Talaros Foundations in Microbiology Basic Principles 12Th Edition Barry Chess Full Chapter

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Talaro’s Foundations in
Microbiology
Basic Principles
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Talaro’s Foundations in
Microbiology
Basic Principles
Twelfth Edition
Barry Chess

TALARO’S FOUNDATIONS IN MICROBIOLOGY
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 28 27 26 25 24 23
ISBN 978-1-266-18261-7
MHID 1-266-18261-6
Cover Image: Steve Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
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Brief
B Content
rie f C o n t e n ts
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 10
The Main Themes of Microbiology 2 Genetic Engineering and Genetic Analysis 306
The Chemistry of Biology 30 Physical and Chemical Agents for Microbial
Control 336
CHAPTER 3
Tools of the Laboratory: Methods of Studying CHAPTER 12
Microorganisms 62 Drugs, Microbes, Host—The Elements of
Chemotherapy 370
CHAPTER 4
A Survey of Prokaryotic Cells and Microorganisms 92 CHAPTER 13
Microbe–Human Interactions: Infection, Disease,
CHAPTER 5 and Epidemiology 406
A Survey of Eukaryotic Cells and
Microorganisms 128 CHAPTER 14
An Introduction to Host Defenses and Innate
CHAPTER 6 Immunities 448
An Introduction to Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 166
15
7 CHAPTER
CHAPTER Adaptive, Specific Immunity, and
Microbial Nutrition, Ecology, and Growth 194 Immunization 478
An Introduction to Microbial Metabolism: Disorders in Immunity 514
The Chemical Crossroads of Life 228
17
9
CHAPTER
CHAPTER Procedures for Identifying Pathogens
An Introduction to Microbial Genetics 268 and Diagnosing Infections 548

A bou t tthe
Abou he Au t horr s
Autho
Barry Chess has taught microbiology at Pasadena City Col- teaching that lead to greater student success. He has written and
lege (PCC) for more than 20 years. Prior to that, while studying at reviewed cases for the National Center for Case Study Teaching
the California State University in Science and contributed to the book Science Stories You Can
and the University of Califor- Count On: 51 Case Studies with Quantitative Reasoning in
nia, he conducted research Biology. Barry has presented papers and talks on the effective
into the expression of genes use of case studies in the classroom, the use of digital tools to
involved in the development enhance learning, and for several years served as a scientific
of muscle and bone. advisor for the American Film Institute.
At PCC, beyond his usual In addition to Foundations in Microbiology, Barry is the author of
presence in the microbiology Laboratory Applications in Microbiology, A Case Study Approach,
laboratory and lecture hall, now in its fourth edition. He is a member of the American Asso-
Barry has taught majors and ciation for the Advancement of Science, the American Society for
non-majors biology, devel- Microbiology, and the Skeptics Society. When not teaching or
oped a course in human writing, he spends as much time as possible skiing, diving, or hik-
Barry Chess
genetics, helped to found a ing with Toby, his 110 pound pandemic puppy. Barry was profiled
biotechnology program on campus, and regularly supervises in the book What Scientists Actually Do, where he was illustrated
students completing independent research projects in the life as a young girl with pigtails, about to stick a fork into an electrical
sciences. Of late, his interests focus on innovative methods of outlet.
vi

T h e 12 t h e d i t io n of F o u n dat io n s in M icro b io l o g y w a s w r i t te n e n -
t irel y u n d er t h e cl ou d of S A RS - C oV-2, t he g reate s t exa m p l e of
t h e co n t inu in g rel ev a n ce of m icro b io l o g y in eve r y a sp e c t of o u r
l i ves . G o aw ay.
Steve Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
vii

Instructors
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tablets, ReadAnywhere gives users access to McGraw Hill tools in-
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browser activity, recording students’ activity, and verifying stu-
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view of potential academic integrity concerns, thereby avoiding In consultation with the Online Learning Consortium (OLC) and
personal bias and supporting evidence-based claims. our certified Faculty Consultants, McGraw Hill has created precon-
figured courseware using OLC’s quality scorecard to align with
Relevancy Modules for Microbiology best practices in online course delivery. This turnkey courseware
contains a combination of formative assessments, summative as-
With the help of our Relevancy Modules within McGraw Hill Con- sessments, homework, and application activities, and can easily be
nect, students can see how microbiology actually relates to their customized to meet an individual’s needs and course outcomes.
everyday lives. For select microbiology titles, students and instruc-
tors can access the Relevancy Modules eBook at no additional cost.
Auto-graded assessment questions which correlate to the modules Tegrity: Lectures 24/7
are also available within Connect. Each module consists of videos, Tegrity in Connect is a tool that makes class time available 24/7 by
an overview of basic scientific concepts, and then a closer look at automatically capturing every lecture. With a simple oneclick start-
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include microbes and cancer, fermentation, vaccines, biotechnol- ing audio in a format that is easy to search, frame by frame. Students
ogy, global health, SARS-CoV-2, antibiotic resistance, and several can replay any part of any class with easy-to-use, browser-based
others. viewing on a PC, Mac, iPod, or other mobile device.
Educators know that the more students can see, hear, and expe-
Virtual Labs and Lab rience class resources, the better they learn. In fact, studies prove it.
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From the instructor’s perspective, these simulations may be
Test Builder in Connect
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xi

Designed for Today’s Students
Art and organization of content make this book unique

Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat can teach you a thing or two. continues to meet its goals of explaining complex topics clearly
Maybe not much about microbiology, but certainly something and vividly and to present material in an engaging manner that
about how to merge words and images to communicate effec- aids in understanding. Art has been placed where it makes the
tively. I have no illusions about this book going viral, but if the most sense in the flow of the narrative, figures break down com-
occasional student walks away thinking that a concept was inter- plex processes into their component parts, and explanations are
esting, easy to understand, even funny, we’ll call that a win. clear, concise, and correctly targeted to the reader. More than a
Crafting such a learning tool takes time and dedication. Every compendium of facts, figures, and photographs, Foundations in
line of text and every piece of art is scrutinized for instructional Microbiology tells a story, of microorganisms, of people, and of
usefulness, placement, and pedagogy, and then reexamined with the myriad ways in which they interact—a story of the microbial
each revision. In this twelfth edition, the author has gone through world.
the book page by page, sentence by sentence, to make sure it
TM Memory CD4 T cell
Production of tumor
necrosis factor and Stimulate
APC interferon gamma macrophages
TH1
1 (also delayed
4 hypersensitivity)
CD80
CD4
CD28 T cell
MHC II
CD4
IL-4, Il-5, IL-6, IL-9,
3 IL-10, IL-13 Increase antibody-
TH2
Antigen mediated immune
5 response
TCR
2 Activated B cell
Cytokines
(mostly interleukins) TH17
6
Treg Increases
inflammation
Decreases immune
response as needed
A strong art program is a defining quality of an effective textbook. Complex biological processes can be disassembled into their component parts, allowing
understanding to take place one step at a time. Working closely with scientific illustrators, Barry Chess ensures that Foundations in Microbiology has an art
program that allows difficult concepts to come to life.
xii

