Physics at A Glance For Class Xi Xii Engineering Entrance and Other Competitive Exams Abhay Kumar All Chapter

Physics At A Glance for Class XI & XII,
Engineering Entrance and other

Competitive Exams Abhay Kumar
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Kumar
for Class XI & XII, Engineering & Medical
Entrance and other Competitive Exams
Abhay Kumar
Physics at a Glance is part of a three book series, designed especially for

students aspiring to be future engineers and doctors. This book will help students
to prepare for engineering (JEE, BITSAT and Boards) and medical entrance
examinations (AIPMT and AIIMS). The book follows a crisp presentation approach
to simplify concepts to enable easier understanding and retention. It would act as
an indispensable tool to crack the examinations.
The other two books in these series are on chemistry and mathematics.
for Class XI & XII, Engineering & Medical

Entrance and other Competitive Exams
Abhay Kumar
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Cover image: John Foxx Collection. Imagestate
Size: 165x229mm Spine: 12mm ISBN: 9789332522053 Title Sub Title Edition Authors / Editors Name With CD Red Band Territory line URL Price mQuest
Physics at a Glance
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Physics at a Glance
Abhay Kumar
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Copyright © 2014 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s
prior written consent.
This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 9789332522053
eISBN 9789332537101
Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
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Dedicated to my parents
Kaushal and Pushpa
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Contents
Preface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - xxi
Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - xxiii
To the Students - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - xviii
1. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS 1 1.3 Calculus 9

1.3.1 Limits 9
1.1 Trigonometry 1
1.3.2 Basic Formulae of Limit 9
1.1.1 Formulae for Compound
1.3.3 Continuity 10
Angle 2
1.3.4 Differentiability and
1.1.2 Transformational Formula 2
Differentiate 10
1.1.3 Formulae for Multiple and
1.3.5 For Two Functions: u and v 10
Sub-multiple Angles 2
1.3.6 Chain Rule 10
1.1.4 Trigonometric Equations 3
1.3.7 D.C. of Some Important
1.1.5 Value of (2p ± q) 3
Functions 10
⎛ 3π ⎞ 1.3.8 Maxima and Minima 11
1.1.6 Value of ⎜ ± θ⎟ 4
⎝ 2 ⎠ 1.3.9 Integration 11
1.1.7 Inverse Trigonometric 1.3.10 Indefinite Integration 11
Functions 4 1.3.11 Integration by Parts 12
1.2 Algebra 5 1.3.12 Integration of Some
1.2.1 Quadratic Equation 5 Standard Functions 12
1.2.2 Determinants 6 1.3.13 Definite Integration 13
1.2.3 Determinant of Third Order 6 1.3.14 Property of Definite
1.2.4 Progression 6 Integration 13
1.2.5 Geometric Progression 7 1.3.15 Trigonometric Series 13
1.2.6 Some Important Summation
of Series 8 2. UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND
1.2.7 Binomial Theorem for Any EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 14
Index 8 2.1 Introduction 14
1.2.8 Exponential and Logarithmic 2.2 Applications of Dimensional
Series 8 Analysis 22
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viii Contents
2.3 Limitations of Dimensional 3.2.6 Curl or Rotation of a Vector 42

Analysis 23
2.4 Errors and Accuracy 23 4. MOTIONS IN ONE, TWO
2.4.1 Rules to Determine the AND THREE DIMENSIONS 43
Significant Figures 24 4.1 Basic definitions 43
2.4.2 Rounding Off 25 4.1.1 In One-dimensional Motion 43
2.5 Types of Errors 26 4.1.2 One-dimensional Motion
2.5.1 Constant Errors 26 with Uniform Acceleration 44
2.5.2 Systematic Errors 26 4.1.3 One-dimensional Motion with
2.5.3 Random Errors 27 Non-uniform Acceleration 44
2.5.4 Gross Errors 27 4.1.4 In Two-dimensional Motion 45
2.6 Propagation of Errors 27 4.1.5 Two- or Three-dimensional
Motion with Uniform
2.6.1 Addition 28
Acceleration 45
2.6.2 Subtraction 28
4.1.6 Two- or Three-dimensional
2.6.3 Multiplication 28
Motion with Non-uniform
2.6.4 Division 29 Acceleration 45
2.6.5 Power of Observed 4.1.7 Projectile Motion 45
Quantities 29
4.1.8 Projection Upon an
2.7 Vernier Callipers 30 Inclined Plane 46
2.7.1 Determination of Least 4.1.9 Projection Down the
Count 31 Inclined Plane 46
2.7.2 Determination of Zero 4.2 Swimmer’s Problem or
Error and Zero Correction 31 River-boat Problem 47
2.7.3 Reading a Vernier 32 4.2.1 Circular Motion 49
3. VECTORS AND SCALARS 35 5. LAWS OF MOTION AND

3.1 Physical Quantities 35 FRICTION 52
3.1.1 Scalar Quantities 35 5.1 Inertia 52
3.1.2 Vector Quantities 35
5.2 Linear Momentum 52
3.1.3 Dot Product of Two Vectors 37
3.1.4 Cross Product of Two Vectors 38 5.3 Force 52
3.1.5 Triple Product of Vectors 40 5.3.1 System of Forces 53
5.3.2 Condition for Equilibrium
3.2 Scalar and Vector Field: Gradient,
of Concurrent Forces 53
Divergence and Curl 41
3.2.1 Scalar Field 41 5.4 Lami’s Theorem 53
3.2.2 Vector Field 42 5.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion 53
3.2.3 Vector Differential Operator 5.6 Newton’s Second Law in
(Del Vector) 42 Component Form 54
3.2.4 Gradient 42 5.6.1 Newton’s Second Law in
3.2.5 Divergence of a Vector 42 Non-inertial Frame 55
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Contents ix
5.6.2 Apparent Weight of a Body 7.1.2 Position of Centre of Mass of

in a Lift 55 Continuous System
5.7 Spring 61 of Particles 73
7.1.3 Position of Centre of Mass of
5.8 Non-concurrent Coplanar Forces 62
More than Two Rigid Bodies 73
7.1.4 Position of Centre of Mass of
6. WORK, ENERGY, POWER a Rigid Body from Which
AND CIRCULAR MOTION 63 Some Portion Is Removed 73
6.1 Work Done 63 7.2 Motion of the Centre of Mass 74
6.1.1 By a Constant Force 63 7.2.1 Conservation of Linear
6.1.2 By a Variable Force 63 Momentum 76
6.1.3 By Area Under F-x Graph 63 7.3 Collision 76
6.2 Power of a Force 64 7.3.1 Head-on Elastic Collision 76
6.2.1 Conservative and 7.3.2 Head-on Inelastic Collision 77
Non-conservative Forces 64 7.3.3 Oblique Collision (Both
6.3 Potential Energy 64 Elastic and Inelastic) 78
6.3.1 Relation Between Potential 7.3.4 Linear Impulse 82
Energy (U) and 7.3.5 Solving Problems Relative
to CM Frame 82
Conservative Force F 65
7.3.6 Variable Mass 82
6.3.2 Principle of Conservation
of Mechanical Energy 65
6.3.3 Work-energy Theorem 65 8. ROTATIONAL AND ROLLING
6.3.4 Types of Equilibrium 66 MOTION 84
6.3.5 Circular Motion 66 8.1 Angular Displacement 84
6.3.6 Turning of a Cyclist Around
8.2 Angular Velocity 84
a Corner on the Road 67
6.3.7 A Car Taking a Turn on a 8.3 Angular Acceleration 85
Level Road 67 8.3.1 Relation Between Linear
6.3.8 Banking of Tracks 67 and Angular Velocity 85
6.3.9 Stability of a Vehicle on a 8.3.2 Relation Between Linear
Horizontal Turn 68 and Angular Acceleration 86
6.3.10 Conical Pendulum 68 8.3.3 Equations of Motion of
6.3.11 Centrifugal Force 69 Rotating Body 86
6.3.12 Coriolis Force 70 8.4 Rotational Dynamics 86
8.5 Angular Impulse 88
7. CENTRE OF MASS AND 8.5.1 Angular Momentum of
COLLISION 72 Rolling Body 89
8.5.2 Moment of Inertia of a
7.1 Centre of Mass 72
Discrete Rotating System 89
7.1.1 Position of Centre of
8.5.3 Moment of Inertia of a
Mass of Discrete System
Continuous Rotating System 89
of Particles 72
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x Contents
8.5.4 Theorem on Moment 10.4.7 Compressibility 112

of Inertia 89 10.4.8 Elastic Relaxation
8.5.5 Rolling of a Body on Time 112
Horizontal Rough Surface 90 10.4.9 Ductile Materials 112
8.5.6 Rolling of a Body on Inclined 10.4.10 Brittle Materials 112
Rough Surface
10.5 Fluids 112
of Inclination q 90
10.5.1 Pressure Due to a
8.5.7 For Rolling with Forward
Liquid 112
Slipping 91
10.5.2 Variation of Pressure in a
8.6 Radius of Gyration 95 Fluid with the Height from
8.6.1 Couple 96 the Bottom of the Fluid 113
8.6.2 Conditions for Equilibrium 10.5.3 Hydrostatic Force Due
of a Rigid Body 96 to Many Liquid Layers 114
10.5.4 Pascal’s Law 114
9. GRAVITATION 99
10.5.5 Archimede’s Principle 115
9.1 Properties of Gravitational Force 99 10.5.6 Variation of Pressure in a
9.1.1 Inertial Mass and Liquid in a Container
Properties of Inertial Mass 100 If the Container Is to Be
Accelerated 116
9.2 Gravitational Mass 100
10.6 Surface Tension 117
9.3 Acceleration Due to Gravity 100
10.6.1 Effect of Temperature
9.4 Gravitational Field Strength 101 on Surface Tension 118
9.5 Gravitational Potential 102 10.6.3 Effect of Impurity on
9.6 Gravitational Potential Energy 103 Surface Tension 118

9.6.1 Relation Between Field 10.7 Surface Energy 118
Strength E and Potential V 103 10.7.1 Angle of Contact 118
10.7.2 Excess Pressure Due to
10. SOLIDS AND FLUIDS 107 Surface Tension 119
10.1 Intermolecular Forces 107 10.7.3 Radius of New Bubble
When Two Bubbles
10.2 Types of Bonding 108 Coalesce 119
10.3 Four States of Matter 108 10.7.4 Radius of Interface 120
10.4 Elasticity 108 10.7.5 Capillarity 120
10.4.1 Strain 108 10.7.6 Zurin’s Law 120
10.4.2 Stress 109 10.7.7 Poiseuille’s Formula and
10.4.3 Elastic Moduli 109 Liquid Resistance 121
10.4.4 Interatomic Force 10.7.8 Stoke’s Law and
Constant (k) 111 Terminal Velocity 122
10.4.5 Cantilever and Beam 111 10.7.9 Reynold’s Number 123
10.4.6 Torsion of a Cylinder and 10.7.10 Bernouilli’s Theorem 123
Workdone in Twisting 111 10.7.11 Torricelli’s Theorem 124
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Contents xi
11. OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 13.1.2 Dulong and Petit’s Law 153
(ACOUSTICS) 126 13.1.3 Principle of Calorimetry 154
13.1.4 Change of State or Phase 154
11.1 Different Equations in SHM 126
13.2 Heat Transfer 156
11.2 Graphs Related to SHM 127
13.2.1 Heat Conduction
11.2.1 Spring Block System 128
Through a Rod 156
11.2.2 Pendulum 130
13.3 Wiedemann–Franz Law 157
11.2.3 Physical Pendulum 130
13.3.1 Thermal Convection 157
11.3 Some Other Important Points
13.3.2 Radiation 158
Concerning SHM 130
11.3.1 Wave Equation 132 13.4 Emittance, Absorptance and
Energy Density 158
11.3.2 Plane Progressive
Harmonic Wave 132 13.4.1 Monochromatic or
Spectral Emittance (El),
11.3.3 Longitudinal Wave 134
Radiant Emittance or
11.3.4 Wave Speed 134 Radiance (E) 158
11.3.5 Echo 136 13.4.2 Monochromatic
11.3.6 Stationary Waves 137 Absorptance (al) 159
12. THERMOMETRY AND 13.4.3 Monochromatic or
Spectral Energy Density
THERMODYNAMICS 142
(Ul) and Radiant
12.1 Temperature 142 Enegry Density (U) 159
12.1.1 Thermal Expansion 143 13.5 Fraunhofer Lines 161
12.1.2 Effect of Temperature 13.5.1 Colours: Primary and
on Different Physical Complementary 162
Quantities 144
12.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases 145 14. ELECTRIC FIELD, POTENTIAL
12.2.1 Real Gases 147 AND GAUSS LAW 163
12.3 Thermodynamics 148
14.1 Properties of Electric Charge 163
12.3.1 Entropy 150
14.1.1 Quarks 163
12.3.2 Refrigerator or Heat
14.1.2 Electric Lines of Force 165
Pump 150
14.1.3 Electric Flux 166
12.3.3 Second Law of
Thermodynamics 151 14.1.4 Electric Dipole 167
12.3.4 Third Law of 14.2 Principle of Electrostatic Generator
Thermodynamics 151 (Van de Graff Generator) 167
14.2.1 Behaviour of a Conductor
13. CALORIMETRY AND in an Electrostatic Field 168
HEAT TRANSFER 152 14.2.2 Charged Soap Bubble 168
13.1 Units of Calorimetry 152 14.3 Atmospheric Electricity 169
13.1.1 Specific Heat Capacity 14.3.1 Main Features of
of a Substance 152 Atmospheric Electricity 169
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xii Contents
15. CAPACITORS 170 16.7 R–C Discharging Circuit 199

