CHAPTER 18

Variation and selection

VARIATION
Differences between
individuals of same species.
Presentation title 3
VARIATION CAN BE CAUSED BY VARIOUS FACTORS. THE MOST
IMPORTANT ONES THAT YOU NEED TO BE AWARE OF IS:

Sexual • The mixing of genes from the father & mother

to produce offspring with a completely unique
reproduction genetic make-up causes variation

Mutation • Random changes of the DNA of an organism

Presentation title 4

GENETIC VS PHENOTYPIC VARIATION

Genetic variation – The

Phenotypic variation – The
differences in genetics among
variability of phenotypes within a
individuals within the same
population (influenced by both the
species (mainly due to sexual
genetic & environmental factors)
reproduction & mutation)
Presentation title 5

CONTINUOUS VS DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

Continuous variation – Results in a range of phenotypes between two

extremes i.e. height/weight/etc.

Discontinuous variation – Results in limited number of set

phenotypes with no intermediates i.e. tongue rolling
Presentation title 6

• Continuous Variation is when there are very many small

degrees of difference for a particular characteristic between
individuals and they are arranged in order and can usually be
measured on a scale
• Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there
can be many ‘inbetween’ groups
• Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences
for a characteristic
• For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are
either male or female; can either roll their tongue or not
Presentation title 7

• Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genetic

variation alone
• Continuous features often vary because of a
combination of genetic and environmental causes, for
example:
• tall parents will pass genes to their children for height
• their children have the genetic potential to also be tall
however if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
therefore their environment also has an impact on their height
Presentation title 8

WHEN GRAPHS OF THESE DATA ARE PLOTTED, CONTINUOUS VARIATION GIVES

SMOOTH BELL CURVES (A RESULT OF ALL THE SMALL DEGREES OF DIFFERENCE),
WHEREAS DISCONTINUOUS GIVES A ‘STEP – LIKE’ SHAPE
 9
Blood group is an example of discontinuous variation which
gives rise to a step-shaped graph
• Phenotypic Variation
Presentation title 10

• Phenotypic variation can be caused in two main ways:

• It can be genetic - controlled entirely by genes
• Or it can be environmental - caused entirely by the environment in which the
organism lives

• Genetic Variation
• Examples of genetic variation in humans include:
• blood group
• eye colour
• gender
• ability to roll tongue
• whether ear lobes are free or fixed
•
 Presentation title 11

• Mutation
• Mutation is genetic change. New Alleles are formed
as a result of Mutation.
• Gene Mutation is the genetic change in the base
sequence in DNA.
Presentation title 12

Causes of Mutation
Ionising radiation and some Chemicals (Such as Lead and Mercury) are main
causes of Mutation.
Mutagens are defined as chemicals causing Mutation
1.Ionising Radiation- exposure to Ultraviolet Rays, Gamma Rays, and X rays
2. Chemical Mutagens- regular consumption of drinking water with
heavy metal concentrations of Lead and Mercury
 Presentation title 13

SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

Sickle Cell Anaemia is a genetic disease. It
is caused when a person's gene that is
responsible for the production of
Haemoglobin undergoes Mutation.
The normal Allele HbA represents normal
Haemoglobin
The mutant Allele HbS represents an allele
that produces faulty Haemoglobin
Presentation title 14

SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA AND MALARIA

The presence of both Malaria and Sickle Cell

Anaemia are present in common parts of the
world. Those who were homozygous (with
People who are heterozygous for the sickle
HBA HBA or HBS HBS) either died of Malaria,
cell allele (HBA HBS have a resistance to
or Sickle Cell Anaemia. But those with who
Malaria. This is because it seems that the
were heterozygous (with HBA HBS) were the
parasite causing malaria cannot reproduce
ones who were most likely to reproduce. This
in cells with the sickle cell allele.
continued from generation to generation.
Presentation title 15

SUMMARY OF SOURCES OF GENETIC VARIATION IN

POPULATIONS
• Mutations
• New alleles form through random changes to DNA
• Meiosis
• New allele combinations form through segregation
• Random mating
• Which partnerships form for sexual reproduction
• Random fertilisation
• Which sperm and egg combinations occur during sexual reproduction
Presentation title 16

ADAPTATIONS
• Adaptive features are the inherited functional
features of an organism that increase its survival
chances in its habitat.
• Fitness is the probability of an organism surviving
and reproducing in the environment in which it is
found
Presentation title 17

XEROPHYTIC ADAPTATION
Presentation title
 Presentation title 19

ADAPTATION IN
PINE TREE
• Pine trees often live in very cold,
mountainous climates. For this
reason, they have developed a thick
bark that helps protect the tree from
the low temperatures.
• Pine trees have needle-like leaves.This
helps the pine tree lose less water.
Also allows high wind to blow through
without causing damage.
• Sunken stomata.
• Deep roots to absorb water.
 Presentation title 20

MARRAM GRASS
• Have deep roots
• Hinge cells: cause
rolling of leaves,
decrease surface
area to avoid
transpiration in
 HYDROPHYTE ADAPTATION
Presentation title 21
 Presentation title
NATURAL SELECTION 22

When organisms reproduce, This leads to competition for

Individuals in a species show
they produce more food and other resources which
a range of variation caused by
offspring than the environment results in a ‘struggle for
differences in genes
is able to support survival’

This means that in the next

Individuals with This theory of natural selection
generation, there will be
characteristics most suited to was put forward by Charles
a greater number of
the environment have a higher Darwin and Alfred Wallace and
individuals with the better
chance of survival and more became known as ‘survival of
adapted variations in
chances to reproduce the fittest’
characteristics
 INDUSTRIAL MELANISM
Presentation title 23
 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN BACTERIA
Presentation title 24

• Penicillin works by stopping bacterial cells from forming cell walls.

• When a person gets affected with a bacterial disease, they take a dose of an antibiotic
such as penicillin, to kill the bacteria by stopping bacterial cells from forming cell walls.
• This exerts a selection pressure if the same antibiotic is used again and again.
• The probability that a mutant bacterium will be produced is low; however it is possible.
• When a mutant bacterium (a bacteria with resistance against the antibiotic) forms, it
has tremendous advantage.
• The antibiotic kills all the bacteria except the mutant one.
• The mutant (resistant) one multiplies and forms a population of resistant bacteria just
like itself.
• This causes the antibiotic to be ineffective against the resistant bacteria.
 SELECTIVE BREEDING (ARTIFICIAL SELECTION)
Presentation title 25

• The choice by a farmer or grower of only the ‘best’ parents to breed, generation
after generation is defined as Selective Breeding.
• For example, if a dairy farmer wants to increase the overall milk yield of his cows,
1. He will first select a cow which gives the highest volume of milk 🥛 in the herd and
then breed it with the strongest bull he owns 💪.
2. This is what the term ‘best’ means in the definition.
3. Thus the offsprings produced will have abilities to produce vast volumes of milk if they
are female and great strength to plough the land if they are male.
4. This will continue for generations until he has a herd of the highest milk yielding cows
and the strongest bulls 📈!
• This is how artificial selection has been utilised since generations to breed the best
cattle and the best plants.
Presentation title
Presentation title 27

Disadvantages Artificial Selection

• Eliminates variation, making species more vulnerable

to new diseases, and changes in the environment.
• Some harmful genes can express due to
homozygosity.
• Reduction of variability could lead to local extinction
of gene pool