Struc tured to Promote
Critical Thinking
Chapter-opening case studies
Each chapter opens with a two-page introduction. On the left is a synopsis of the chapter’s contents, while
the right side contains the first part of the Case Study, which has been carefully chosen to exhibit microbiol-
ogy in real-world situations. Photos, art and micrographs are all part of the chapter-opening pages to help
students see the big picture and grasp the relevance of the material they’re about to study. Questions appear-
ing after the chapter opener serve as prompts to the most important aspects of the case, providing students
with touchstones to lean on as they learn. The chapter concludes with the second part of the Case Study,
which resolves the microbiological (and occasionally social, political, and economic) aspects of the case.
Once again, questions follow, helping students to reinforce their newfound knowledge and use it to develop
a more inquisitive view of the broader world.
CASE STUDY Part 1 A Viral Pandemic
T
he origin of the virus will never be known for certain, social distancing recom
and the first person in the United States to contract mendations. Across the
the disease is likely also lost to history. In the United country, politics intruded as
States, cases first appeared in the Pacific Northwest, and people began to choose
the speed of the outbreak during March and April quickly sides. In Portland, a city council
outpaced early efforts to protect against the virus. debate became chaotic when
George Parrish, the health officer for Portland, Oregon, one member decried a masking
began a campaign to educate the public as to how the virus order as “autocratic and unconstitutional,”
was transmitted, emphasizing the need to control coughing adding that “under no circumstances will I be
and sneezing, especially in crowded public places. He muzzled like a [rabid] dog.” In San Francisco, 2,000 people
reached out to local religious leaders to help deliver the gathered indoors to join an antimask rally, which included
message from the pulpit to their congregations. A week physicians, as well as one member of the Board of
after the first confirmed case in the city, the Oregon State Supervisors. Public outcry grew louder when several city
Board of Health ordered the shutdown of all public officials, including the mayor, were photographed attending
gathering places; no restaurants, no theaters, and no school a boxing match without masks. The situation in San Francisco
for tens of thousands of students. Officials reminded the came to a head when a special officer for the Board of Health
public of the importance of hand washing and began a shot a man in a dispute over maskwearing (he survived but
campaign to encourage social distancing. Two hundred was arrested for not following the officer’s orders).
miles to the north, Seattle had already seen a dozen deaths Because most public health decisions were made at
from the disease. The mayor asked that people avoid the local level, the success of mitigation strategies varied
gathering in churches, and some public gatherings were wildly. Health officials in Philadelphia advised the mayor to
banned entirely. On the opposite coast, the situation was no cancel several large public gatherings, including a parade,
better as the White House, Congress, and the Supreme to prevent the spread of the virus. The mayor refused, and a
Court were closed to the public. When masks were found to surge in cases followed. Meanwhile, in St. Louis, similar
reduce the risk of viral transmission, government agencies gatherings were quickly shut down, robbing the virus of an
publicized their usefulness. The San Francisco Chronicle opportunity to spread. In the end, St. Louis had oneeighth
printed a public service announcement calling those who as many deaths as did Philadelphia. While most medical
refused to wear masks “dangerous slackers” and em experts recommended quarantines and face masks, health
phasizing that beyond keeping oneself healthy, wearing a officials in many cities, according to the New York Times,
mask protected others who were more likely to suffer “opposed both these measures and placed great reliance
serious consequences. Shortly thereafter, the city of San on [the development of a] vaccine.”
Francisco passed a mask ordinance signed by the mayor The year was 1918. The wait for a vaccine would be
Cynthia Goldsmith/Centers
and the boardforofDisease
health.Control and Prevention;
The Red (background)DigitalMammoth/Shutterstock
Cross stepped up to 25 years.
address a mask shortage in the city, distributing 5,000
■ What branch of microbiology focuses on the spread of
masks in less than an hour, and 100,000 over the next
disease in communities?
4 days. When a maskbuying frenzy left shelves bare, xiii
instructions were provided on how to make your own mask ■ How does an endemic disease differ from a pandemic
at home. disease?
As the pandemic moved through a second wave, and
then a third, fatigue set in. Despite the threat of fines, and To continue this Case Study, go to Case Study Part 2 at the end of
even imprisonment in some cities, mask wearing was the chapter.
chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd 13 difficult to enforce, and people did not always adhere to 06/10/22 6:51 PM
Illus t rated to Increase
Under s tanding
The author’s experience and talent transform difficult concepts
Truly instructional artwork has always been a hallmark feature of
Foundations in Microbiology, and the twelfth edition of the book On
continues to set the standard. Common sense, backed by many

decades of research, has shown that when abstract concepts are Riboswitch
explained using scientifically accurate illustrations, understanding
is increased. Powerful artwork that paints a conceptual picture for
Ribosome
students is more important than ever for today’s visual learners.
AUG
Foundations in Microbiology’s art program combines vivid colors, Start codon
Binding
multidimensionality, and self-contained narrative to help students sequence available
study the challenging concepts of microbiology. Off
Ligand Ribosome
Process Figures
Process figures break down difficult concepts to more clearly Binding sequence bound
by riboswitch, unavailable
illustrate their component parts. Each step is clearly numbered, to bind to ribosome.
making the process easy to follow for all types of learners. A dis-
AU
G
tinctive icon identifies each process figure and, when needed, the
accompanying legend provides additional explanation. Barry Chess/McGraw Hill
1 Binding: HIV binds to receptors on the surface of a CD4 cell.

STOP CCR5 antagonists
STOP Post-attachment inhibitors
CD4 cell
membrane
2 Fusion: The HIV envelope and the CD4 cell

membrane fuse, allowing the virus to enter the cell.
STOP Fusion inhibitors
CD4 receptors
HIV RNA
Reverse
transcriptase
3 Reverse transcription: Once within the CD4 cell, HIV uses the enzyme reverse
HIV DNA transcriptase to convert its RNA to DNA. The HIV DNA then enters the host cell nucleus.
STOP Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
STOP Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
Integrase
5 Replication: Once integrated into
the CD4 cell DNA, HIV begins to use
the translational machinery of the cell
CD4 cell to make long chains of HIV proteins. 6 Assembly: New HIV proteins
DNA and HIV RNA move to the
HIV DNA surface of the cell and assemble
into immature (noninfectious) HIV.
Protease
4 Integration: Inside the CD4
cell nucleus, HIV releases
integrase (an HIV enzyme).
HIV uses integrase to insert
(integrate) its viral DNA into
the DNA of the CD4 cell. 7 Budding: Newly formed immature (noninfectious)
HIV pushes itself out of the host CD4 cell. The
STOP Integrase inhibitors
new HIV releases protease (an HIV enzyme).
Protease acts to break up the long protein chains
that form the immature virus. The smaller HIV
proteins combine to form mature (infectious) HIV.
STOP Protease inhibitors (PIs)
Source: AIDS info, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
xiv

Designed for the
Twent y- First Centur y
564 Chapter 17 Procedures for Identifying Pathogens and Diagnosing Infections
Clinical photosStage
help1 students visualize
Reaction System Stage 2
A picture is worthPositive
a thousand words.
patient’s serumAnd significantlySheep
more red
thanblood
a thousand
cells when the words are bullious,
Complement fixes to antibodies; RBCs do not lyse.
with lysins on surface
maculopapular, and petechiae. Students in the microbiology classroom are constantly being asked to
Ab neverAg
evaluate things they’ve Complement
seen before, Lysins (unrelated
using a vocabulary that is both brand new and extraordinarily
to Ab in stage 1)
specific in most instances.+ Hardly seems fair. To that end, Foundations in Microbiology has clinical
photos—lots of clinical photos—because the best way to learn the difference between RBC chicken pox andRBC
measles is to see the difference between chickenpox
+ and measles. Additionally, wherever possible, medi-
RBC
cal conditions are shown on a variety of skin tones because, well, people come in a variety of skin tones. No hemolysis
Ab-Ag Complement
complex fixed to Ab (+) Antibody
Negative patient’s serum Complement fixes to RBCs; hemolysis occurs.
No Ab Ag Complement Lysins
RBC
RBC
+
Hemolysis
No Ab-Ag
JaroslavMoravcik/Shutterstock Zay NyiNyi/Shutterstock
complex
Free complement (−) No antibody
No fixation is fixed by lysins present
Modern Processes on RBCs
Figure
Microbial 17.16 are
diagnostics Complement fixation
not what they weretest. In thisago.
20 years example, two serum
Automated samples are
diagnostics, being
rapid tested
tests, andfor antibodies to a certain infectious agent.
In reading this test, one observes the cloudiness
point-of-care testing are featured throughout the text. of the tube. If it is cloudy, the RBCs are not hemolyzed and the test is positive. If it is clear and
pink, the RBCs are hemolyzed and the test is negative.
serum contains anti–Treponema pallidum antibodies. In toxin

neutralization tests, a test serum is incubated with the microbe that
produces the toxin. If the serum inhibits the growth of the microbe,
one can conclude that antitoxins to inactivate the toxin are present.
Serotyping is an antigen–antibody technique for identifying,
classifying, and subgrouping certain bacteria into categories called
serotypes, using antisera for cell antigens such as the capsule, fla-
gellum, and cell wall. It is widely used in typing Salmonella species
and strains and is the basis for identifying the numerous serotypes
(a) (b) of streptococci (see figure 17.10). The Quellung test, which identi-
fies serotypes of the pneumococcus, involves a precipitation reac-
Figure 17.1717.17
Figure RapidRapid diagnostic
diagnostic tests. tests. (a) A SARS-CoV-2
(a) A SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-
(COVID-19)
19) rapid
rapid antigen antigen
test. test.detects
This test This test detects
viral viralinantigens
antigens a saliva in a saliva
sample. Thesample.
C line tion in which antibodies react with the capsular polysaccharide.
The Cand
is a control lineshows
is a control and
that the shows
test that the test
is functioning is functioning
correctly. The lackcorrectly.
of a line in Although the reaction makes the capsule seem to swell, it is actu-
The lack
the T (test) of aofline
portion theinwindow
the T (test) portion
indicates of the
that the sample
windowdoesindicates that the
not contain ally creating a zone of Ab-Ag complexes on the cell’s surface.
sample
antigens from does not contain
the virus. antigens
(b) A rapid from panel
diagnostic that(b)
the virus. A rapid antigens
identifies diagnostic
panel that
from different identifies
species antigens from
of Plasmodium, thedifferent
agent ofspecies
malaria,ofusing
Plasmodium, the
a small drop
agent
of whole of malaria, using a small drop of whole blood.
blood. In Vivo Testing
(a): staukestock/Shutterstock
(a): staukestock/Shutterstock; (b): Courtesy of Alere, Inc. Probably the first immunologic tests were performed not in a test
tube but on the body itself. A classic example of one such technique
xv
is the tuberculin test, which uses a small amount of purified protein
Miscellaneous Serological Tests derivative (PPD) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis injected into the
A test that relies on changes in cellular activity as seen microscopi- skin. The appearance of a red, raised, thickened lesion in 48 to
cally is the Treponema pallidum immobilization (TPI) test for 72 hours can indicate previous exposure to tuberculosis. In practice,
chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd syphilis. The impairment or loss of motility of the Treponema spiro-
15 in vivo tests employ principles similar to serological tests, except
06/10/22 in
6:51 PM
Trachea
the establishment of diphtheroids,3 staphylococci, streptococci, and
some coliforms. As hormone levels rise at puberty, the vagina be-
Bronchi Lower gins to deposit glycogen, and the microbiota shift to the acid-
respiratory producing lactobacilli. It is thought that the acidic pH of the vagina
tract during this time prevents the establishment and invasion of mi-
Lungs
crobes with potential to harm a developing fetus. The estrogen-
glycogen effect continues, with minor disruption, throughout the
childbearing years until menopause, when the microbiota return to
a mixed population similar to that of prepuberty. These transitions
Maintaining Relevance
are not abrupt but occur over several months to years.
Maintenance of the Normal Microbiota