16.7.1 Power or Heat 200
15.1 Capacitance 170
16.8 Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis 201
15.2 Isolated Conductor 170
16.8.1 First Law 201
15.3 Parallel Plate Capacitor 171 16.8.2 Second Law 201
15.4 Spherical Capacitor 174
15.5 Cylindrical Capacitor 174 17. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
15.6 Combination of Capacitors 174 CURRENT AND
15.7 Dielectrics 175
MAGNETISM 203
15.7.1 Polarization of Dielectric 17.1 Magnetic Field Produced by
Medium Placed Moving Charge or Current 203
in an Electric Field 175
17.2 Magnetic Force on a Moving
Charge in Uniform Magnetic
16. OHM’S LAW, THERMAL AND Field 203
CHEMICAL EFFECT 17.3 Path of a Charged Particle in
OF ELECTRICITY 177 Uniform Magnetic Field 203
16.1 Electric Current 177 17.4 List of Formulae in Uniform
Circular Motion 203
16.1.1 Series Combination 178
17.4.1 To Find Velocity and
16.1.2 Parallel Combination 178
Position at Time t 204
16.2 Resistance of a Conductor 179 17.4.2 Helical Path 204
16.2.1 Variation of
17.5 Deviation of Charge Particle in
Resistivity 179
Magnetic Field 205
16.3 Ohm’s Law: V = IR 180 17.5.1 Lorentz Force 205
16.4 How to Find Equivalent 17.5.2 Cyclotron 206
Resistance 181
17.6 Magnetic Force on a Current
16.4.1 Successive Reduction Carrying Wire in a Uniform
Method 181 Magnetic Field 206
16.4.2 Using Symmetry of the
17.7 Magnetic Force ona Curved
Circuit 184
Wire in Uniform B 206
16.4.3 Using Star-delta
Conversion Method 189 17.8 Torque on a Current
16.4.4 Using Infinite Ladder Carrying Coil Placed
Method 191 Inside a Magnetic Field 207
16.5 Colour Code for Carbon 17.9 Magnetic Field at a Point Due to
Resistors 194 a Current or System of Current 208
16.5.1 Superconductivity 195 17.10 List of Formulae 209
16.5.2 Potentiometer 195 17.11 Ampere’s Circuital Law (ACL) 214
16.6 Study About R–C Circuit 196 17.12 Magnet and Its Characteristics 214
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Contents xiii
17.13 Properties of a Magnet 214 19.3.1 Maxwell’s Equations 236

17.14 Magnetic Lines of Force and 19.4 Electromagnetic Waves 237
Their Characteristics 216 19.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum 238
17.14.1 Intensity of 19.5.1 Radiowaves (Frequency
Magnetization 218 Range: 500 kHz to
17.14.2 Magnetic Permeability 218 About 1000 MHz) 238
17.14.3 Magnetic Susceptibility 218 19.5.2 Microwaves
17.15 Earth’s Magnetism 219 (Frequency Range:
1 GHz to 100 GHz) 238
19.5.3 Infrared (IR) Waves
18. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUC-
(Frequency Range:
TION AND ALTERNATING 1011 Hz to 5 × 1014 Hz) 238
CURRENT 222 19.5.4 Visible Light (Frequency
18.1 Magnetic Flux 222 Range: 4 × 1014 Hz to
18.1.1 Faraday and Lenz Law About 7 × 1014 Hz) 239
(I from B) 222 19.5.5 Ultraviolet (UV)
18.1.2 Lenz’s Law 223 Radiation (Frequency
Range: 1014 Hz to
18.2 Mechanism of Electromagnetic 1017 Hz) 239
Induction Across a Conductor 223
19.5.6 X-rays (Frequency
18.3 How to Solve Problems Range: 1017 Hz to
Related to Motional EMF 225 1019 Hz) 239
18.3.1 Self-inductance 226 19.5.7 Gamma Rays
18.3.2 Mutual Inductance (M) 227 (Frequency Range:
18.3.3 Inductor (Solenoid 1018 Hz to 1022 Hz) 239
and Toroid) 227 19.6 Some Useful Key Points 240
18.3.4 Current Growth in 19.7 Wave Optics 240
L–R Circuit 228
19.7.1 Coherent Sources 241
18.3.5 Current Decay in L–R
19.7.2 Interference 241
Circuit 229
19.7.3 Division of Wavefront 242
18.3.6 LC-oscillatory Circuit 229
19.7.4 Division of Amplitude 242
18.3.7 Alternating Current (AC) 231
18.3.8 Choke Coil 234 19.8 Young’s Double Slit Experiment 242
18.3.9 Transformer 234 19.9 Diffraction of Light 247
19.9.1 Fraunhofer Diffraction
19. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Due to a Single Slit 247
AND WAVE OPTICS 236 19.9.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction
at a Circular Aperture 247
19.1 Conduction Current 236 19.10 Diffraction at a Plane Grating 248
19.2 Displacement Current 236 19.11 Polarization of Light 248
19.3 Modified Ampere Circuital Law 236 19.11.1 Wave Front 249
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xiv Contents
20. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL 20.7 Power of the Lens 267
INSTRUMENTS 250 20.7.1 Combinations of the
Lenses 267
20.1 Reflection of Light 250
20.8 Prism 270
20.2 Characteristics of Image Due
20.9 Defects of Vision of Human Eye 270
to Reflection by a Plane Mirror 250
20.9.1 Simple Microscope 271
20.2.1 Effect of Rotation of Plane
Mirror on the Image 251 20.9.2 Compound Microscope 271
20.2.2 Number of Images 20.9.3 Astronomical Telescope 272
Formed by Two Inclined 20.9.4 Terrestrial Telescope 272
Plane Mirrors 252
20.2.3 Concept of Velocity of 21. ATOMS AND NUCLEI 273
Image in the Plane Mirror 254
21.1 Atoms 273
20.3 Curved Mirrors 255
21.1.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 273
20.3.1 Concept of Velocity of
Image in Spherical 21.1.2 Thomson’s Atomic Model 273
Mirrors 258 21.1.3 Rutherford’s Atomic
Model 273
20.4 Refraction of Light 259
21.1.4 Impact Parameter and
20.5 Laws of Refraction 259 Angle of Scattering 274
20.5.1 Refraction at Plane 21.1.5 Bohr’s Atomic Model 275
Surface 260 21.1.6 Bohr’s Formulae 276
20.5.2 Total Internal 21.1.7 Hydrogen Spectrum 277
Reflection 260 21.1.8 Kossel Diagram 278
20.5.3 Refractive Index (R.I.) 21.1.9 Energy Level Diagram
and Critical Angle 260 of Hydrogen Atom 279
20.5.4 Spherical Refracting 21.1.10 Wave Model 280
Surfaces 261 21.1.11 Work Function 280
20.5.5 Refraction from 21.1.12 Electron Emission 281
Spherical Surface 262
21.1.13 Photoelectric Effect 281
20.6 Lens 262 21.1.14 Properties of Photon 282
20.6.1 Lens Maker’s Formula 262 21.2 Matter Wave or de Broglie
20.6.2 Nature of Image Forma- Wave or Wavelength 283
tion by Convex Lens
21.3 X-rays 284
and Concave Lens 263
21.3.1 Mosley’s Law 284
20.6.3 Concept of Velocity of
21.3.2 Isotopes 284
Image in the Refraction
Through Spherical 21.3.3 Isobars 285
Surface and Plane Surface 265 21.3.4 Isotones 285
20.6.4 Concept of Velocity of 21.3.5 Isomers 285
Image in the Refraction 21.3.6 Mass Defect (Δm) 285
Through Lens 265 21.3.7 Binding Energy (ΔE) 285
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Contents xv
21.3.8 Packing Fraction (P) 286 22.11.3 Radio

21.3.9 Radioactivity 286 Communication 303
21.4 Nuclear Fission 288 22.11.4 Need for Modulation 303
22.11.5 Demodulation 303
21.5 Nuclear Fusion 288
22.12 Types of Modulation 304
22. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 22.12.1 Amplitude Modulation 304
AND COMMUNICATION 22.12.2 Power in AM Wave 305
SYSTEM 290 22.12.3 Limitations of Ampli-
tude Modulation 305
22.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor 290
22.12.4 Frequency
22.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor 290 Modulation 305
22.3 P-N Junction 290 22.12.5 Modulation Factor or
22.4 Half-wave Rectifier 291 Index 306
22.12.6 Deviation Ratio 306
22.5 Full-wave Rectifier 291
22.12.7 Percent Modulation 306
22.6 Diodes 292
22.12.8 Pulse Modulation 307
22.7 Transistor 292 22.12.9 Data Communication
22.8 Transistor Configuration 292 Modem 307
22.9 Logic Gates 294 22.12.10 Propagation of
Electromagnetic
22.9.1 OR Gate 294
Waves in Atmosphere 307
22.9.2 AND Gate 295
22.12.11 Satellite
22.9.3 NOT Gate 296
Communication 308
22.10 Universal Building Blocks 297 22.12.12 Optical Fibre
22.10.1 Arithmetic Circuits 299 Communication 308
22.11 Principles of Communication 302 22.12.13 Communication
22.11.1 Analog System 309
Communication 302 22.12.14 Message Signals 310
22.11.2 Digital 22.12.15 Line
Communication 302 Communication 310
Appendices - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 311
A.1 Physical Constants - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 311

A.2 List of Scientific Instruments - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 315
A.3 Inventors and Their Inventions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 319
A.4 List of Nobel Laureates in Physics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 322
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Preface
Encouraged by the response to my earlier books, Practice Problems in Physics, Volume I

and II. I decided to work on a handbook that gives information to students for preparing
basic study material such as concepts, definitions, tips, formulae and equations. In my
10 years of teaching experience, I have observed that students find it difficult to revise
complete textbooks due to lack of time just before the exams. Therefore, it gives me
immense pleasure to present this book, Physics at a Glance, in which all essential topics
are presented in the form of points. This book would be highly beneficial to students at
the +2 level for competitive examinations like engineering and medical entrances. I am
confident this book will help students brighten their chances of improving their ranks.
I will appreciate comments and criticisms from the readers for further improve-
ments of this book. Students can directly contact me at kumar.abhayk@gmail.com.
Abhay Kumar
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Acknowledgements
At the outset, I want to express gratitude to my teachers—Professor

M. M. R. Akhtar, Professor S. K. Sinha, Professor H. C. Verma, Professor S. N. Guha,
Dr Shankar Kumar and Dr Vijay Kumar for their constant encouragement and apprecia-
tion. It is not possible for me to acknowledge everyone individually for their valuable
suggestion. I would also like to thank all other individuals who have given their
valuable suggestions leading to this book.
I am thankful to my parents, Kaushal and Pushpa, and my brother, Ajeet (Tinku)
and Navin (Bittu) for their cooperation.
I am also thankful to my computer operator, Ravindra, for his sincere work and also
to my students Ashutosh and Mohit for going through the manuscript.
I owe a special debt to my wife Awani (Reshma) for being supportive, understand-
ing and a constant source of motivation. I am also grateful to my little daughter Meethee
(Vanshika) whose cheerful face gives me enough patience to work.
Finally, I extend my sincere thanks to the Pearson team (Jitendra Kumar, Bhupesh
Sharma and Satendra Sahay) for their constant support, suggestions and positive
criticism.
Abhay Kumar
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To the Students
A teacher without a student is lame and a student without a teacher is blind. Since it
is not always possible to enjoy the personal presence of a teacher therefore an exhaustive
and lucid textbook is needed. However, in a book you have to go through all definitions,
equations, formulae of vast theories and concepts of physics before the examinations
which becomes confusing. To guide you better, this book will help you to revise all topics
in a short duration of time and it is loaded with concise text in the form of points.
I hope you will enjoy reading the book. Readers can directly reach me at kumar.
abhayk@gmail.com
Abhay Kumar
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Mathematical Tools
1
1.1 TRIGONOMETRY
The branch of mathematics which deals with measurement of sides and angle of triangle is called
trigonometry. There are two methods for measuring angles of triangle.
1. Degree method:
1(rt. ∠) = 90°, 1° = 60′ (min), 1′ = 60″ (sec)
2. Radian method:
(a) p radians = 180°
(b) An arc of length l makes angle q o at the centre of circle whose radius is r, then
l Arc length
θ= =
r Radius
180
3. Degree measure = × Radian measure
π
π
4. Radian measure = × Degree measure
180
Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π π π π 3π
Radian p 2p
6 4 3 2 2
5. sin2q + cos2q = 1, sin2q = 1 − cos2q, cos2q = 1 − sin2q

