volumetric strain

CFL Courant–Friedrich–Levy condition

Fig. 2.30 Side proﬁle of Sample C after second impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Fig. 3.30 Displacement–time history for horizontal accelerometers 1 and 2

Fig. 5.9 Kinematic hardening material yield surfaces in deviatoric

Fig. 5.37 Load–strain relationship of MG-100 GST reinforcements . . . . . . 161

Table 1.1 Cases for damaged runway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 2.22 Peak readings of accelerometers for Sample D, second

Table 5.14 Parameters for the AC with fc = 4.6 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

Table 1.1 Cases for damaged runway. (From http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/database.cgi)

or plane crashing is deﬁnitely too serious to allow the pavement to function

THE CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MAN

Race After the age of race discrimination comes the age

65. See T. Bendyshe, Mem. Anth. Soc., I., 1865, p. 360.

He distinguished “four or five species or races”: (1) The inhabitants

In the tenth edition (1758) more divisions are recognised: the

70. Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850.

71. Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals.

The “pigeon-hole” system of classification had, however, been

This is practically the same result at which Waitz arrived in 1863.

77. Folk-Lore, VI., 1895, p. 67, f.n.

78. Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte.

ETHNOLOGY: ITS SCOPE AND SOURCES

Definition. “Ethnology” is a term which is often loosely used

Sources. There are, as Professor Myres points out, two

Herodotus. In the earliest times Herodotus may be cited as

81. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Translated by H. A. J. Munro. Bohn’s

It is evident from his poems that Lucretius was a keen observer

You might also like