Figure 13.5 Colonized regions of the respiratory tract. The There is no question that the normal residents are essential to the
Beyond t he Classroom
moist mucous blanket of the nasopharynx has well-entrenched health of humans and other animals. When living in balance with
resident microbes. Some colonization occurs in the pharynx, larynx,
their host, the microbiota create an environment that may prevent
and upper trachea, but lower regions (bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs)
lack resident microbes. infections and can enhance certain host defenses. In general, the mi-
crobes replace themselves naturally on a regular basis to maintain the
168 Chapter 6 Antypes and numberstoinViruses,
Introduction their zones. However,
Viroids, andbecause
Prionsthe exact content
of the microbiota is not fixed, a number of changes can disrupt this
Uterine tube balance. Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, changes in diet, and un-
Learn and Practice

derlying disease all have the potential to alter the makeup of the mi-
6.1 Overview of Viruses animal viruses, much of the credit for our kno
Ovary crobiota and tilt the system toward disease. A growing trend in
therapy is the use of live cultures of known microbes in
totheexperiments
form of
with bacterial and plant virus
Uterus
Succinctly answering every student’s “What do I need to know?” Learn
Rectum
probiotics. This essentially involves introducing pureuniversal
cultures ofagreement on how and when viruses
clearly The
known microbes into the body through ingestion or inoculation. existed for billions of years. They ar
question, each numbered section in the book Urinary
opens with learning Vagina than all the cells on earth, and the virome, the
microbes chosen for this process are considered nonpathogenic.
outcomes (Learn) and closes with assessment bladder
questions (Practice). 1. Indicate how viruses were discovered and characterized.
For a look into laboratory studies that address the in effects
the human
of body, outnumbers human ce
Urethra
The learning outcomes are tightly correlated toExternal
digital materials, and 2. Describe the uniquemicrobiota,
Anus
characteristics of viruses.
see 13.2 Making Connections. Because viruses tend to interact with the gen
instructors can easily measure student learningreproductive
in relation to the spe- host cells and can carry genes from one host
3. Discuss the origin and importance of viruses.
organs have played an important part in the evolution
cific learning outcomes used in their course.(a) You can also assign and Eukarya.
Practice questions to students through McGraw Hill’s Connect. Practice SECTION 13.1 Viruses are different from their host ce
Early Searches for the Tiniest Microbes
1. Describe the significant relationships that humans have withbehavior, microbes. and physiology. They are best desc
The invention of the light2.microscope Explain whatmeantis meant that
by by the lateand1800s,
microbiota microbiometracellular
and sum- parasites that cannot multiply unl
many microorganisms had been linked
marize theirto the diseases
importance they caused. The
to humans. cific host cell and instruct its genetic and me
Urinary bacteria responsible for tuberculosis, 3. Differentiate cholera,
betweenand anthrax, for
contamination, exam- infection,
colonization, make and and release new viruses. The unusual s
bladder ple, were all identified by a disease, single and explain some possible
microbiologist, RobertoutcomesKoch. For in each. of viruses have led to debates about whether
other diseases, the path wasn’t 4. How asare infectious
clear; diseases
although different from
smallpox and other
poliodiseases? The most common viewpoint holds that virus
Rectum
5. Outline the general body areas that are sterile and those regions from the host cell, so they are not li
pendently
were known to pass from person to person, no bacterial cause could be
Penis that harbor normal resident microbiota.
found. In 1898, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch—former students to large, infectious molecules. In any event, ma
6. Differentiate between transient and resident microbes.
Urethra of Koch’s—found
Anus that when infectious fluid from host organisms (they of disease and must be dealt with through
7. Explain the factors that cause variations in the microbiota of the
Testis were studying foot and mouth disease
newborn in cattle)
intestine and the were passed
vaginal tract. through prevention, whether we regard them as livin
porcelain filters designed to trap bacteria, the filtrate remained infec- with their position in the biological spectrum,
(b) tious even though they could not see the infectious agent with a micro- describe viruses as infectious particles (rather
Pathogen Profiles
826 Chapter 25 The RNA Viruses that Infect Humans
scope. Their conclusion that a submicroscopic particle, a filterable as either active or inactive (rather than ali
Figure 13.6 Microbiota of the reproductive tract. (a) Female
and (b) male genitourinary residents (location agent, was
indicated
Maintenance by responsible
color).
of Oxygen Levels for3.the Anydisease, wasspecies
nonpathogenic certainly one of the from
of Corynebacterium.
Convalescent plasma—taken earliest unique
the blood of those properties of viruses are summarized i
recovering
Pathogen Profiles are abbreviated snapshots of the major pathogens Becausemilestones
acute respiratoryof virology.
distress It for
is responsible would be another
most COVID-19
from40 years
infection and before the
rich in antibodiesinven-
against the virus—showed some
benefit, especially for patients who were immunocompromised and
deaths, ensuring adequate oxygenation of anyone suffering severe
in each disease chapter. The pathogen is featured in a micrograph, tion of the electron microscope allowed anyone
disease is key. Treatment may involve supplemental oxygen deliv-
were unabletotoview these particles.
create antibodies of their own. Laboratory-synthesized
monoclonal antibodies (sotrovimab) created to bind specifically to a
ered via nasal cannula or, in more severe cases, mechanical ventila-
along with a description of the microscopic morphology, means of tion or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Secondary
highly conserved portion of the SARS-CoV-2 viral spike resulted in
The Position of Viruses in the
an 85% reduction in hospitalization of high-risk individuals.
bacterial and fungal infections (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acineto-
identification, habitat information, and virulence factors. Artwork bacter baumannii, Aspergillus spp.) are common among severely
Biological Spectrum Reducing Inflammation Practice SECTION 6.1
ill patients and require their own treatment.
displays the primary infections/disease, as well as the organs and Widespread inflammation is responsible for much of the organ
Viruses
Viral Inhibitionare a unique group of biological entities known to infect 1. Describe 10 unique characteristics of viruse
damage caused by COVID-19, and drugs that reduce inflammation
systems primarily impacted. Each Pathogen Profile also includes a every type of cell. Although the emphasis in this chapter is on
Several antiviral medications originally developed to inhibit HIV
or block inflammatory signals can reduce damage due to inflamma-
ture, behavior, multiplication).
tion. The steroids dexamethasone and budesonide, and the inflam-
System Profile that presents the pathogen in relation to organ sys- replication show efficacy against SARS-CoV-2. These include
remdesivir, a viral RNA polymerase inhibitor, and Paxlovid, a pro-
mation blockers baricitinib and tocilizumab (a monoclonal antibody
2. After consulting table 6.1, what additional
that blocks interleukin-6, a prime driver of inflammation) all de-
tease inhibitor. A new antiviral drug, molnupiravir, is a ribonucleo- about viruses, especially as compared with c
tems affected. side analog that induces widespread mutations throughout the
crease mortality and/or the length of hospital stays.
TABLE 6.1 Properties of Viruses
genome of the virus. Importantly, Paxlovid and molnupiravir can
Prevention of COVID-19 3. Explain what it means to be an obligate intra
be taken orally after symptoms begin and offer a means of effective
∙ Obligate
treatment outside intracellular
the hospital parasites
setting, much like Tamiflu canof be
bacteria, protists,
The myriad fungi,
strategies used toplants, 4. What
limit the spread of COVID-19 have are some other ways to describe the sor
18.2 General Characteristics of the Streptococci and Related Genera 583 been on display for the past few years: travel bans, mask wearing,
taken to reduce the severity of the flu.
and animals ited by viruses?
∙ Profile
Pathogen Ultramicroscopic size,
#3 SARS-CoV-2 ranging from 20 nm up to 750 nm
Pathogen Profile #1 Staphylococcus aureus
(diameter)
Microscopic Morphology Gram-positive
cocci in irregular clusters; nonmotile; non–
Primary Infections/Disease Local cutane-
ous infections include folliculitis, furuncles, and ∙ Not cellular
Microscopic Morphology Spherical
virusin nature;
with a crownlike structure
appearanceis dueveryarecompact
due to acuteand economical
respiratory 6.2 The General Structure o
kidney, heart, liver, and respiratory system. About 70% of deaths
distress syndrome, with the remainder
spore-forming. May form biofilm infections on carbuncles, as well as bullous impetigo. Systemic to the projection of spikes from the attributed to organ damage. Most deaths occur in the elderly or
catheters and other indwelling devices. infections include osteomyelitis, pneumonia, and ∙ Do not independentlyviral envelope. fulfill the characteristics of life Complications include long COVID, in
those with co-morbidities.
only and adults (MIS-C, MIS-A), in Learn