6. sec2q − tan2q = 1, sec2q = 1 + tan2q, tan2q = sec2q − 1
7. cosec2q − cot2q = 1, cosec2q = 1 + cot2q, cot2q = cosec2q − 1
sinθ cos θ
8. tan q = , cot q =
cos θ sinθ
9. sin q ⋅ cosec q = 1, tan q ⋅ cot q = 1, cos q ⋅ sec q = 1
M01_Rapid Revision Physics_C01.indd 1 2/28/2014 11:12:09 AM

2 Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Sign of T-function
Quadrant 1st 2nd 3rd 4th (II) (I)

sin (+ve) all (+ve)
sin, cosec + + − −
cos, sec + − − + (III) (IV)
tan, cot + − + − tan (+ve) cos (+ve)
1.1.1 Formulae for Compound Angle

cot A ⋅ cot B − 1
1. sin (A + B) = sin A ⋅ cos B + cos A ⋅ sin B 7. cot (A + B) =
cot A + cot B
2. sin (A − B) = sin A ⋅ cos B − cos A ⋅ sin B
cot A ⋅ cot B + 1
3. cos (A + B) = cos A ⋅ cos B − sin A ⋅ sin B 8. cot (A − B) =
cot B − cot A
4. cos (A − B) = cos A ⋅ cos B + sin A ⋅ sin B
9. sin (A + B) ⋅ sin (A − B) = sin2A − sin2 B
tan A + tan B
5. tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A ⋅ tan B 10. cos (A + B) ⋅ cos (A − B) = cos2A − sin2B
tan A − tan B
6. tan (A − B) =
1 + tan A ⋅ tan B
1.1.2 Transformational Formula

C+D C−D
1. 2 sin A ⋅ cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B) 6. sin C − sin D = 2 cos ⋅sin
2 2
2. 2 cos A ⋅ sin B = sin (A + B) − sin (A − B)
C+D C−D
3. 2 cos A ⋅ cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A − B) 7. cos C + cos D = 2 cos ⋅ cos
2 2
4. 2 sin A ⋅ sin B = cos (A − B) − cos (A + B)
C+D C−D C+D D −C
5. sin C + sin D = 2 sin ⋅ cos 8. cos C − cos D = 2 sin ⋅sin
2 2 2 2
1.1.3 Formulae for Multiple and Sub-multiple Angles

A
A A 2 tan
2tan A 2
1. sin 2A = 2 sin A ⋅ cos A = 7. sin A = 2 sin cos =
1 + tan2A 2 2
1 + tan 2 A
2
1 − tan2A A
2. cos 2A = cos2A − sin2A = 1 − tan2
1 + tan2 A A A 2
8. cos A = cos2 − sin2 =
2tan A 2 2 2 A
3. tan 2A = 1 + tan
1 − tan A
2
A 2
2tan
4. sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3A 9. tan A = 2
A
5. cos 3A = 4 cos3A − 3 cos A 1 − tan2
2
3 tan A − tan3 A 1 − cos A
6. tan3 A = 2 A
10. = tan
1 − 3 tan A
2
1 + cos A 2

Mathematical Tools 3
Notes
5 −1 10 + 2 5
sin 18° = cos 18° =
4 4
10 − 2 6 5 +1
sin 36° = cos 36° =
4 4
1.1.4 Trigonometric Equations

The equation which contain trigonometric function is called T-Equation, e.g., cos x = 2 sin x
1. If sin x = 0 ⇒ x = np 7. If sin x = sin y ⇒ x = np + (−1)ny
π
2. If cos x = 0 ⇒ x = (2n + 1) 8. If cos x = cos y ⇒ x = 2np ± y
2
3. If tan x = 0 ⇒ x = np 9. If tan x = tan y ⇒ x = np + y
π
4. If sin x = ± 1 ⇒ x = (4n ± 1) 10. If sin2 x = sin2y ⇒ x = np ± y
2
5. If cos x = 1 ⇒ x = 2np 11. If cos2 x = cos2 y ⇒ x = np ± y
6. If cos x = −1 ⇒ x = (2n + 1)p 12. If tan2 x = tan2y ⇒ x = np ± y
where n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, .....
Table 1.2 Some Trigonometrical Values
(−q ) (90° − q ) (90° + q ) (180° − q ) (180° + q )

sin − sinq cosq cosq sinq − sinq
cos cosq sinq − sinq − cosq − cosq
tan − tanq cotq − cotq − tanq tanq
cot − cotq tanq − tanq − cotq cotq
sec secq cosecq − cosecq − secq − secq
cosec − cosecq secq secq cosecq − cosecq
1.1.5 Value of (2p ± q)

1. sin (2p + q) = sin q sin (2p − q) = − sin q
2. cos (2p + q) = cos q cos (2p − q) = cos q
3. tan (2p + q) = tan q tan(2p − q) = − tan q
4. cot (2p + q) = cot q cot (2p − q) = − cot q
5. sec (2p + q) = sec q sec (2p − q) = sec q
6. cosec (2p + q) = cosec q cosec (2p − q) = − cosec q

4 Chapter 1
⎛ 3π ⎞
1.1.6 Value of ⎜ ± θ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞
1. sin ⎜ + θ ⎟ = − cos θ , cos ⎜ + θ ⎟ = sinθ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞
2. sin ⎜ − θ ⎟ = − cos θ , cos ⎜ − θ ⎟ = − sin q
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Table 1.3 Value of Some Standard Angles
T-ratio 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

1 1 1 3 1 1
sin q 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 −1 − 3
cos q 1 0 − −1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 −1
tan q 0 1 3 ∞ − 3 −1 0
3 3
1 −1
cot q ∞ 3 1 0 −1 − 3 ∞
3 3
2 2
sec q 1 2 2 ∞ −2 − 2 − −1
3 3
2 2
cosec q ∞ 2 2 1 2 2 ∞
3 3
Note: ∞ means undefined.
1.1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The value of inverse T-functions lies between the given range.
π π
sin−1x, x ∈ ⎡ − , ⎤ cot−1x, x ∈ (0, p)
⎢ 2 2⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛π⎞
cos x, x ∈ [0, p]
−1
sec−1x, x ∈ [0, p] − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
π π
tan−1x, x ∈ ⎛⎜ − , ⎞⎟
π π
cosec−1x, x ∈ ⎡ − , ⎤
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎢ 2 2⎥
⎣ ⎦
π (−1 ≤ x ≤ 1) π
1. sin−1x + cos−1x = 3. sec−1x + cosec−1x = x≥1
2 2
π 1
2. tan−1x + cot−1x = ,x∈R 4. sin x = cosec−1 , x ≤1
2 x

9. tan−1 (−x) = tan−1x

5. cos−1x = sec−1 1 , x ≤ 1
x 10. cot−1 (−x) = p − cot−1x
6. tan x = cot
−1 −1 1
,−∞<x<∞ 11. sec−1 (−x) = p − sec−1x
x 12. cosec−1 (−x) = − cosec−1x
7. sin−1 (−x) = − sin−1x 13. y = sin−1x ⇒ x = sin y
8. cos−1 (−x) = p − cos−1x 14. x = sin y ⇒ y = sin−1x
(
15. sin−1x ± sin−1y = sin−1 x 1 − y ± y 1 − x
2 2
)
(
16. cos−1x ± cos−1y = cos−1 xy ∓ 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 )
⎛ x±y⎞
17. tan−1x ± tan−1y = tan−1 ⎜ 20. 3 sin−1x = sin−1(3x − 4x3)
⎝ 1 ∓ xy ⎟⎠
2 x 21. 3 cos−1x = cos−1(4x3 − 3x)
18. 2 tan−1x = tan−1
1 − x2 ⎛ 3x − x 3 ⎞
22. 3 tan−1x = tan−1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
19. 2 cos−1x = cos−1(2x2 − 1) ⎝ 1 − 3x ⎠
1.2 ALGEBRA
1.2.1 Quadratic Equation

An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are certain numbers and a ≠ 0, is called a
quadratic equation.
1. Discriminant of a quadratic equation: The numbers (b2 − 4ac) is called discriminant of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 and is denoted by D. i.e., D = b2 − 4ac.
2. Nature of roots of the quadratic equation: The value of x which satisfy the equation ax2 +
bx + c = 0 are called roots of the equation. The roots a and b of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
are given by,
−b − b2 − 4ac −b − D −b + b2 − 4ac −b + D
= ,β = =
2a 2a 2a 2a
Now there are three possibilities :

Case I: When D < 0, i.e., b2 − 4ac < 0. In this case D will be imaginary, hence a and b
will be both imaginary.
Case II: When D = 0, i.e., b2 − 4ac = 0. In this case D = 0, from the above equation,
−b −b
a= ,b= . Hence both roots a and b will be real and equal.
2a 2a
Case III: When D > 0, i.e., b2 − 4ac > 0. Then the roots a and b will be real and different
(distinct).

6 Chapter 1
1.2.2 Determinants
a b
Let a, b, c, d be any four numbers, the symbol denotes ad − bc and is called a determinant
c d
of second order. The elements of a determinant are multiplied diagonally, like,
a b
= ad − bc
c d
2 4
For example, = 4 − 12 = − 8
3 2
The elements which lie in the same horizontal line constitute one row and the elements
which lie in the same vertical line constitute one column.
a b → Row − 1
c d → Row − 2
↓ ↓
Column 1 Column 2
1.2.3 Determinant of Third Order

The determinant of 3rd order has three rows and three columns.
a1 a2 a3
Δ = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
the expansion of the determinant along its first row will be

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 − a2 + a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
= a1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − a2 (b1c3 − b3c1 ) + a3 (b1c2 − b2 c1 )
1.2.4 Progression
If the terms of a sequence are written under specific conditions, then the sequence is called pro-
gression. Here we shall study only two types of progressions.
Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between any two
successive terms is a constant called common difference.

Examples
1. 1, 4, 7, 10, 13 … are in A.P., whose first term is 1 and common difference (c.d.) is 3.
2. The sequence of numbers 10, 8, 6, 2, 0, −2, −4, … are in A.P., whose first term is 10 and
c.d. = −2.
In general, an A.P. is expressed as, a1, a2, a3 … an, and the common difference is defined as
d = a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = … = an − an − 1
Properties
1. The nth term of an A.P. is given by, an = a1 + (n − 1)d.
2. The sum of the first n terms of an A.P. is given by
n
Sn =
2
[2a1 + (n − 1)d ]
n n
or Sn = (a1 + an ) = (First term + Last term)
2 2
1.2.5 Geometric Progression

A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers such that the ratio of each terms to the imme-
diately preceeding one is a constant called the common ratio.
Examples
1. The numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 … form a G.P. with common ratio = 2.
2. The numbers 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, … constitute a G.P. with ratio 0.1. In general, a G.P. is
expressed as, a1, a2, a3, … an; and the common ratio is defined as
a2 a3 a
= =…= n
a1 a2 an −1
Properties
1. The nth term of G.P. is given by an = a1rr−1; where a1 is the first term and r is the common ratio.
2. The sum of first n terms of G.P. is given by
⎡ n ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Sn = a1 ⎢ r − 1 ⎥ when (r > 1) and Sn = a1 ⎢1 − r ⎥
n
⎣ r −1 ⎦ ⎣ r −1 ⎦
when (r < 1)
The sum of infinite terms of G.P. for r < 1 is given by
a
S∞ = where − 1 < r < 1
1− r

8 Chapter 1
1.2.6 Some Important Summation of Series

1. The sum of the first n natural number
n(n + 1)
Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + ……… + n =
2
2. The sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers i.e.,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Sn2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ……… + n2 =
6
3. The sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers
2
n(n + 1) ⎤
Sn3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ……… + n3 = ⎡⎢
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
1.2.7 Binomial Theorem for Any Index

(1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x2
(1 + x)3 = 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3
-------------------
-------------------
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
1. (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + … + x n , where n is a +ve integer.
2! 3!
Number of terms in (1 + x)n is n + 1.
Meaning of factorial
2! = 2 × 1 = 2 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 2
2. But if n is a −ve integer or positive or negative fraction; then
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + …∞
2! 3!
Provided x < i.e., −1 < x < 1
Number of terms in this case will be infinite.
1.2.8 Exponential and Logarithmic Series

1 1 1
1. e = 1 + + + + ……… to ∞, which is 2.71828 …… is read as exponential number.
1! 2! 3!
x x2 x3
2. e x = 1 + + + + …… to ∞, where x is any number.
1! 2! 3!
x x2 x3
3. e − x = 1 − + − + ……… to ∞, where x is any number.
1! 2! 3!
2 3 4
x x x
4. loge (1 + x) = x − + − + …… to ∞ ( − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
2 3 4
2 3 4
x x x
5. loge (1 − x) = − x − − − − to ∞ (−1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
2 3 4

1.3 CALCULUS
1.3.1 Limits
x2 − 4 9−4 5
Let us consider the function y = f (x) = . If we put x = 3, we have y = = = ∞, which
x −3 3−3 0
is meaningless. It means that the function is not defined at x = 3. But still, we want to know the
value of the function at a value slightly smaller or greater than 3. If we could define the func-
tion at a value slightly smaller or greater than 3, then we say that the limit of function exists as x
approaches 3. In mathematics it is represented by the symbol lim .
x→ 3
The expected value of the function f (x) to the left of a point x = a is called left hand limit. It
is denoted by lim− f ( x ).
x →a
The expected value of function f (x) to the right of a point x = a is called right hand limit is
denoted by lim+ f (x ).
x →a
The limit of a function f (x) at point x = a is the common value of left and right hand limit. It
is denoted by lim f (x ).
x →a
A variable whose limit is zero is termed as infinitely small quantity (infinitesimal).
Mathematically, it may be written as x → 0. A variable that constantly increases in absolute mag-
nitude is termed as infinitely large quantity. Although infinitely large quantities do not have any
limits but it is conventional to say that an infinitely large quantity ‘tends to an infinite limit’. The
symbol → reads as ‘tends to’.
1.3.2 Basic Formulae of Limit

If f(x) and g(x) are two function then,
1. lim { f (x ) + g (x )} = lim f (x ) + lim g ( x )
x →a x →a x →a
2. lim { f (x ) − g (x )} = lim f (x ) − lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x →a
3. lim{kf (x )} = k {lim f ( x )} where k = constant

x →a x →a
4. lim{ f (x ) ⋅ g (x )} = lim f ( x ) ⋅ lim g ( x ) 10. lim(1 + x ) = e

1/ x
x →a x →a
x →a x →0
⎧ f (x ) ⎫ x →a lim f (x ) 11. lim sin x = 0

5. lim ⎨
x →a g (x )
⎬= x →0
⎩ ⎭ lim
x →a
g (x )
12. lim cos 1
→
⎧⎪ x n − an ⎫⎪ n −1
6. lim ⎨ ⎬ = na sin x
x →a
⎪⎩ x − a ⎪⎭ 13. lim
x →0
=1
x
ex − 1 tan x
7. lim =1 14. lim =1
x →0 x x →0 x
ax − 1 1
8. lim = log e a 15. lim =0
x →0 x x →0 x
log(1 + x )
9. lim =1
x →0 x

10 Chapter 1
1.3.3 Continuity
Function f (x) at point x = a is said to be continuous if, L.H. lim = R.H lim = value of function at
a. i.e., lim+ f (x ) = lim− f (x ) = f (a)
x →a x →a
Notes
1. Function is discontinuous if f (a) is not defined.
2. lim f (x ) ≠ f (a)
x →a
3. Constant polynomial identity and modulus function are continuous function.
1.3.4 Differentiability and Differentiate

If y = f (x) then differential coefficient of y with respect to (w.r.t) x is given by
dy f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x ) = = lim
dx h →0 h
Note
Every differentiable function is continuous but every continuous function is not differentiable.
1.3.5 For Two Functions: u and v

d(u + v ) du dv 5. d(constant) = 0
1. = +
dx dx dx dx
d(u − v ) du dv d{k f (x )} d{ f (x )}
2. = − 6. =k where k = constant
dx dx dx dx dx
d(u ⋅ v ) dv du dy 1
3. =u +v 7. =
dx dx dx dx dx /dy
du dv
v −u
4. d (u / v ) dx dx
=
dx v2
1.3.6 Chain Rule

dy dx dy dy dt
× = 1 and = ×
dx dy dx dt dx
1.3.7 D.C. of Some Important Functions

d n d x
1. (x ) = nxn−1 3. (e ) = ex
dx dx
d x d 1
2. (a ) = ax logea 4. (logex) =
dx dx x

d d 1
5. (sin x) = cos x 11. (sin−1x) =
dx dx 1− x
2
d d −1
6. (cos x) = − sin x 12. (cos−1x) =
1− x
2
dx dx
d d 1
7. (tan x) = sec2 x 13. (tan−1x) =
dx dx 1 + x2
d d −1
8. (cot x) = − cosec2 x 14. (cot−1x) =
dx dx 1 + x2
d d 1
9. (sec x) = sec x ⋅ tan x 15. (sec−1x) =
dx dx x x −1
2
d
(cosec x) = − cosec x ⋅ cot x d −1
10. 17. (cosec−1x) =
dx dx x x −1
2
1.3.8 Maxima and Minima

If, y = f(x) is a function and f ′(x) = 0 then at point x = a
d2 y d2 y
1. Maximum if 2
= −ve 2. Minimum if 2
= +ve
dx dx
1.3.9 Integration
Integration is inverse process of differentiation. It is denoted by ∫
d
∴ f (x ) = g(x) then ∫g(x) dx = f (x) + c
dx
where c = Integration constant.
There are two type of integration:
1. Definite integration
2. Indefinite integration
1.3.10 Indefinite Integration

1. ∫ [ f(x) + g(x)]dx = ∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx 8. ∫ cos x dx = sin x
2. ∫ kf(x) = k∫ f(x)dx, where k = constant 9. ∫ sec2x dx = tan x
3. ∫ 1dx = x 10. ∫ cosec2x dx = − cot x
n +1
x
4. ∫ xn dx = 11. ∫ sec x ⋅ tan x dx = sec x
n +1
1 12. ∫ tan x dx = log sec x
5. ∫ dx = loge x
x 13. ∫ cot x dx = log sin x
ax
6. ∫ axdx = 14. ∫ cosec dx = log (cosec x − cot x)
log ae
7. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x 15. ∫ sec x dx = log (sec x + tan x)

12 Chapter 1
dx f ′( x )
16. ∫1− x 2
= sin−1x 20. ∫ f (x )
= log [f(x)]
dx 21. ∫ ex dx = ex
17. ∫ = tan−1x
1 − x2 22. ∫ ex{f(x) + f(x)}dx = ex f(x)
dx
18. ∫ = sec−1x
x x2 − 1
dx 1 ⎛ x⎞
19. ∫a 2
+x 2
= tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
a ⎝ a⎠
1.3.11 Integration by Parts

For two function f(x) and g(x),
⎧ df (x ) ⎫
∫[ f (x) ⋅ g (x)]dx = f (x)∫ g (x)dx − ∫ ⎨⎩
dx ∫
g (x )dx ⎬ dx
⎭
i.e., integration (1st × 2nd) = 1st (integration 2nd) − Integration {differentiate 1st (integration
2nd)}dx
Note
We choose the first function as the function which comes first in the word.
‘ILATE’ where
I = Inverse trigonometric function (sin−1x, cos−1x) etc.
L = Logarithmic function
A = Algebraic function
T = Trigonometric function
E = Exponential function (ex, e1x etc.)
1.3.12 Integration of Some Standard Functions

dx 1 −1 ⎛ x ⎞ dx
1. ∫a 2
+x 2
= tan ⎜ ⎟
a ⎝ a⎠
4. ∫ x − a2
2
= log x + x 2 − a 2
dx 1 a+x dx −1 ⎛ x ⎞
2. ∫a 2
−x 2
= log
2a a−x
5. ∫ a −x
2
= sin ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ a⎠
dx 1 x −a dx
3. ∫x 2
= log
− a 2 2a x+a
6. ∫ = log x + x + a
2 2
x +a
2 2
2
x 2 a
7. ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x − a 2 − log x + x 2 − a 2
2
2
x 2 a ⎛ x⎞
8. ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
a − x 2 + sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ a⎠
( )
2
x 2 a
9. ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx =
2
a + x 2 + log x + a 2 + x 2
2

Note
px + q px + q
Integration of the type ∫ dx and ∫ dx can be find by putting
ax + bx + c
2
ax + bx + c
2
px + q = A ⋅
d
(ax 2 + bx + c ) + B
dx
By equating both sides find A and B and then put in place of px + q and integrate.
1.3.13 Definite Integration

b
If ∫ f (x) dx = F(x) defined in interval [a, b] then, ∫ f (x)dx
a
is called definite integral, b is called
upper limit and a is called lower limit and we have
b
∫ f (x)dx = [F (x)]
b
a = F (b) − F (a)
a
1.3.14 Property of Definite Integration

b b
1. ∫ kf (x)dx = k ∫ (x)dx
a a
b b
2. ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t )dt
a a
b c b
3. ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx
a a c
b a
4. ∫ f (x)dx = −∫ f (x)dx
a b
5. ∫ f (x)dx 0, if f (x) is odd function
a a
6. ∫ f (x )dx 2∫ f (x )dx , if ∫ f (x)dx is even function
Note
If f (−x) = f (x) then f (x) is even function but when f (−x) = −f (x) then f (x) is odd function.
1.3.15 Trigonometric Series

3 5 2 4
x x x x
sin x = x − + −… cos x = 1 − + −…
3! 5! 2! 4!

Units, Dimensions and
Experimental Skills 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement means comparing a thing with a standard to find out how many times as big it is.
But there are other cases where counting and statistical analysis are necessary.
There are two types of quantity: (a) Microscopic and (b) Macroscopic
Anything that can be measured is called a quantity. If we can measure a quantity with certain
instruments then that quantity is called a physical quantity.
Physical quantity → Numerical Part and Suitable Units
The magnitude of a physical quantity is expressed by giving its numerical value and a
unit. The numerical value tells us how many times the basic unit is contained in the measured
value.
Units
Fundamental units Derived units Supplementary

units
Independent of each Derived from
other and not fundamental units
interconvertible
Unit of mass, length, time, Units of velocity, Unit of

temperature, electric current, acceleration, plane angle and
amount of substance and force and work done solid angle
luminous intensity
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental unit of
length, mass and time are to be raised so that the derived quantity can be completely represented.
Dimensions tell us about the nature of the physical quantity and do not give any idea about the
magnitude. The concept of dimension is more generalized compared to the idea of unit.

Units, Dimensions and Experimental Skills 15
Table 2.1
Sr. Basic Physical
No. Quantities Name Symbol Definition
1. Length Metre m One metre is the length of the path travelled by
light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,
729, 458 of a second.
2. Mass Kilogram kg One kilogram is equal to the mass (a platinum-
iridium alloy cylinder) kept at International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres,
near Pairs, France.
3. Time Second s One second is the duration of 9,192, 631, 770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
4. Electric current Ampere A One ampre is that constant current, if maintained
in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross-section, and
placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to
2 × 10–7 newton per metre of length.
5. Thermodynamic Kelvin K One degree kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
temperature thermodynamic temperature of the triple point
of water.
6. Amount of Mole mol One mole is the amount of substance of a
substance system, which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon-12.
7. Luminous Candela cd One candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
intensity direction of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that
has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683
watt per steradian.
Supplementary Quantity
8. Plane angle Radian rad Plane angle dq is defined as the ratio of length of
dq = ds/r arc ds to the radius r.
9. Solid angle Steradian sr Solid angle dW is defined as the ratio of the
dW = dA/r2 intercepted area dA of the spherical surface,
described about the apex O as the centre, to the
square of its radius r.