endocarditis. A rare cause of meningitis. Diseases which symptoms may continue for many months, and multisystem
Identified By Growth on high-salt (7.5% NaCl
due to S. aureus toxins include food intoxication,
∙ Inactive macromolecules
Identified By Detection of viral
outside the host cell and
inflammatory active
syndrome in children
or more) media, Gram reaction, and arrange- antigens using antibody-based assays
ment. Fermentation of sugars distinguishes scalded skin syndrome, and toxic shock syndrome. inside hostprovides cellsrapid testing capability, but which severe systemic inflammation may occur several weeks after
Staphylococcus from Micrococcus; catalase Control and Treatment Control of healthcare- the test is dependent on a high viral resolution of the initial infection.
∙ Basic structure 4. Describe the general structure and size rang
production distinguishes Staphylococcus associated infection relies on careful hygiene and American Photo Archive/Alamy load andconsists of protein
is most accurate when usedshell (capsid)
Control surrounding
and Treatment Control relies on inhibiting the spread
from Streptococcus. Coagulase production
distinguishes S. aureus from other species of
adequate cleansing of surgical incisions and
burns; isolation of persons with open lesions;
Stock Photo
nucleic acid core
on symptomatic persons. Nucleic acid of the virus through frequent testing, isolation, social distancing,
5. Distinguish among types of capsids and nuc
amplification tests, primarily RT-PCR, provide high specificity and and masking. Vaccination provides protection against severe
sensitivity ∙ Nucleic acidofofinfection,
the viral genome timeis either DNA or RNA viral but
Source: Janice Staphylococcus. Commercially available rapid and barring of S. aureus carriers from sensitive
Carr/CDC throughout the course but turnaround disease and reduces spread in the population. Three vac-
6. Describe envelopes and spikes, and discuss
identification tests rely on antibody-coated la- areas such as operating rooms and nurseries.
can be 24 hours or more. Nasopharyngeal swabs are the normal cines are approved for use in the United States, one based on
tex beads that bind specifically with S. aureus. Special concern is paid to the strains known as not both
source of sample for testing. a replication-incompetent adenovirus carrying genetic7. material
Explain the functions of capsids, nucleocaps
MRSA, which have high levels of drug resistance.
Habitat Carried by 20% to 60% of healthy persons in the nostrils,
Community-acquired infections are controlled Habitat The ∙ virus
Nucleic acidincan
is widespread humans beanddouble-stranded
animals, with bats DNA,
from thesingle-stranded
virus (Johnson & Johnson) DNA, and two mRNA vaccines
skin, nasopharynx, and intestine. Very resistant to harsh environ- containing mRNA coding for a portion of a viral spike (Mod- and spikes.
mental conditions, and routinely present on fomites. through disinfection of shared environments single-stranded
the likely natural reservoir. SARS-CoV-2RNA, is spreador by double-stranded
respiratory RNA
erna and Pfizer). Treatment relies on supporting respiration as
and equipment. Treatment involves intensive droplets, with some possibility of aerosol spread.
8. Summarize the different viral groups based o
Virulence ∙
Virulence Factors S. aureus possesses enzymes that destroy host needed, treating secondary respiratory infections, and reducing
tissue (hyaluronidase), digest blood clots (staphylokinase), colonize
chemotherapy, often with multiple antimicrobics. Molecules
Factors on virus
Ability to induce systemicsurface impart
inflammation. Rapid high specificity for attachment
Widespread drug resistance requires antimicrobial inflammation of the tissues. Treatment includes administration
oily skin (lipase), and resist the effects of penicillin (penicillinase).
susceptibility testing to select a correct chemother-
to proteins
mutation in spike host cell results in multiple viral strains with differ-
of antiviral drugs (remdesivir, Paxlovid, molnupiravir) along with
Toxins (leukocidins) destroy neutrophils and macrophages, lyse red ing degrees of infectivity, virulence, and ability to evade vaccine-
immunomodulators (dexamethasone, baricitinib). Monoclonal
blood cells (hemolysins), and cause damage throughout the body
apeutic agent. Many cutaneous lesions require per- ∙ Multiply by taking control of host cell’s
induced immunity. genetic material and
antibody treatments (tocilizumab, sotrovimab) targeted against
foration and drainage prior to antimicrobic therapy.
(enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin).
regulatingSARS-CoV-2
Primary Infections/Disease the synthesis infectionand
leadsassembly
to of neworviruses
the virus
Size
modulators of immunity may be helpful, and serum
Range
COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease, 2019). The pathological effects from convalescent individuals may be used in patients who are
System Profile
∙ Lack
are dependent enzymes
on systemic for most
inflammation, causingmetabolic
damage to the processes
immunocompromised.
Cardiovascular/ ∙ Lack machinery for synthesizing proteins As a group, viruses are the smallest infectiou
System Profile
System Skin/Skeletal Nervous/Muscle Lymphatic/Systemic Gastrointestinal Respiratory unusual exceptions to be discussed in section 6
Disease 1. Boils, carbuncles Meningitis 1. Endocarditis Food intoxication Pneumonia Cardiovascular/
2. Impetigo 2. Toxic shock System Skin/Skeletal Nervous/Muscle Lymphatic/Systemic Gastrointestinal Respiratory Urogenital
3. Scalded skin syndrome syndrome Disease Fatigue, lethargy, Organ failure (heart, Acute respiratory
4. Osteomyelitis myalgia kidney, liver) distress syndrome
18.2 General Characteristics of the The genus Streptococcus* includes a large and varied group of bac-
teria. Members of this group are known for the arrangement of
Streptococci and Related Genera cocci in long, beadlike chains, especially when grown in a liquid
culture. The length of these chains varies, and it is common to find
Learn them in pairs (figure 18.7). The general shape of the cells is spher-
ical, but they can also appear ovoid or rodlike, especially in actively
7. Name the most important human pathogens in the genus dividing young cultures.
Streptococcus. Streptococci are non–spore-forming and nonmotile (except for
xvi
8. Summarize the virulence factors of S. pyogenes, as well as the an occasional flagellated strain), and they can form capsules and
diseases and long-term complications associated with S. pyogenes slime layers. They are facultative anaerobes that ferment a variety of
infection. sugars, usually with the production of lactic acid. Streptococci do
9. Recall the epidemiology and pathogenesis of the streptococcal not produce catalase, but they do have a peroxidase system for inac-
species most often associated with human disease and how these tivating hydrogen peroxide, which allows their survival in the pres-
groups are separated in the laboratory. ence of oxygen. Most pathogenic forms are fastidious in nutrition
10. Explain strategies used to prevent and treat streptococcal and require enriched media for cultivation. Colonies are usually
infections.
11. Relate the pathogenesis and epidemiology of S. pneumoniae. * Streptococcus (strěp′tə-kŏk′əs) Gr. streptos, winding, twisted. The chain
arrangement is the result of division in only one plane.

Microtubule
apparatus filament filaments
2.3 Chemical Reactions, Solutions, and pH 39

Cell membrane
To analyze the phenomenon, let us again re- + −

Nuclear
C rea t ing L if elo n g Le ar n e r s

view the production of NaCl but from a different membrane
standpoint. When these two atoms, called the with pores
Na 281 Cl 287 Na 28 Cl 288
redox pair, react to form sodium chloride, a so-
dium atom gives up an electron to a chlorine
Nucleus
atom. During this reaction, sodium is oxidized
because it loses an electron, and chlorine is re-
Pedagogy created to promote active learning
duced because it gains an electron (figure 2.9).
Reducing agent
can donate an
Oxidizing agent
can accept an
Oxidized cation
donated an
Reduced anion
accepted the
With this system, an atom such as sodium that electron. 1.7 The Origin and Evolution
Nucleolus
electron. electron of Microorganisms
and electron and 21
Making
can donateConnections electrons and thereby reduce another converted to a converted to a
positively negatively
Ifatoma textbook is a reducing provides agent.
the facts An atom behindthat thecan story, re- then Making Connections provides Rough the story behind thecharged facts. In ion.the twelfth charged edition, ion. new
ceive extra
Making electrons and
Connections features thereby have oxidize
been another
used to bring an enhanced degree of endoplasmic
diversity, inclusion, and equity to the study of microbiology,
1 . 2 M A K I N G C O N N E C T I O N S Figure 2.9 Simplifiedreticulum diagram of the exchange of electrons during an
molecule is the
highlighting an contributions
oxidizing agent. of peopleYou may oftenfind overlooked.
with
this concept easier to keep straight if you think of oxidation-reduction reaction. ribosomes Numbers indicate the total electrons in that shell.
redox agents as partners: The reducing
A More Inclusive WHO 1.7 Thepartner
gives its electrons away and is oxidized; the oxidizing partner
Origin and Evolution of Microorganisms 21 3.5 Media: The Foundations of Culturing 83
Smooth
4
receives 1 . 2 M the A K I N electrons
G C O N N E C T I and O N S is reduced.
orFormulas, reticulum Models, and Equations
3.2 M endoplasmic
AKING CONNECTIONS
Most of us are well acquainted with the derogatory names associated with SARS-CoV-2. The WHO, by the way, does not advocate renaming
Redox reactions are essential to many of the biochemical pro-
SARS-CoV-2;
A More Inclusive WHO China flu, Chinese virus, Kung flu, some even worse. We’re pathogens
Frau Hesse’s Medium or diseases with names already established in the literature.
cesses discussed in chapter 8. In cellular metabolism, electrons are Bacteria Thehaveatomic content ofto separate
molecules can bepaperrepresented by a few con-
also
Most of usfamiliar
are well acquaintedwithwith the racist acts—from
derogatory names associated with rudeness
or SARS-CoV-2. The to WHO,
murder—committed
by the way, does not advocate renaming by Ebola virus
a history ofand Chagas
being nearly impossibledisease fromareone hereInto stay.
an 1882 identifying the causative agent of tuberculosis,
frequently transferred from
SARS-CoV-2; China flu, Chinese virus, Kung flu, some even worse. We’re
one molecule to another as described
pathogens or diseases with names already established in the literature.
venient formulas. We have
another for individual study. As far back as 1763, Carl Linnaeus, in an act
already been using the molecular
Robert Koch extolled the virtues of agar, “The tubercule bacilli
for-
people who thought their actions were
also familiar with racist acts—from rudeness to murder—committed by
somehow justified based on the
Ebola virus and Chagas disease are here to stay.
While
of surrender, classified allcertainly
bacteria as belonging more respectful
to the taxonomic order ofbe people’s
can also cultivated on otherfeelings,
media . . . they grow,there are
for example,
here. In other reactions,

people who thought their actions were somehow justified based on the
origins of the virus. But a debate overmany oxidation
origins of the virus. But a debate over the naming of SARS-CoV-2 tells and
the reduction
naming of SARS-CoV-2 tells occur with
While certainly more respectful of people’s feelings, there are
microbiologists who feel that the new rules produce names lack- the mula, which concisely gives
Chaos. Skip ahead a century and microbiologists like Robert Koch began
many microbiologists who feel that the
to realize that if he could grow bacteria on a solid medium—as when
the atomic symbols and the
on a gelatinous mass which was prepared with agar-agar, which
new rules produce names lack-
remains solid at blood temperature, and which has received a
number of
transfer of
only a part of the story.
only a
a part of the story.
The general rule on naming hydrogen
an organism is that if atom
you discovered (ait, proton and an electron) from
ing poetry; that Rocky Mountain spotted fever is just an inherently more
interesting name than maculopapular rash disease, type one
11 (or some- the atoms involved in subscripts
mold grows on bread or cheese—isolated colonies would form that could
ing poetry; that Rocky Mountain spotted
be more easily studied. (CO , H O). More complex
supplement of meat broth and peptone.” Later papers allude to “Koch’s
fever
2 oris
plate technique” 2 just
the ubiquitous
an inherently more mol-
you get to name it. But because the World Health Organization generally thing similar). Others, like Columbia University virologist Ian Lipkin,
eculeswith creatingsuch as growth
glucose medium. His(C 6H 12O6name ) can alsoattachedbeto hersymbolized
type 11 (or this way,
Walther Hesse was a laboratory technician in Koch’s lab and was “Petri dish,” but Angelina Hesse’s
compound The
takes the flak when a name to
general another.
proves
rule on naming
offensive, the WHO has always had a
hand in the name game. For more than a century most new organisms were an organism is that if you discovered
feel that the new name recommendations obscure relevant facts, saying
“I don’t see how it will be helpful to eliminate names like monkey pox, it, interesting
tasked
name
a solid bacterial
than maculopapular
efforts focused
rash
was never
disease, dis-
some-
on using gelatin to congeal the beef stock used in the lab. While this covery. In a 1939 paper reviewing
you
Salmon),get tovirusname it. But because
named after people, places, and animals, giving us Salmonella (after David
Marburg (a city in Germany), and swine the World
(pig) flu. Unfortu- infection.” Health Organization
the best of intentions justgenerally
that provide insights into natural hosts and potential sources of
And sometimes don’t work out.
but
thing
produced anthis
needed to grow
acceptablyformula
similar). Others, is
solid surface when cold,
bacteria, the medium
not
at unique,
likeMaking
the warmer
quickly melted.
temperatures because
Columbiamatters University
introduction
fructose
effect that the and galactose also
of agar-based virologist
the transformative
medium Ian Lipkin,
nately, this strategy also gave us GRID (gay-related immune deficiency) an
takes
early name fortheAIDS. flak
Did the when
name Norwalk a virus
name proves
reduce property
SARS, a name designed not to offend, did not go over well in Hong
values offensive, the WHO
Kong, which is officially known as thehas always
Hong Kong had a
special administra-
share
feel
worse,
thattheit.
some bacteria
and liquefying the Molecular
would
medium. newThe beef name formulas
source, digesting itare
broth used recommendations
use the gelatin as a food
to grow bacteria in the
haduseful,
on the science ofbut
obscure
Arthur Hitchens and Morris
they
relevant
microbiology,
Lei-
only facts, summarize
saying
in Norwalk, Ohio? Did hog farmers lose money when swine flu was
hand
named? Thein theto both
answer namequestions game. Foryes.
is almost certainly more thanDelta
tive region, or SAR.
a century most new organisms were “I the don’t atoms
who occasionally see
workedhow
in a it compound;
laboratory was prepared by Walter Hesse’s wife, Angelina Fanny Hesse,
as an assistant will be
and scientific helpful
illustrator
they do
for theto Reed
not
eliminate show
Medical Center names the
kind, two scientists from the Walter
position
and Johns like monkey pox,
of bonds
Airlines likely lost money due to a particularly virulent strain
named
newly discovered after people,
pathogens Practice
In 2015, the WHO released updated guidance for the naming of
places,
that affect humans. and
SECTION
People, animals,
places, and ani- 2.2 giving us Salmonella (after David
of SARS-CoV-2 being named the delta variant (after Delta, the
fourth letter of the Greek alphabet). Should the airline have any re-
between
that
which was provide
commonly used atoms. insights
to thicken Forofthis
lab. She suggested the use of agar, a polysaccharide derived from algae,
a number into purpose,
natural
foods (especially des- chemists
hosts
suggestion, and
“Could use
Hopkins University, proposed a
agar’structural
potential
not ‘plain sources formulas of
illustrating the relationships of the atoms and
just don’t work out.and
the number
mals were out, as were occupations, food, and terms that incite fear, like serts) in Asia, and Angelina learned of it through friends of hers who had from now on be designated as ‘Frau
Salmon), Marburg virus (a city in Germany),
fatal or epidemic. The new rules relied on symptoms (respiratory disease, and swine (pig) flu. Unfortu-
course to recover lost money from the U.S. government or World
infection.”
lived in Indonesia. OnceAnd sometimes
boiled, broth containing agar cooledthe best
to produce a of intentions
Hesse’s medium’? Her contribu-
Flagellum Chloroplast Centrioles
diarrhea) along with epidemiological Celljuvenile).
terms (seasonal, severe, wall Health Glycocalyx that were hurt by the pandemic.)
Organization? (Recall that the U.S. government distributed
typeswasaof bonds Other structural models well present in Hongthe
firm surface ideal for isolating bacterial growth. What’s more—unlike tion to bacteriology makes her im-
Hence,7.severeExplain
nately, this strategy
acute respiratory how
syndrome alsothegave
associatedconceptsus GRID
coronavirus type 2, ofbillions
molecules
(gay-related and compounds
immune
of dollars to businesses
deficiency)are an SARS,
gelatin—agar notname
digestible (figure
bydesigned
bacteria, solving yetnot 2.10).
another to offend,
problem. mortal.” did not go over U.S. National Library of Medicine
In Some Eukaryotes early related.