16 Chapter 2
Table 2.2
Sr. Physical Dimensional
No. Quantities Formula Dimensions Formula
1. Area Length × Breadth [L2] [M0L2T0]
2. Volume Length × Breath × Height [L3] [M0L3T0]
3. Density Mass/Volume [M]/[L3] or [ML–3] [M0L–3T0]
4. Frequency 1/Time period 1/[T] [M0L0T–1]
5. Velocity Displacement/Time [L]/[T] [M0L0T–1]
–1
6. Acceleration Velocity/Time [LT ]/[T] [M0LT–2]
7. Force Mass × Acceleration [M] [LT–2] [MTL–2]
8. Impulse Force × Time [MLT–2][T] [MLT–1]
9. Work Force × Distance [MLT–2][L] [ML2T–2]
10. Power Work/Time [ML2T–2][L] [ML2T–3]
11. Momentum Mass × Velocity [M] [LT–1] [MLT–1]
12. Pressure stress Force/Area [MLT–2]/[L2] [ML–1T–2]
13. Strain Change in dimension [L]/[L] or [L3]/[L3] [M0L0T0]
Original dimension
14. Modulus of Stress/Strain [ML−1T −2 ] [ML–1T–2]
elasticity M0 L0 T0
15. Surface tension Force/Length [MLT–2]/[L] [ML0T–2]
2 –2 2
16. Surface energy Energy/Area [ML T ]/[L ] [ML0T2]
17. Velocity Velocity/Distance [LT–1]/[L] [M0L0T–1]
gradient
18. Pressure Pressure/Distance [ML–1T–2]/[L] [ML–2T–2]
gradient
19. Pressure Pressure × Volume [ML–1T–2][L3] [ML2T–2]
energy
20. Coefficient of Force MLT −2 [ML–1T–1]
viscosity [L ][LT −1 /L]
2
Area × Velocity gradient
21. Angle Arc/Radius [L]/[L] [M0L0T0]
22. Trigonometric Length/Length [L]/[L] [M0L0T0]
ratio (sinq,
cosq, tanq, etc.)
23. Angular Angle/Time [M0L0T0]/[T] [M0L0T–1]
velocity

Table 2.2 (Continued)

24. Angular Angular velocity/Time [T–1]/[T] [M0L0T–2]
acceleration
25. Radius of [L] [ML2T0]
gyration
26. Moment of Mass × (Radius of gyration)2 [M][L2] [ML2T0]
inertia
27. Angular Moment of inertia × Angular [ML2][T–1] [ML2T–1]
momentum velocity
28. Moment of Force × Distance [MLT–2][L] [ML2T–2]
force, moment
of couple
29. Torque Force × Distance [MLT–2][L] [ML2T–2]
30. Angular 2p × Frequency [M0L0T0][T–1] [M0L0T–1]
frequency
31. Wavelength [L] [M0LT0]
–1
32. Hubble Recession speed/Distance [LT ]/[L] [M0L0T–1]
constant
33. Intensity of Energy [ML2 T −2 ] [ML0T–3]
wave Time × Area [T][L2 ]
34. Radiation Intensive of wave [ML–3]/[LT–1] [ML–1T–2]
pressure Speed of light
35. Energy density Energy/Volume [ML2T–2]/[L3] [ML–1T–2]
36. Critical Reynold’s number × 0 0 0
[M L T ][ML T ]
−1 −1
[M0LT–1]
velocity Coeff. of viscosity
[ML−3 ][L]
Density × Radius
37. Escape (2 × Acceleration due to [LT–2]1/2 × [L]1/2 [M0LT–1]
velocity gravity × Earth’s radius)1/2
38. Heat energy, [ML2T–2] [ML2T–2]
internal
energy
39. Kinetic (1/2) Mass × (Velocity)2 [M] [LT–1]2] [ML2T–2]
energy
40. Potential Mass × Acceleration due [M][LT–2][L] [ML2T–2]
energy to gravity × Height
(Continued)

18 Chapter 2

41. Rotational 1/2 × Moment of inertia × [ML2] × [T–1]2 [ML2T–2]
kinetic energy (Angular velocity)2
42. Efficiency Output work of energy [ML2 T −2 ] [M0L0T0]
Input work of energy [ML2 T −2 ]
43. Angular Torque × Time [ML2T–2][T] [ML2T–1]
impulse
44. Gravitational Force × (Distance)2 [MLT −2 ][L2 ] [M–1L3T–2]
constant Mass × Mass [M][M]
45. Planck’s Energy/Frequency [ML2T–2]/[T–1] [ML2T–1]
constant
46. Heat capacity, Heat energy temperature [ML2T–2]/[K] [ML2T–2K–1]
entropy
47. Specific heat Heat energy [ML2 T −2 ] [M0L2T–2K–1]
capacity Mass × Temperature [M][K]
48. Latent heat Heat energy/Mass [ML2T–2]/[M] [M0L2T–2]
49. Thermal Change in dimension [L] [M0L0K–1]
expansion Original dimension × Temperature [L][K]
coefficient
or thermal
expansivity
50. Thermal Heat energy × Thickness [ML2 T −2 ][L] [MLT–3K–1]
conductivity Area × Temperature × Time [L2 ][K][T]
51. Bulk modulus Volume × (Change in pressure) [L3 ][ML−1 T −2 ] [ML–1T–2]
(compress- 3
Change in volume [L ]
ibility)–1
52. Centripetal (Velocity) 2/Radius [LT–1]2/[L] [M0LT–2]
acceleration
53. Stefan Energy [ML2 T −2 ] [ML0T–3K–4]
constant (Area) × (Time) × (Temperature) 4
[L2 ][T][K]4
54. Wien constant Wavelength × Temperature [L][K] [M0LT0K]
55. Universal gas Pressure × Volume [ML−1T −2 ][L3 ] [ML2T–2K–1
constant Mole × Temperature [mol][K] mol–1
56. Boltzmann Universal gas constant [ML2 T −2 K −1mol −1 ] [ML2T–2 K–1]

constant Avagadro number [mol −1 ]


57. Charge Current × Times [A][T] [M0L0TA]
58. Current Current/Area [A]/[L2] [M0L–2T0A]
density
59. Electric Work/Charge [ML2T–2]/[AT] [ML2T–3A–1]
potential,
electromotive
force
60. Resistance Potential difference [ML2 T −3 A −1 ] [ML2T–3A–2]
Current [A]
61. Capacitance Charge/Potential difference [AT] [M–1L–2T4A2]
[ML2 T −3 A −1 ]
62. Electric field Electrical force/Charge [MLT–2]/[AT] [MLT–3A–1]
63. Electric flux Electric field × Area [MLT–3A–1][L2] [ML3T–3A–1]
64. Electric dipole
[ML2 T −2 ]
moment Torque/Electric field [M0LTA]
[MLT −3 A −1 ]
65. Electric field Potential difference [ML2 T −3 A −1 ] [MLT–3A–1]
strength Distance [L]
or electric
intensity
66. Magnetic Force [MLT2 ] [ML0T–2A–1]
field, magnetic
Current × Length [A][L]
flux density,
magnetic
induction
67. Magnetic flux Magnetic field × Area [MT–2A–1][L2] [ML2T–2A–1]
68. Inductance Magnetic flux [ML2 T −2 A −1 ] [ML2T–2A–2]
Current [A]
69. Magnetic Current × Area [A][L2] [M0L2T0A]
dipole moment
70. Magnetization Magnetic moment 2
[L A] [M0L–1T0A]
Volume [L3 ]
71. Permittivity Charge × Charge [AT][AT] [M–1L–3T4A2]
constant (of 4π × Electric force × (Distance)2 [MLT −2 ][L2 ]
free space) εo
(Continued)

20 Chapter 2

[M0 L0 T0 ][MLT −2][L] [MLT A ]
–2 –2
72. Permeability 2π × Force × Distance
constant (of
Current × Current × Length [A][A][L]
free space) mo
73. Refractive Speed of light in vacuum [LT–1/[LT–1] [M0L0T0]
index Speed of light in medium
74. Faraday Avogadro’s constant × Elementary [AT]/[mol] [M0L0TA
constant charge mol–1]
75. Wave number 2p/Wavelength [M0L0T0]/[L] [M0L–1T0]
76. Radiant flux, Energy emitted/Time [ML2T–2]/[T] [ML2T–3]
radiant power
77. Luminosity of Radiant power or radiant [ML2T–3]/[M0L0T0] [ML2T–3]
radiant flux flux of source
or radiant
Solid angle
intensity
78. Luminous Luminous energy emitted [ML2T–2]/[T] [ML2T–3]
power or Time
luminous flux
of source
79. Luminous Luminous flux [ML2 T −3 ] [ML2T–3]
intensity or Solid angle [M0 L0 T0 ]
illuminating
power of
source
80. Intensity of Luminous intensity [ML2 T −3 ] [ML0T–3]
illumination (Distance)2
[L2 ]
of luminance
81. Relative
Luminous flux of a source [ML2 T −3 ] [M0L0T0]
luminosity
of given wavelength [ML2 T −3 ]
Luminous flux of peak sensitivity
wavelength (555nm) source
of same power
−3
82. Luminous Total luminous flux 2
[ML T ] [M0L0T0]
efficiency Total radiant flux [ML2 T −3 ]
83. Illuminance or Luminous flux incident [ML2 T −3 ] [ML0T–3]
illumination Area [L2 ]


84. Mass defect Sum of masses of nucleons − [M] [ML0T0]
Mass of the nucleus
85. Binding Mass defect × (Speed of light in [M][LT–1]2 [ML2T–2]
energy of vacuum)2
nucleus
86. Decay constant 0.693/Half life [T–1] [M0L0T–1]
87. Resonant (Inductance × Capacitance)–1/2 [ML–2T–2A–2]–1/2 × [M0L0A0T–1]
frequency [M–1L–2 T4A2]–1/2
88. Quality factor Resonant frequency × Inductance [T −1 ][ML2 T −2 A −2 ] [M0L0T0]
or Q-factor of Resistance [ML2 T −3 A −2 ]
coil
89. Power of lens (Focal length)–1 [L–1] [M0L–1T0]
90. Magnification Image distance [L] [M0L0T0]
Object distance [L]
91. Fluid flow rate (π /8)(Pressure)(Radius)4 [ML−1T −2 L4 ] [M0L3T–1]
Viscosity coefficient × Length [ML−1T −1 ][L]
92. Capacitive Angular frequency × [T–1]–1[M–1L–2T4A2]–1 [ML2T–3A–2]
reactance (Capacitance)–1
93. Inductive Angular frequency × Inductance [T–1][ML2T–2A–2] [ML2T–3A–2]
reactance
Table 2.3 Physical Quantities Having Same Dimensional Formula

Dimensional
Sr. No. Physical Quantities Formula
1. Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient [M0L0T–1]
2. Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, torque, [ML2T–2]
moment of force
3. Pressure, stress, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity, [ML–1T–2]
energy density
4. Momentum and impulse [MLT–1]
5. Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field intensity [M0LT–2]
6. Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient [MLT–2]
(Continued)

22 Chapter 2

Dimensional
Sr. No. Physical Quantities Formula
7. Angular momentum and Planck’s constant (h) [ML2T–1]
8. Surface tension, surface energy, force gradient, spring constant [ML0T–2]
9. If l is length, g is acc. due to gravity, m is mass, k is force constant, [M0L0T]
1/2 1/2 1/2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
R is radius of earth, then l , ⎛⎜ m ⎞⎟ , R all have the
⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ ⎝ k ⎠ ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠
dimensions of time
10. If L is inductance, R is resistance C is capacitance then L/R, CR and [M0L0T]
LC all have the dimensions of time
11. Thermal capacity entropy, Boltzmann constant [ML2T–2K–1]
12. If p is pressure, V is volume, T is temperature, R is gas constant, [ML2T–2]
m is mass, s is specific heat, L is latent heat, ΔT is rise in temperature
then pV, RT, mL, (msΔT) all have dimensions of energy
13. Work, energy, heat, torque, couple, moment of force have same [ML2T–2]
dimensions
⎛1 1 ⎞ [ML2T–2]
14. Potential energy (mgh), kinetic energy ⎜ mv 2 or Iω 2 ⎟ , energy
⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
contained in an inductance ⎜ LI ⎟ and electrostatic energy of
⎝2 ⎠
⎛1 1 2 Q ⎞
2
condenser QV , CV , .
⎜2 2C ⎟⎠
⎝ 2
2.2 APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

1. To find the unit of a given physical quantity in a given system of units.
2. To convert a physical quantity from one system to the other.
Suppose a physical quantity has the dimensional formula MaLbT c.
Let N1 and N2 be the numerical values of a quantity in the two systems of units, respectively.
In first system, physical quantity, Q = N1 M1a Lb1T1c = N1U1
In second system, same quantity, Q = N 2 M 2a Lb2T2c = N 2U 2

A physical quantity remains the same irrespective of the system of measurement,
i.e., Q = N1U1 = N2U2
a b c
⎡M ⎤ ⎡L ⎤ ⎡ T1 ⎤
⇒ N1 M1a Lb1T1c = N 2 M 2a Lb2T2c ⇒ N 2 = N1 ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢T ⎥
⎣ M 2 ⎦ ⎣ L2 ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
So, knowing the quantities on the right-hand side, the value of N2 can be obtained.