name for AIDS. Did the name Norwalk virus reduce property values three-dimensional
Kong, which is officially appearanceknown as ofthe a molecule,
Hong Kong illustrating
special the orien-
administra-
Quick Search
inWhen8. Distinguish
Norwalk,
you encounter Ohio?
the name
microorganism in the chapters ahead, it
between
of Did
a hog thefarmers
general lose reactions
Search the Web
using the phrase
money in whencovalent, swine ionic, flu and
15. Explain the concepts behind the organization of the two main trees
was tation
tive region, of atoms
or SAR. (differentiated
Others contain dozens of precisely measured ingredients
by color codes) and the molecule’s
TABLE 3.6A Chemically Defined Synthetic Medium
verview of composite eukaryotic cell.
helpful tohydrogen
isnamed? take the timeThis
The answer
to sound drawing
bonds. to bothrepresents
it out questions isall “Bacterial
Pathogen almost
of structures
life, certainly
and indicate where theassociated
yes.
major with eukaryotic
groups of microorganisms fall overallcells,
(table 3.6A). but no(figure
shape
Such standardized
2.11). Many complex
and reproducible media are most
molecules
for Growth and Maintenance such of as pro-
one syllable at a time and repeat until it
esses all of them. See figuresseems
5.16, In5.23, 2015, and 5.25
the more WHO for examples
released of on these trees.
individual
Pronunciation
cell types. Delta Airlines likely lost
useful in research and cell culture. But they can only be used when
money due to a particularly virulentaureus
Pathogenic Staphylococcus strain
9.familiar.
Which You are kindsmuch of elements tendupdated
to16.make
Station” for help
Explain theguidance
covalent for taxonomy,
bonds?
bases for classification, the namingand nomenclature.of the
teins
exact
are
nutritional needs
nowof the
represented
test organisms are known.
by
For
computer-generated
0.25 Grams Each 0.5 Grams Each images
0.12 Grams Each (see
likely to remember the names that
newly discovered
will become part pathogens that affect
in correctly
17. Recall the order of taxa and the system of notation used in creating
humans. People, places, and ani- of SARS-CoV-2 being
example, a medium developed to grow the parasitic protozoan
named the delta
of These Amino variant (after
of These Amino Delta, the
of These Amino
10.
way—and
Distinguish
they
between
of the
a single
pronouncing
and a double
scientific
some common names. bond. figure
Leishmania
2.24,
required 75
step
different
4).
chemicals.
Acids Acids Acids
new language you will be learning. fourth letteris aofnonsynthetic,
the Greek
If even one component of a given medium is not chemically
alphabet). Should the airline haveAspartic anyacidre-
Quick Search
scientific names.
mals
11. were Define out, as wereand
polarity occupations,
explain what food, causes and it. terms that incite fear, like (table 3.6B). Molecules,
definable,
The composition of thisincluding
the medium or complex,
those
medium 3
inCystine
cells, are constantly
Arginine
involved in
fatalPractice
or epidemic. The new coordinating
rules relied All Life Ismechanism
on symptomsRelated and Connected in
(respiratory the cell
disease, membrane. course Flagella to recover can lost
move money
type of medium cannot
from
be
the
Histidine
U.S. government
Glycine
or World
Glutamic acid
leading to changes in the composition of the

described by an exact chemical formula, and it generally contains Leucine Isoleucine
Function of External and Boundary 12. WhichSECTION kinds 1.6 of elements tend to make ionic bonds? Through Evolution chemical
Health reactions,
Organization? a(Recall that the
ProlineU.S. ongovernment aredistributed
parts of what were once living organisms, such as meat, plants, eggs, Phenylalanine Lysine
This
diarrhea) feature along remindswith students
epidemiologicalthe cell thatAsby videos,
terms pushing animations,
(seasonal, it forward
severe, and like
juvenile). a fishtail
pictorial displays
and or Other
milk. bythat pulling
examples provide
are blood,it serum,
byfurthersoybean information
digests, and the Methionine
topic justbreaking
a click
Structures of the Eukaryotic 14.
15.13.
Cell
Differentiate between
What isDifferentiate
taxonomy, classification,
the basis for a phylogeneticbetween
and nomenclature.
an anion and
we indicated
a cation,
earlier, taxonomy,
is a system using
the classification
examples.
of biologi-
matter
billions
peptone. Peptone isthey
of a partiallycontain.
dollars to These
businesses
digested protein, rich changes
in amino acids,
that were generally
Tryptophan
hurt by involve
Serine
the pandemic.) the
away
Hence, usingsevere their acute smartphone,
respiratory lashing
system of classification?
tablet,
syndrome or twirling
or
cal species,
computer.
associated motion This
used to organize
there are coronavirus
(methods
figure
integration 5.4c).
all of the forms of life.
for type
deciding2,
The
ofthat isplacement
learning
often used as avia carbon and
technologynum-
and nitrogen helps
source. Nutrient broth,students become more engaged and
Tyrosine Threonine
16. Explain the binomial system of nomenclature and give the correct
14.
order ofDifferentiate
In biology today, different on
bloodand making
agar, and MacConkey agar, of though
bonds differentand theandrearrangement
in function ofValineatoms. The chemical
Cell movement empowered in theirbetween
taxa, going from most general
study of oxidation
to most specific.ber
17. Explain some of the benefits of using scientific names for organisms.
the offeatured and categories,
flagella
taxonomic reduction,
edness of organisms. canThe
topic. be
but they all
natural
and
useful
rely onbetween
the history andan
in identifying
relatedness between
relat-
groups of flagellated
appearance,
substances
mixture
protozoa
are all complex nonsynthetic
of nutrients for microbes that withstart
media. They present a rich
complexa reaction
nutritional needs. and
Additional ingredients
that are
0.005 mole nicotinamide
changed by the reaction
Adherence to surfaces; development oxidizing of biofilms agent and a reducing and certain agent, using
algae.
living things is calledexamples.
their phylogeny. Biologists can apply
Tables 3.6A and 3.6B provide a practical comparison of the two 0.005 mole thiamine
and mats; protection 1.7 The Origin and Evolution

their knowledge of phylogenetic relationships to develop a sys-
are
categories, called
based on media the usedreactants.
to grow Staphylococcus The substances
aureus. that
0.005 mole pyridoxine result
—Vitamins
from the reaction
Cilia are
tem of taxonomy.
very how similar Quick in overall
Search archi-Every substanceQuick
in medium Search
A is known to a very precise degree. The 0.5 micrograms biotin
of
Structural support and shape Microorganisms
To understand organisms originate, we must understand
are
dominant called
substances the
in medium Bproducts.
are macromolecules that Keep contain in mind that
1.25 grams magnesium all
sulfate of the matter in any
When you encounter the tecture name to flagella,

of
that dismiss
aevolution as but“only theyasthe
a theory” areWeb
some fundamentals of evolution. You have no doubt heard comments
Search though shorter
there remain sig- and
unknown (but Topotentially
compare required)the nutrients. Both A and B will sat- 1.25 grams dipotassium hydrogen phosphate
Selective permeability; cell-cell Learn interactions; using the phrase

nificant problems with its acceptance. But you have also learned that reaction
isfactorily is
grow the bacteria. retained
(Which one would inyousome
rather make?) form,1.25and grams the same types and
sodium chloride
—Salts
numbers
microorganism in the chapters more numerous
a scientific theory is (some
ahead, it cells have
establishedseveral 15.
types
Explain
of
the concepts behind the organization of the two main trees
2.3 evolutionaryChemical Reactions, Solutions, and pH
a highly documented and well- con- 0.125 grams iron chloride
adhesion to surfaces; signal
14. transduction
Discuss the fundamentals of evolution, evidence used to verify cept. The body of knowledge “Bacterial
that has accumulated over hundreds of of atoms
movement seen going into the reaction will
Ingredients be
are present
dissolved in 1,000 in
milliliters ofthe
distilled products.
water and
theorythousand). They are found only in certain of life, and indicate where the major groups of microorganisms fall of
is helpful
of organisms. to take the time to sound
trends, and the use of evolutionary in the study
itallout
years regarding
from
the process
disciplines consider
of evolution
Pathogen
is so significant that scientists
evolution to be a fact. It is an important Chemists
buffered to a final pH of 7.0.
3. Complex means that the medium has large molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides,
in eukaryotes, and biologists use shorthand to summarize the content

lipids, and other chemicals that can vary greatly in exact composition.
one syllable at a time and repeat until it protozoa and animal cells.
Pronunciation
In the ciliated on these trees.
a reaction
find videos by usingmeans of a chemical equation. In an equation, the
seems familiar. Learn You areprotozoa, much more the cilia occur Station” in rows for help over the cell 16. Explain the search
reactant(s) arewords
the bases
on theforleft classification,
of an arrow taxonomy,
and the and product(s)nomenclature. are on the
the pair in the center. Thislikely architecture to remember permits thesurface, names where that they inbeat correctlyback and forth in amoebic,
pronouncing right.
17. Recall The the number
order of of atoms
taxa and of
the each
system elementof notation must be
used balanced
in creatingon
to slide past each other, whipping12. Classify
way—and thethey flagellum
differentwill forms become regular
of part oarlike
chemical the strokes
of shorthand and (figure
types of5.5) and pro-
reactions. flagellate, and
some common either side
scientific
ciliate movement of the
names. arrow. Note that the numbers of reactants and prod-
Although details of this new 13.process Explain solutes,
language are
you too will be vide
solvents, andrapid
learning. motility. On
hydration. some cells, cilia also
scientific names. uctsonare indicated by a coefficient in front of the formula (no coef-
YouTube.
ss here, it involves expenditure of energy and a function as feeding and filtering structures.
14. Differentiate between hydrophilic and hydrophobic. ficient means 1). We have already reviewed the reaction with sodium
15. Describe the pH scale and how it was derived; define acid, base, AllandLife chloride, Is Related which would and be shownConnected with this equation:
Footnotes
and neutral levels.
Practice SECTION 1.6 Through Evolution
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Footnotes provide the reader with additional information about the textAs
14. Differentiate between taxonomy, classification, and nomenclature.
content.
we indicated
Most equations earlier,
do not give the classification
the details
taxonomy, or even exact of biologi-
order of the
15. What is the basis for a phylogenetic system of classification? cal species,
reaction butis a
are system
meant used
to to
keep organize
the all
expression of
a the
simpleforms of
overviewlife.of
In biology
the process today,
being there
shown. are different
Some of the methods
common for deciding
reactions in on
organ-
16.4. Explain
A mnemonicthedevice
binomial system
to keep ofthis
track of nomenclature and Lose
is LEO says GER: giveElectrons
the correct
Oxidized; Gain Electrons Reduced.
order of taxa, going from most general to most specific. taxonomic
isms are categories,
syntheses, but they all
decompositions, rely
andon the history
exchanges. and relat-
edness of organisms. The natural relatedness between groups of
17. Explain some of the benefits of using scientific names for organisms.
living things is called their phylogeny. Biologists can apply
their knowledge of phylogenetic relationships to develop a sys-
tem of taxonomy.
1.7 The Origin and Evolution To understand how organisms originate, we must understand
xvii
of Microorganisms some fundamentals of evolution. You have no doubt heard comments
that dismiss evolution as “only a theory” as though there remain sig-
Learn nificant problems with its acceptance. But you have also learned that
chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd 17 a scientific theory is a highly documented and well-established con- 6:52 PM
06/10/22
Creating Lifelong Learners
Combination Figures
Line drawings combined with photos give students Basidiocarp
two perspectives: the realism of photos and the ex- (cap)
planatory clarity of illustrations. The author chose this
method of presentation to link what students read in
the text to what they see in the laboratory, or even at Young
Gill
mushroom
home. (button)
Basidia
Mycelium
Above Basidiospores
ground
Below
ground
FERTILIZATION
Basidiospores
(−) Mating strain vary in genetic
makeup.
(−)
(+) Mating strain
(+)
Germination of
mating strains
IT Stock/age fotostock
Illustrated Tables
Illustrated tables provide quick access to information. Horizontal contrasting lines set off each entry, making them easy to read.
TABLE 3.2 Comparisons of Types of Microscopy
I. Microscopes using visible light illumination
Maximum effective magnification = 1,000× to 2,000×*.
Maximum resolution = 0.2 μm.
The subject here is amoeba examined at 400× with four types of microscopes. Notice the differences in the appearance of the field and the degree of
detail shown using each type of microscope.
Bright-field microscope Dark-field microscope Phase-contrast Differential interference

microscope contrast microscope
Common multipurpose microscope Best for observing live,
for live and preserved stained unstained specimens; specimen Used for live specimens; Provides very detailed,
specimens; specimen is dark, field is is bright, field is dark; provides specimen is contrasted against highly contrasting, three-
bright; provides fair cellular detail. outline of specimen with gray background; excellent for dimensional images of
reduced internal cellular detail. internal cellular detail. live specimens.
(bright-field): Lisa Burgess/McGraw Hill; (dark-field): Lisa Burgess/McGraw Hill; (Phase-contrast): Stephen Durr; (Differential interference): Micro photo/iStock/Getty Images
II. Microscopes using ultraviolet or laser beam illumination
Maximum effective magnification = 1,000× to 2,000×*.
Maximum resolution = 0.2 μm.
xviii

Neal R. Chamberlin/McGraw Hill
complicated by pneumonitis, hepatitis, and endocarditis. Mild or sub-
clinical cases resolve spontaneously, and more severe cases respond to
doxycycline therapy. A vaccine is available in many parts of the world a cat. The pathogen can be isolated in over 40% of cats, especially
and is used on military personnel in the United States. People working kittens, and disease occurs most frequently in those under 15 years of
with livestock should avoid contact with excrement and secretions and age. Signs of infection appear 1 to 2 weeks after exposure, beginning
should observe decontamination precautions. with small papules near the scratch or bite followed by swollen, pus-
Cells within the genus Bartonella* are small, gram-negative rods filled lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy) close to the lesion 1 to 3 weeks
which, while fastidious, are not intracellular parasites. Only a few of later (figure 21.19). Although most infections remain localized and
Clinic Cases
the 45 species in the genus are common human pathogens. Bartonella resolve in a few weeks, azithromycin is recommended to speed resolu-
quintana is carried by lice and is the agent of trench fever. Infection tion of lymphadenopathy. The risk of disease can be lessened by keep-
often presents as a fever of unknown origin and is common among ing cats free of fleas (which spread the bacterium from cat to cat) and
people who do not bathe or change clothes (often the homeless popu- by thorough degerming of a cat bite or scratch.
lation). Bartonella henselae is the most common agent of catscratch Bartonella is an important pathogen in AIDS patients. It is the
disease (CSD), an infection connected with being clawed or bitten by cause of bacillary angiomatosis, a severe cutaneous and systemic
infection. The cutaneous lesions arise as reddish nodules or crusts
Clinic Cases are short case studies that typically focus on a single that can be mistaken for Kaposi’s sarcoma. Systems most affected
aspect of a chapter. They provide relevance for lessons learned and
* Bartonella (barr″-tun-el′-ah) After A. L. Barton, a Peruvian physician who first are the liver and spleen, and symptoms include fever, weight loss,
easily serve as collaborative
described the genus.warm-up activities. and night sweats. Treatment relies on erythromycin or doxycycline.
CLINIC CASE
Mary Had a Little Lamb. I’d Like Some of Her Cells A call to German health authorities revealed that they were
investigating an outbreak of human Q fever associated with
Over a period of a few weeks, five patients with similar complaints inhalation exposure to a flock of sheep. The flock was used to
were seen by doctors in the New York area. All five presented with produce fetal sheep cell injections by the German physician who
fever, fatigue, chills, and headache, a combination of signs and treated the five patients. Although live cell therapy is prohibited in
symptoms so general that they provide little diagnostic informa- the United States, it is less tightly regulated in other countries. In
tion. Three of the five reported preexisting medical conditions, Germany, for instance, the procedure is permitted if the cells are
including one patient with atrial fibrillation and kidney stones, one prepared by a doctor for use only in his or her own patients.
with Parkinson’s disease and osteoarthritis, and one with multiple Immunoflorescence testing revealed Coxiella burnetii–specific
sclerosis. Digging deeper, doctors discovered that all five patients antibodies in all five patients, with especially high IgM titers, sug-
had recently traveled to Germany to receive injections of pro- gesting acute infection. The patients were successfully treated
cessed cells from sheep fetuses, a treatment known as live cell with doxycycline, although three patients reported lingering symp-
therapy. Despite a complete lack of clinical evidence since being toms of the disease (fatigue, chills, sweats, and difficulty sleeping)
introduced in the 1930s, the procedure is commonly advertised up to 10 months after exposure.
as having anti-aging effects and as a treatment for a variety of
ailments, including those displayed by the three patients reporting Q fever is a zoonotic disease. How do the patients in this case differ
preexisting conditions. from those who would normally be at risk of contracting
13.2 the disease?
Major Factors in the Development of an Infection 419
CLINIC CASE
Conjunctiva
Plague Is Not an Opportunistic Infection, Unless . . . The patient