3. To check the dimensional correctness of given physical relation. It is based on the principle of
homogeneity. According to it, the dimensions of each term on both sides of the equation are
the same. It can be also said as the same nature physical quantities can be added or subtracted.
4. To derive the correct relationship between different physical quantities.
2.3 LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

1. This method gives no information about the dimensionless constants.
2. Many physical quantities have same dimensions i.e., it is not unique.
3. We cannot derive the dimensional formula if a physical quantity depends on more than
three unknown variables.
4. We cannot derive the relation if the physical quantity contains more than one term (say sum
or difference of two terms.) e.g., v2 = u2 + 2ax
5. This method cannot be applied if a quantity depends on trigonometric functions or expo-
nential functions.
6. This method cannot be applied to derive equation containing dimensional constants.
mm
i.e., F ∝ 1 2 , but we do not get any idea about the constant G.
r2
7. If an equation contains two or more variables with the same dimension, then this method
cannot be used.
2.4 ERRORS AND ACCURACY

If the measured value is other than the true value then we say there is an error. One basic thing
on which physical science depends is measurement. There are always many factors which influ-
ence the measurement. These factors always introduce error may be small, whatever be the level
of accuracy. So, no measurement is perfect. We can only minimize the errors using best methods
and techniques, but we cannot eliminate them permanently.
Accuracy means the extent to which a measured value agrees with the standard or true value
for the measurement. But precision means the extent to which a given set of measurements of
the same quantity agree with their mean value. This mean value need not be true value. Precise
measurement need not be accurate.
As the precision increases, the no. of significant figures also increases. Accuracy depends on
the systematic errors where as precision depends on random errors. With increase in accuracy the
error decreases.
The accuracy depends on:
1. the range of the instrument used.
2. sensitivity of the instrument.
3. the least count and the zero error of the instrument.
4. effect of environment on the instrument.
5. the size and cost of the instrument.

24 Chapter 2
No measurement of any physical quantity is absolutely correct. The numerical value obtained
after measurement is just an approximation. As such it becomes quite important to indicate the
degree of accuracy (or precision) in the measurement done in the experiment. The concept of
significant figures helps in achieving this objective.
Significant figures of a measured quantity are all those digits about which we are absolutely
sure plus one digit that has a little doubt. Significant figures give the number of meaningful digits
in a number.
2.4.1 Rules to Determine the Significant Figures

1. All the digits which are not zero are significant.
Example: In number 1987, significant figures are 4.
2. If there are zeros between two non-zero digits, then all those zeros are significant.
Example: In 1708.05, significant figures are 6.
3. If the zeros occur to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit, those zero
are not significant.
Example: In 0.0001987, significant digits are 4.
4. All the zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are significant.
Example: The number of significant figures in 1987.00 is 6. In the number 0.0019870,
significant figures are 5.
5. In the number 0.0019870, the zeros between 1 and the decimal is not significant. Also, the
zero on the left of decimal is not significant. But the last zero i.e. to the right of 7 (i.e. a non-
zero digit coming after a decimal) is significant.
6. All the zeros to the right of last non-zero digit are not significant.
Example: The number of significant figures in 198700 is 4. But all the zero to the right of the
last non-zero digit are significant if they are the result of a measurement.
7. All the digits in a measured value of physical quantity are significant.
Example: Let the distance between two places measured to the nearest poles is 1090 m. In
1090 significant digits are 4.
8. Even if we express the measured quantity in different units, then also there will not be any
change in the number of significant figures.
Examples:
(a) Length of an object = 11.2 cm, significant figures are 3 and if it is expressed in metre,
then it is 0.112 m, again significant figures are 3.
(b) If original measured quantity is 1,500 mm;
1500 mm = 1.500 × 103 mm = 1.500 m = 1.500 × 102 cm = 1.500 × 10–3 km.
All of the above contain four significant figures.
(c) If original measured quantity is 1.5 m
1.5 m = 1.5 × 103 mm = 1.5 × 102 cm = 1.5 × 10–3 km
All of the above contain two significant figures.

(d) If original measured quantity is 150 cm

150 cm = 1.50 × 103 mm = 1.50 m = 1.50 × 102 cm = 1.50 × 10–3 km
All of the above contain three significant figures.
9. If the decimal point in a particular measurement in not shown, the zeros at the right of the
number may or may not be significant.
Example: 5000 m can be written as 5 × 103. In this, there is only one significant figure. If
we write the length as 5.0 × 103 there are 2 significant figures and in 5.00 × 103 there are 3
significant figures and so on.
10. When we add, subtract, multiply or divide two or more numbers, the accuracy of the result is
taken to be equal to the least accurate among them. The number of significant figures in the
result will be equal to the number of significant digits in the least accurate number among them.
Examples:
(a) 2.29 + 62.7 = 64.99, after rounding off to one place of decimal it will become 65.0.
(b) 82.29 − 62.7 = 19.59, after rounding off to one place of decimal it will become 19.6.
(c) 1.3 × 1.2 = 1.56, after rounding off to two significant figures it becomes 1.6.
(d) 3500 = 465.42. As 3500 has minimum number of significant figure, i.e., two, so the
7.52
quotient must have two significant figure.
So, 465.42 = 470 (after rounding off ).
(e) If we divide 3500 m by 7.52, 3500 m has four significant figure, then final result should
be 465 (after rounding off to three significant figures).
2.4.2 Rounding Off

Correcting or reshaping a physical quantity with least deviation from its original value after drop-
ping the last digits which are not required is called rounding off.
Rules Regarding Rounding Off

1. If digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit remains unchanged.
Examples: (a) 7.32 after rounding off becomes 7.3
(b) 4.934 after rounding off becomes 4.93
2. If digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one.
3. If digit to be dropped is 5:
(i) If it is only 5 or 5 followed by zero, then the preceding digit is raised by one if it is odd
and left unchanged if it is even.

26 Chapter 2
(c) 5.650 after rounding off becomes 5.6

(d) 5.65 after rounding off becomes 5.6
(ii) If 5 is further followed by a non-zero digit, the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example: (a) 15.352 after rounding off becomes 15.4
4. During multistep calculations one digit more than the significant figures should be retained
and at the end of the calculation, final result should be round off to proper significant
figures.
Number Significant Figures Number Significant Figures

2846 4 0.049960 5
7.080 × 10 5 4 0.001996 4
109 3 3996.00 6
2.09 × 10 5 3 123 3
67.8 ± 0.3 3 420.0 m 4
0.123 3 6.0023 5
91.000 m 5 0.0456 3
2.520 × 10 7 4 0.007 m 2
1
1.20 × 10 3 3 4200 2
4200 m 4 2400 kg 4
2.5 TYPES OF ERRORS
2.5.1 Constant Errors

An error which is continuously and constantly repeated during all the observations made, is
called constant error. This arises due to the faulty calibrations of the measuring instruments. e.g.
let a scale reads 1.1 cm for every 1 cm, due to wrong calibration, then the scale will show this error
of 0.1 cm for all the measurements made using this scale.
2.5.2 Systematic Errors

Errors which are due to known causes acting according to a definite law are called systematic
errors. The measurement is made under constant condition and hence the errors repeat con-
stantly or systematically. These are of various types:
1. Instrumental Errors: Examples are zero error of screw gauge, vernier calipers etc., faulty
calibration on thermometer, ammeter, voltmeter etc., in equality of balance arms in a physi-
cal balance, back lash error in instruments with nut and screw, like microscope etc.

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1. Large grained granite; the deep-flesh-coloured feldspar in
greater proportion than the greyish quartz, and the black, small-scaly
mica. “From the Mandara mountains.”
2. The same; with feldspar of dirty-yellowish colour. From the
Mandara range, and two similar varieties from the “hills of Dutchie
Zangia, Soudan.”
3. Similarly coloured variety, but of smaller grain. From the same
places.
4. Large grained variety of the same; the feldspar of a yellowish
colour, and in a state of incipient decomposition, with little black
mica. Mandara.
5. Variety similar to the preceding; in a state of disintegration: the
feldspar decomposing into a reddish earth. From Quarra and
Zurmee, Soudan.
6. Granite, both fine and coarse-grained, almost entirely
composed of flesh-red feldspar, with indeterminable particles of a
black substance, apparently mica. “From the high ridges of Zurma.”
7. The same, small-grained, rather slaty, approaching to gneiss,
composed of greyish-white feldspar and quartz, with predominant
black small-scaly mica. From Nansarena, Soudan.
8. Portion of a boulder, chiefly composed of fine-grained dirty-grey
semicompact feldspar and some quartz; with disseminated particles
of magnetic iron ore (a syenitic rock). “Found near Agutefa.”
9. Greenish-grey mica slate, with little admixed quartz and
feldspar. “It forms the upper part of the ridges between Quarra and
Zurma, Soudan.”
10. Yellowish-grey, soft, and friable mica slate. “From between
Duakee and Sackwa, Soudan.”
11. A hard slaty mass, composed of brilliant silvery small scales of
mica, penetrated by, or mixed with, brown and yellow hydrous oxide
of iron. From the same.
12. White, massive, and irregularly crystallized fat quartz, stained
by oxide of iron. “From a vein in the rocks of Quarra and Zurmee.”
13. The same, out of the granite of the Mandara mountains.
13. a. Yellowish and bluish-white quartz in large grains, as gravel.
“From the bed of the river Yaou, seven days on the road to
Soudan[126].”
14. Greyish-black close-grained basalt. “From the hills in the
Sebha district.”
15. The same; with rarely disseminated grains of decomposing
olivine. From the same.
16. The same; vesicular (basaltic amygdaloid), cells empty.
Benioleed.
17. The same as the preceding, with disseminated granular
particles, and minute acicular crystals of specular iron, which also
mostly invest the irregularly shaped cells. “Benioleed; used for
grindstones.”
18. The same, of a greyish-brown colour; cells elliptic, and partly
filled with carbonate of lime. “Black mountains near Sockna.”
19. Greenish and yellowish grey, fine-grained crumbling
sandstone. “Found with the gypsum of the hills to the northward of
Om-el-Abeed.”
20. The same, brownish-yellow; “occurring in beds near Om-el-
Abeed.”
21. The same, reddish and yellowish, fine-grained, rather friable.
Wady Kawan.
22. Similar, reddish-brown variety of sandstone, but more friable
than the preceding. Tadrart ridge.
23. The same, of a colour between grass and leek-green, fine-
grained, very crumbling. “Traghen, under a gypsum crust; often in
beds of from ten to twelve feet. It has the appearance of some of the
soft sandstone in the mountain range near Tripoli.”
24. Yellowish-white friable sandstone, and fine sand, strongly
impregnated with salt. “Under a calcareous crust, Fezzan.”
25. Similar sand of a very fine rounded grain. “From the Wady, in
which is the Trona lake.”
26. Yellowish clayey sandstone, filled with small rounded quartz
grains and minute white particles of small univalve shells,
(Paludina?) “Gaaf.”
27. Fine and close-grained yellowish-white sandstone, of a thin
stratified structure, which is distinctly seen at the disintegrated parts
of the fragment. “Wady Katefa, under the basalt; forming fine
precipitous walls in the middle of the range.”
28. Brownish-red friable sandstone; the rounded grains of various
sizes, loosely united by clay. “Sandstone of the hills of Wady Ghrarbi.
There is a finer and tender species, and also a stratiform one; but my
specimens are lost.”
29. The same, of a similar colour, intermixed with yellowish, less
crumbling, and containing pebbles. “From the hills to the westward of
Hamera, on which the town is built.”
30. Sandstone of yellowish colour and fine-grained, faintly
variegated with purple. Aghadem.
31. The same, fine-grained, white, with linear purplish streaks,
being the edges of horizontal filmy depositions of iron ochre of that
colour. Wady Kawan.
32. A similar variety, exhibiting purplish-yellow and red
variegations, thoroughly impregnated with salt, which is also seen
efflorescent on the surface. “Hills of Wady Ghrarbi.”
33. Similarly coloured sandstone, in laminar fragments, passing,
by decomposition, into soft clay variegated with the same colours.
Wady Kawar.
34. Tabular fragment of very close-grained nearly compact
variegated sandstone; colours, purplish and two shades of yellow, in
irregular stripes. “Sebha district.”
35. Purplish-brown slaty sandstone, micaceous on the planes of
separation, passing into cream yellow and white clay-stone of the
same structure. “Aluminous slate (sic) in different states, forming a
considerable part of the mountain range, Tadrart, Tuarick country.”
36. A tabular fragment, like the preceding; micaceous on the rifts,
of reddish-brown colour, being thoroughly penetrated by oxide of
iron. Aghadem.
37. Yellowish sandstone, composed of round grains of quartz, with
white clayey cement, which, towards the surface of the rolled piece,
becomes quartzy. From ditto.
38. A similar large-grained variety, of reddish-yellow colour with
brown streaks, in which the cementing clay, become quartzy, is
scarcely distinguishable from the grains. “Forming the eastern
boundary of the hills near Traghen.”
39. A large fragment of the same quartzy sandstone, of yellow
colour, with red streaks and brown nucleus, nearly compact, so as to
exhibit on its conchoidal fractural surfaces the traces only of a
granular structure. “Strewed over the plain between Ghudwa and
Mourzuk.”
40. The same, brownish-red, in the shape of a rolled amorphous
fragment, having acquired a uniform glossy surface like red jasper.
From ditto.
41. Yellowish variety of the same, the granular passing into
compact structure. “Thick exposed beds from Om el Abeed to
Sebha.”
42. Yellowish-grey variety of the same, as perfectly compact
tabular fragments, having their surfaces studded with small
polymorphous bodies imitating the appearance of parts of secondary
fossils. From ditto.
43. The same as the preceding, having its surface marked by
small bivalve shells, converted into the mass of the sandstone. From
ditto.
44. Sharp-edged fragments, of a variety like No. 39., of a deep
chocolate-brown colour and flat conchoidal fracture. “Between
Sebha and Timinhint; rocks about 250 feet high.”
45. The same, in which the quartz grains are very firmly cemented
by dark-red or brown siliceous iron-stone, sometimes enclosing
larger rounded grains and small pebbles; the whole forming a very
hard compact conglomerate with conchoidal shining fractural
surface. “From between Om el Abeed to Sebha, and near Zuela.”
46. Fragment of a mass of quartzy sandstone and compact brown
ironstone, externally stalactic reed-like, with black glossy surface.
“From the hills of Wady Ghrarby.”
47. Brown ferruginous sandstone, nearly compact, and with
drused cavities, enclosing yellowish nodules of magnesian
limestone. “Forms the upper part of numerous low hills, and the
surface of exposed parts on the road from Hamera to Zuela.”
48. A mass of yellow and brown ferruginous sandstone with
amorphous botryoidal surface, unequally penetrated by siliceous
brown oxide of iron, which produces the appearance of a mixture of
brown ochrey clay-ironstone. “Near Timinhint, forming the summit of
hills.”
49. Wood-hornstone; dark brown, with lighter coloured centre,
being part of a cylindrical stem or branch of a dicotyledonous tree.
“From between Mestoota and Gatrone.”
50. Flint composed of conchoidal distinct concretions, some of
them forming nuclei; the layers of alternating brown and white
colours, irregularly curved. “Quantities strewed over the plain from
Temasta to Bonjem.”
51. Yellowish-grey flint passing into hornstone, in irregularly
angular pieces, with brown glossy corroded surface. “La Saila; hills
of silex and opal.”
52. White hornstone; a boulder with corroded glossy surface.
“Strewed in large quantities between Wady el Beny and Wilkna, and
on the summit of gypsum hills.”
53. Yellowish-white substance intermediate between hornstone
and calcedony, in angular pieces, with cream-coloured cacholong on
the surface. “On the way from Gatrone to Tegerhy.”
54. Brownish-red carnelian; a fragment, with irregularly botryoidal
yellowish decomposed surface. From ditto.
55. Several fragments of variously shaped rough sand tubes;
internal surface highly glazed. “From the sands near Dibla.”
56. Lithomarge, reddish-brown, here and there variegated with
bluish-green and greyish, in fragments with rather tuberculated
surface. “Aghadem, beds in the sandstone.”
57. The same, but penetrated by iron ochre, and much harder;
with small imbedded pyriform concretions. From ditto.
58. Brownish-red and yellowish-grey variegated slaty clay, very
soft and unctuous to the touch. From ditto.
59. Small-foliated amorphous gypsum, confusedly crystallized,
with adhering red marl. “From the curiously formed gypsum hills of
Bonjem to Hormut and Takui, with large quantities of opal on the
top.”
60. Some specimens of white, granular, and foliated gypsum; one
of the varieties composed of wedge-shaped laminæ. Bonjem.
61. Large-foliated white selenite. “Close to the Tchad, Kanem.”
62. Compact limestone, of bluish-grey colour, divisible into tabular
fragments. “Benioleed, under the basalt.”
63. Light cream-coloured nearly compact limestone, in tabular
fragments; fracture even, fractural surface slightly glimmering.
Benioleed.
64. Fragment of a similar variety of limestone, with conchoidal
fracture. “Benioleed, lowest observable stratum except one.”
65. Compact limestone, of a reddish and cream yellow colour,
variegated with pale brown, of very close texture, and small-
conchoidal fracture. “Hills to the north of Benioleed.”
66. Fragment of a greenish-grey tabular magnesian limestone,
splendent on the fractural surfaces, the lustre produced by a curved-
lamellar, though (in one direction) apparently compact structure. “On
the ridges between Meshroo and Tegerhy.”
67. Yellowish-red, close-grained, nearly compact limestone, here
and there with minute scales; external exposed surface uneven,
glossy. “Temedetan, forming thick strata.”
68. Rolled fragment, of a reddish-yellow variety of magnesian
limestone, with glossy surface, and of earthy fracture, including
some dark-coloured grains, (oxide of manganese?) “Found in the
deserts, sometimes finely dendritic.”
69. Light cream-coloured hard (magnesian) limestone, with earthy
uneven fracture; the exposed surface shining, partly corroded, partly
smooth. “Hills of Gaaf.”
70. A similar variety. “From the Assoud, Wady el Malagi.”
71. A rolled fragment of yellowish-grey compact limestone
(magnesian), of even and dull fracture; the surface shining, wrinkled
by decomposition. “To the north and south of the Wells of Mafrass.”
72. The same variety as the preceding, in the shape of a large
conical lump, with uneven and corroded glossy surface, enclosing
rounded pieces of the same limestone. From ditto.
73. A similar variety of magnesian limestone, forming a botryoidal
group of more or less globular concretions, from upwards of half an
inch to half a line in diameter, and intimately grown together with
each other. “Meshroo and El Wahr.”
74. Yellowish limestone, of curved-lamellar structure. “Forming
veins in the basaltic rocks in Agutefa.”
75. Brownish-yellow limestone, in stalagmitical irregular layers.
“On the desert, between Mushroo and El Wahr.”
76. Another fragment, apparently part of a large stalagmitic
nodule, in layers on a yellow granular mass of carbonate of lime.
From ditto.
77. Greyish-brown and hair-brown fibrous limestone, in tabular
pieces; the fibres perpendicular, or in an oblique direction to the
horizontal planes, straight or slightly curved. In some specimens, the
hair-brown layer is sard-onyx and onyx-like, succeeded by a red and
a white stratum, the former generally in the form of a crust, with
superficial small acute rhombohedrons of carbonate of lime; in
others, the hair-brown layer is traversed by white veins. “Boundaries
of Fezzan and Tuarick country.”
78. Sulphate of barytes; a group of bluish and brownish prismatic
crystals, (var. rétrécie of Haüy), covered by red marle.
79. Common salt, in white, opaque, granular aggregations,
externally stained by ferruginous clay. “Road between Hamara and
Zuela.”
80. A saline incrustation, of yellowish-white colour, partly solid, in
thin tables, partly in powder, composed of carbonate, muriate, and
sulphate of soda. “Near Germa.”
81. Carbonate of soda (trona), thick-fibrous foliated, in crusts of
the thickness of one-fourth to one-third of an inch, indistinctly
crystallized on the upper surface. “From the trona lakes in Wady
Trona.”
82. The same, studded on the upper surface with small limpid
cubical crystals of muriate of soda. From ditto.
83. Carbonate of soda, of yellowish and greenish-grey colour, in
masses with diverging radiated fracture. Kanem?
84. A rolled piece of nearly compact brown ironstone. “Upper
strata from Aghadem to the southward of El Wahr.”
85. Compact brown ironstone, of dark brown colour; an irregularly
tubercular nodule, with surface, particularly that of the old fractural
planes, glossy, the recent fracture exhibiting a dull earthy surface.
“From plains to the southward of Bonjem.”
86. Compact brown ironstone, of deep chesnut-brown colour, in
rounded oblong pieces of from one-half to upwards of an inch in
diameter, the whole glossy as if varnished; fracture even, earthy.
From ditto?
87. Fragment of compact brown ironstone, mixed with much
quartzy matter. Wady Kawar and Aghadem.
88. Massive and granular brown ironstone, mixed with much
yellow iron ochre and sand. “In loose masses or crusts, on the top of
the ridges between Sockatoo and Kashna, and on the low hills
around Sockatoo.”
89. Fragments of clayey brown ironstone with ochrey nodules.
“Wady Shiati hills.”
90. A mass, mixed, of brown ironstone and red and yellow iron
ochre. “From the soil of Wady Sandalion, Tuarick country.”
91. Cubic fragments of common galena, (sulphuret of lead).
Kanem, Soudan.
92. Pure tin, cast in moulds, in the form of thick wire. Brought from
Soudan.
I conclude this long letter with mentioning a specimen of Roman
cement, taken from the ruins of Ghirza, which, in parts where the
admixture of small stony fragments is not observable, has very much
the appearance of, and might easily be mistaken for, a granular-
crystalline variety of tertiary limestone. It has unquestionably
undergone a transformation: a circumstance which may, in some
measure, serve to justify the remark of Lepère—“C’est le temps seul
et non l’art qui manque à la pétrification absolue de nos mortiers et
cimens; nos neveux diront de nos constructions ce que nous disons
de celles des anciens.”
I have the honour to be, my dear Sir,
Yours very faithfully,
Charles Konig.
To Major Denham, &c.
FOOTNOTES:
[126]Three very interesting bivalve shells, distinct, it appears,
from the other species of the genera to which they respectively
belong, have been discovered in the above-mentioned river by
Major Denham. The first, a species of Ætheria, I distinguish as
Ætheria Denhami: testa irregulariter rotundato-oblonga, ad

cardinem gibbosa, utriusque valvæ callo cardinali basim versus
oblique truncato.
Hab. in Africæ interioris fluvio Gammaroo.
The form of the cardinal callosity to which the semi-internal

ligament is attached affords a distinction sufficiently characteristic
of the species: its oblique truncating plane, which extends
towards the rather indistinct umbo, is, in the closed state of the
shell, in partial contact with that of the corresponding and similarly
formed callus of the other valve. The general form of the shell is
oblong or rounded, but appears to be subject to considerable
variation: one of the specimens before me exhibits the exterior of
Lamarck’s A. transversa, which latter is no doubt a casual variety
only of the other species described and figured by that naturalist.
These shells are externally furnished with a blackish-brown
epidermis; beneath this a white film is deposited, on the removal
of which a beautiful pearly naker appears, similar to that of the
internal surface of the valves. The blistered appearance of the
interior of both the valves is constant in all specimens, and may,
as intimately connected with the structure of the shell, be
considered of sufficient importance to be admitted into the
distinctive character of the genus.
Lamarck, imagining that these shells live at the bottom of the
sea, named the genus, as he says, after one of the daughters of
Oceanus. Though the Ætheriæ are now well known to be fluviatile
shells, the emendators of zoological nomenclature may still be
exonerated from framing a new name for this genus, since the old
one is derivable from the original locality of its species; a part of
central Africa having, according to Pliny, been anciently known by
the appellation of Ætheria.
The second shell, a new species of Iridina, may be thus
characterized:
Iridina Oudnæi: testa transversa ovato-lanceolata
tumidiuscula, cardine stricto sub-edentulo, basis margine sinuato.
Hab. cum priore.
This species is very distinct from E. elongata in form and in the

hinge line being without crenulation; and from E. nilotica, which it
resembles in the latter of those characters, it differs by its form,
inferior thickness, and iridescence. The length of the specimen
before me is 4⅔, its greatest breadth at the umbo nearly two
inches. Placed on the basal edge, which is concave, the anterior
side presents a considerable slope from the umbo to the exterior
margin, which gives the valves a tapering or ovate-lanceolate
form. The external epidermis, of a greenish-brown colour, exhibits
slightly undulating striæ of growth. The interior surface is slightly
uneven-undulated, white, with delicate opalescent colours, green
and faint pink; the former chiefly disposed in spots. The muscular
impressions are more slightly marked than in the other species.
For the third shell, which I considered as a new species of
Anodon, I propose the name of
Anodon Clappertoni: testa transversim oblonga, antice in

extremo cardine acute excisa.
Hab. cum antecedentibus.
The notch at the anterior extremity of the hinge being always

acute, never obtusangular or rounded, I have confined myself to it
in the distinctive character of this species, which differs in several
other respects from Anodon purpureus and rugosus of
Swainson, to both of which it is, however, nearly related. The size
of the shell, in the several specimens before me, varies from 1½
by ¾ of an inch to 3 inches by nearly 1½. Its form is transverse-
oval, with a slight slope at the anterior end. The hinge margin is
straight. Epidermis olive-green, appearing of a reddish-brown
colour, owing to the pink colour of the surface underneath, which
latter in one specimen passes into bluish-green at the umbones.
Muscular impressions three; one of them, at the anterior end,
oval, and continued in a faint tapering form towards the hollow of
the umbo; of the two other impressions, which are both stronger
marked, the one nearest to the edge of the valve is oval, with a
small rounded sinus at the inner border, and close to it a smaller
irregularly oval mark with notched margin: the two principal marks
are connected by the edge of the impression of the mantle, the
smaller mark being placed within the line. The tinge of the internal
surface is pink, imperfectly painted over as it were with white. The
several specimens, in different stages of growth, exhibit all these
characters; there is, however, among them a single valve of
rather larger dimensions and more rounded than the rest, with a
fine bronze-coloured internal surface like that of Iridina nilotica.
Whether this is to be considered as a distinct species, or only as
a variety indicative of the full grown state of the shell, I must leave
to the decision of conchologists more experienced in
discriminating the ambiguous species of this genus.
No. XXIV.
Thermometrical Journal kept at Kouka in Bornou.
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
March 1823.
15 E.N.E. 70 98 103
Sunday, 16 S.S.E. 75 95 102
17 S.S.E. 78 99 104
18 E.N.E. 77 104
19 S.E. 98
20 E.N.E. 78 95 101
21 N.E. 82 100 105
22 E.N.E. 80 97 100
Sunday, 23 N.E. 78 90 94
24 N.E. 79 94 97
25 E.N.E. 79 97 101
26 E.N.E. 79 100 103
27 E.N.E. 79 101 103
28 E.N.E. 82 97 98
29 E.N.E. 80 97 100
Sunday, 30 N.E. 80 94 97
31 E.N.E. 80 94 96
April.
1 N.E. 77 98 101
2 N.E. 80 95 100
3 S.E. 80 99 101
7 N.E. 80 99 102
8 N.E. 80 99 103
9 E.N.E. 78 98 102
10 E.N.E. 77 97 99
11 N.E. 72 100 100
12 N.E. 78 104 107
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 13 N.E. 84 100 105
14 E.N.E. 82 100 105
15 N.E. 87 103 105
16 E.N.E. 86 95 105
17 E.N.E. 87 99 106
18 E.N.E. 86 103 109
19 N.E. 88 102 106
Sunday, 20 E.N.E. 87 102 107
21 E.N.E. 85 100 100
22 E.N.E. 86 102 103
23 E.N.E. 85 102 103
24 N.E. 83 101 103
25 E.N.E. 85 103 102
26 N.E. 85 103 103
Sunday, 27 N.E. 86 102 102
28 N.E. 83 101 103
29 E.N.E. 81 103 103
30 E.N.E. 82 103 103
May.
1 E.N.E. 85 106 106
2 N.E. 85 103 105
3 N.E. 83 105 98
Sunday, 4 E.N.E. 81 99 99
5 E.N.E. 82 95 96
6 E.N.E. 81 102 102
7 N. 86 104 103
8 N.E. 71 99 96
9 N.E. 81 99 96
10 N.E. 85 95 94
Sunday, 11 N.E. 86 101 95
12 Calm. 81 99 95
13 W.S.W. 75 98 98
14 W.S.W. 75 95 98
15 W.S.W. 74 97 97
16 W.S.W. 72 92 95
17 S.W. 74 97 98
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 18 W.S.W. 74 96 99
19 W.S.W. 73 96 99
20 W.S.W. 76 95 99
21 W.S.W. 74 102 100
22 W.S.W. 73 100 100
23 W.S.W. 84 104 101
24 S.W. 76 96 96
Sunday, 25 S.W. 73 96 96
26 S.W. 81 98 100
27 S.W. 76 99 100
28 S.W. 80 98 99
29 W.S.W. 81 97 102
30 W.S.W. 82 100 102
31 W.S.W. 80 100 102
June.
Sunday, 1 W.S.W. 76 97 97
2 W.S.W. 80 97 96
3 W.S.W. 81 99 99
4 W.S.W. 81 99 100
5 W.S.W. 80 99 100
6 S.W. 80 98 98
7 S.W. 75 95 100
Sunday, 8 S.W. 78 98 98
9 S.W. 79 95 97
10 S.W. 78 89 90
11 W.S.W. 75 89 93
12 W.S.W. 79 87 95
13 W.S.W. 80 95 95
14 W.S.W. 81 97 97
Sunday, 15 W.S.W. 82 99 97
16 W.S.W. 81 97 96
17 W.S.W. 81 99 101
18 W.S.W. 80 97 99
19 W.S.W. 79 89 93
20 W.S.W. 78 92 93
21 W.S.W. 77 92 95
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 22 W.S.W. 78 98 99
23 S.W. 81 95 87
24 S.W. 76 95 87
25 S.W. 80 97 96
26 S.W. 81 94 95
27 S.W. 87 96 98
28 S.W. 81 97 92
Sunday, 29 S.W. 82 96 97
30 S.W.
July. 1 S.W. 82 97 99
2 S.W. 81 92 92
3 S.W. 82 93 94
4 S.W. 74 85 84
5 S.W. 78 89 94
Sunday, 6 S.W. 78 89 96
7 S.W. 78 89 91
8 S.W. 78 90 92
9 W.S.W. 81 87 92
10 W.S.W. 77 92 95
11 W.S.W. 75 85 97
12 S.W. 75 85 88
Sunday, 13 S.W. 71 79 82
14 S.W. 72 82 89
15 S.W. 75 83 90
16 S.W. 76 87 90
17 S.W. 72 84 93
18 S.W. 76 83 89
19 S.W. 75 86 90
Sunday, 20 S.W. 74 87 89
21 S.W. 72 83 86
22 S.W. 73 84 87
23 S.W. 73 86 89
24 S.W. 74 84 90
25 S.W. 73 83 87
26 S.W. 71 84 86
Sunday, 27 S.W. 80 86 89
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
28 S.W. 76 86 90
29 S.W. 73 84 87
30 S.W. 76 85 95
31 W. 76 85 92
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. State of Weather.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
1823.
Aug. 1 Rain all night. 75 82 86
2 73 78 79
3 Sunday. Rain in
evening. 74 80 82
4 78 82 83
5 76 82 84
6 Rain much. 73 77 78
7 74 78 81
8 Rain. 76 80 81
9 75 81 82
10 Sunday. Rain, loud
thunder. 74 77 80
11 76 81 83
12 Rain and thunder all
night. 79 83 85
13 75 80 81
14 76 80 85
15 Rain, thunder, vivid
lightning. 77 84 87
16 76 82 85
17 Sunday. 78 83 85
18 77 84 86
19 Rain and thunder during
the night. 79 85 86
20 Rainy day. 78 84 85
21 75 82 83
22 Much rain. 74 79 83
23 Morning cloudy. 74 80 84
Fah. Thermometer.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
24 Sunday. Drizzling rain. 76 83 85
25 Night violent. 75 77 79
26 Night. 75 78 79
27 All night. 74 78 79
28 Day and night, showers. 73 77 79
29 Rain. 74 78 80
30 75 80 82
31 Sunday. Rain, much
thunder. 74 78 80
Sep. 1 74 79 81
2 76 84 86
3 79 85 89
4 80 85 88
5 Morning. Rain and
thunder. 80 80 81
6 78 83 84
7 Sunday. 78 85 86
8 Rain. 79 80 81
9 78 83 85
10 Night, hurricane, east. 80 86 88
11 South. 78 85 87
12 80 86 88
13 79 85 87
14 Sunday. 78 86 89
15 80 86 89
16 81 87 89
17 Cloudy afternoon. 81 88 89
18 80 85 87
19 Hurricane, east and a
half south. Strong 3
p.m. 80 87 85
20 80 84 87
21 Sunday. 78 85 87
22 79 87 89
23 78 86 88
24 80 88 90
25 82 89 92
Fah. Thermometer.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
26 Violent storm, noon wind
N. hail and rain. 80 89 90
27 76 86 89
28 Sunday. 80 86 88
29 81 87 91
30 80 86 91
Oct. 1 Rain and wind in night. 80 87 91
2 78 84 85
3 80 85 88
4 Wind, thunder. 81 87 90
5 Sunday, rain and wind. 80 86 88
6 79 87 89
7 80 88 90
8 80 89 93
9 79 89 92
10 Breeze N.W. 78 89 91
11 77 90 92
12 Sunday, 79 92 94
13 78 92 94
14 79 91 93
15 77 92 93
16 83 92 94
17 81 92 94
18 80 90 93
19 Sunday, 81 92 94
20 79 92 94
21 80 92 94
22 81 93 95
23 75 90 92
24 76 85 88
25 77 87 90
26 Sunday, 77 88 91
27 78 90 92
28 78 90 91
29 79 91 93
30 78 88 90
Fah. Thermometer.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
31 79 89 92
Nov. 1 78 87 90
2 Sunday, 76 89 91
3 75 88 89
4 76 88 90
5 77 87 89
6 77 88 90
7 76 87 90
8 75 86 88
9 Sunday, 76 88 90
10 77 86 89
11 79 87 88
12 76 88 90
13 74 87 89
14 74 86 88
15 73 87 89
16 Sunday, 74 88 89
17 74 83 86
18 75 85 87
19 75 86 88
20 75 85 87
21 75 86 88
22 69 78 81
23 Sunday, 71 79 81
24 69 77 79
25 68 78 80
26 67 79 81
27 66 78 80
28 65 77 79
29 66 77 79
30 Sunday, 67 79 80
Dec. 1 66 79 81
2 67 78 80
3 66 79 81
4 65 78 80
5 67 80 82

Physics at A Glance For Class Xi Xii Engineering Entrance and Other Competitive Exams Abhay Kumar All Chapter

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Physics At A Glance for Class XI & XII,

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Physics at a Glance is part of a three book series, designed especially for

for Class XI & XII, Engineering & Medical

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1. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS 1 1.3 Calculus 9

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2.3 Limitations of Dimensional 3.2.6 Curl or Rotation of a Vector 42

3. VECTORS AND SCALARS 35 5. LAWS OF MOTION AND

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5.6.2 Apparent Weight of a Body 7.1.2 Position of Centre of Mass of

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8.5.4 Theorem on Moment 10.4.7 Compressibility 112

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15. CAPACITORS 170 16.7 R–C Discharging Circuit 199

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17.13 Properties of a Magnet 214 19.3.1 Maxwell’s Equations 236

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21.3.8 Packing Fraction (P) 286 22.11.3 Radio

A.1 Physical Constants - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 311

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Encouraged by the response to my earlier books, Practice Problems in Physics, Volume I

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At the outset, I want to express gratitude to my teachers—Professor

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Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°

5. sin2q + cos2q = 1, sin2q = 1 − cos2q, cos2q = 1 − sin2q

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Table 1.1 Sign of T-function

Quadrant 1st 2nd 3rd 4th (II) (I)

1.1.1 Formulae for Compound Angle

1.1.2 Transformational Formula

1.1.3 Formulae for Multiple and Sub-multiple Angles

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1.1.4 Trigonometric Equations

Table 1.2 Some Trigonometrical Values

(−q ) (90° − q ) (90° + q ) (180° − q ) (180° + q )

1.1.5 Value of (2p ± q)

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Table 1.3 Value of Some Standard Angles

T-ratio 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

Note: ∞ means undefined.

1.1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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9. tan−1 (−x) = tan−1x

1.2.1 Quadratic Equation

Now there are three possibilities :

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1.2.3 Determinant of Third Order

the expansion of the determinant along its first row will be

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

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1.2.5 Geometric Progression

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1.2.6 Some Important Summation of Series