was Malcolm Casadaban, a 60-year-old professor at the University Respiratory tract Ear
of Chicago who was well known for his work with Yersinia pestis,
Gastrointestinal
the bacterium that causes bubonic plague. A primary pathogen tract
responsible for the death of more than 100 million people in the
1300s, outbreaks of plague were still seen from time to time,
and Dr. Casadaban was working to develop a vaccine to protect
Skin
against the disease. But even plague researchers get the flu from
time to time, and this is what compelled Dr. Casadaban to visit his
primary care physician.
Not surprisingly, given his occupation, the first question the doc-
tor asked was, “Do you work with Yersinia pestis?” Dr. Casadaban
assured his doctor that he worked exclusively with an attenuated
strain of the bacterium that required excess iron—more than was
normally found in the human body—to reproduce. While it grew
well in the lab, there was no chance this strain could cause
disease. Assured that he wasn’t dealing with the “Black Death,” Pregnancy
and birth
the doctor diagnosed a viral infection and sent Dr. Casadaban
home with instructions to rest. Three days later, he returned to the
Urogenital tract
hospital, very sick, and soon thereafter died.
An autopsy revealed the supposedly innocuous strain of
Yersinia pestis in his system, but the researcher’s demise re-
mained a mystery. How could such a weakened strain of Yersinia
pestis cause death? Analysis of the doctor’s blood finally solved
the puzzle. Unbeknownst to him, Dr. Casadaban suffered from
hemochromatosis, a genetic disorder in which people accumulate Figure 13.8 Portals of entry. Infectious microbes first enter
high levels of iron in their blood. This excess of iron allowed the the body through characteristic routes. Most microbes have adapted
usually iron-starved Yersinia pestis to assume its original virulence. to a specific means of entry. Only one of these (the uterus) is an
Dr. Casadaban’s condition increased his susceptibility to a single internal portal of entry as it may allow microbes to access a
bacterial species, the one he had been working with for years. developing fetus.
Drugs meant to reduce stomach acid (to combat heartburn) may

make the patient more susceptible to infection by bacteria that
pass through the gastrointestinal tract. How is this situation For the most part, the portals of entry are the same ana-
similar to what happened to Dr. Casdaban? tomical regions that also support resident microbes: the skin,
gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and urogenital tract. The
majority of pathogens have adapted to a specific portal of entry,
one that provides a habitat for further growth and spread. This
structure of the microbe that contributes to the infection or disease adaptation can be so restrictive that if certain pathogens enter
state is called a virulence factor. Virulence can be due to a single xix
the “wrong” portal, they will not be infectious. For instance,
factor or to multiple factors. In some microbes, the causes of viru- influenza virus in the lungs invariably gives rise to the flu, but
lence are clearly established, but in others, they are not as well if this virus contacts only the skin, no infection will result. Like-
understood. In the following section, we examine the effects of wise, contact with athlete’s foot fungi in small cracks in the toe
virulence factors and their roles in the progress of an infection. webs can induce an infection, but inhaling the spores from this
same fungus will not infect a healthy individual.
chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd 19
Becoming Established: Phase 1—Portals Occasionally an infectious agent can enter6:52
06/10/22 by PM
more than one
Some microbes, including viruses, rickettsias, and a few bacteria, Inspections performed within the restaurant revealed
will only grow on live cells or animals. These obligate parasites no deficiencies regarding hand hygiene or food handling.
have unique requirements that must be provided by living animals Proper handwashing, especially after using the restroom, is
such as rabbits, guinea pigs, mice, or bird embryos. Such animals crucial in interrupting outbreaks caused by microbes like
can be an indispensable aid for studying, growing, and identifying Salmonella that spread via the oral-fecal route. Restaurant
microorganisms. administrators cooperated with the investigation, supplying the
Other microbes go a step further and thwart almost any attempt names of all food handlers, who were given paid time off to be
to culture them. These microorganisms, termed viable but noncul- interviewed and examined.
Organized to Promote
turable, or VBNC, may describe upwards of 99% of the microbes Because no employees were symptomatic, investigators
in the environment. It was only through the advent of nonculturing presumed they were searching for a carrier, someone infected
tools—principally various forms of genetic testing—that scientists with a pathogen who doesn’t display signs or symptoms of
Critical Thinking
became able to identify microbes by analyzing their DNA alone. disease. As the normal microbiome of the human gut contains
The human microbiome likely includes many viable but non- many hundreds of different species of bacteria, isolating one
culturable microbes, and these organisms may play a role in dis- particular species can be a daunting task. Samples were
eases long thought to be noninfectious, just as many oral microbes obtained from the rectum of each employee, and pure culture
always thought of as innocuous are now known to play a role in techniques were used to isolate and identify Salmonella Typhi in
cancer and heart disease. a single food handler. This employee reported having traveled
15 years previously to a country where typhoid fever was
Pedagogy designed for varied learning styles

endemic, but had not been ill and had not had contact with any
ill persons. The worker was excluded from food service work and
treated with the antibiotic azithromycin for 28 days. After three
Practice SECTION 3.5 consecutive stool specimens (obtained at least 1 month apart)
tested negative for Salmonella Typhi, the employee was allowed
TheDescribe
22. end-of-chapter material
the main purposes of media,for
and the twelfth
compare edition
the three cat- hastobeen carefully
return to work, whereplanned and
his job had updated
been held opentoforpromote
active learning and provide review
him.
for egories based on physical state, chemical composition, and usage.
different learning styles and levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. ■ How could flies (which cannot be infected by Salmonella
23. Differentiate among the ingredients and functions of enriched, se-
Typhi) act to spread disease in this case?
Chapter Summary with Key Terms
lective, and differential media.
24. Explain the two principal functions of dyes in media.
Case Study Analysis 2.Case
Case
■ How would selective media be especially useful, given the
Study Analysis
Study responsible
The pathogen Analysisfor influenza is typically assigned to the 3. The strategies used
Domain SARS-CoV-2 are re
25. Why are some bacteria difficult to grow in the laboratory? Relate type of bacterium involved in the outbreak?
A brief outline of the chapter’s main concepts is
this to what you know so far about the nutrients that are added to
These questions provide a quick check 1.1. Small a. Archaea
Small intestinal
intestinalbacterial
bacterialovergrowth
overgrowth(known
(knownby byits
itsacronym,
acronym,SIBO)
SIBO) Breathalyzer effective
Breathalyzerdetects
detects in preventi
alcohol).
alcohol).What
Whatgg
For more information on Salmonella and the diseases it is
isa condition
b.a Bacteria similar to gut fermentation syndrome. SIBO
condition similar to gut fermentation syndrome. SIBO occurs occurs in someone suffering
in someone suffering from
fromSIBO?
SIBO?
provided
media. for students, with important terms high- of concepts covered by the Case Study when
when an
causes, see chapter 20 and log on to http://www. cdc.gov c. Eukaryaan overabundance
overabundance of
ofbacteria,
bacteria,rather
ratherthan
thanyeast,
yeast, in
inthe
thesmall
small a.
a. oxygen
oxygen
reasoning.
lighted. Key terms

26. What conditions are toalso
are necessary included
cultivate in laboratory?
viruses in the the glos- and allow instructors to assess students
/salmonella/index.html.
intestine
intestineferment
d. Monera
the
thegut
gutof
fermentcarbohydrates.
ofsomeone
carbohydrates.What
someonesuffering
sufferingfrom
Whatproduct
fromSIBO?
productwould
SIBO?
wouldbe beproduced
producedinin b.b. hydrogen
hydrogen
c.c. nitrogen
nitrogen
sary at the end of the book. on the Case Study material. a.e. None of
phospholipids
a. phospholipids these
(Inset image): Moredun Animal Health LTD/Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock
d. chlorine
d. chlorine
b.b.Photo
sugars
sugars 3.3. Both
Bothgut
gutfermentation
fermentationsyndrome
syndromeand
andS
c.c. acid
acid ofofmicroorganisms
microorganismsininthe
thebody,
body,yet
yetne
n
On the Test
d.d. proteins
Chapter Summary with Key Terms proteins communicable
communicabledisease.
disease.Why
Whynot?
not?
On the Test
2.2. Diagnosis
Diagnosisof ofSIBO
SIBOisissometimes
sometimesaccomplished
accomplishedbybytesting
testingexpelled
expelled
breath
breathgases
gasesfor
forthe
theproducts
productsof
ofbacterial
bacterialfermentation
fermentation(much
(muchlike
likeaa
3.1 Methods of Microbial Investigation On theMicroscope:
3.2 The Test questionsWindow oncover material
an Invisible Realm
A. Microbiology as a science is very dependent on a number of These questions will help to prepare you to successfully answer similar questions you’ll see on the TEA
specialized laboratory techniques.
fromA.theOptical,
chapteror light, microscopy depends on lenses that
that may appear on refract
the magnified
light rays, drawing the rays to a focus to produce a NCLEX (National Council Licensure Examination).
1. Initially, a specimen must be collected from a source, TEAS image.
(Test of Essential Academic 1.On OnThethe Test
nurse
the in an emergency department is reviewing discharge
Test c. A zoonosis is a d
whether environmental or patient. Skills) 1.or ANCLEX (National
simple microscope Council
consists of a single magnifyinginstructions with a client. The client asks for clarification of a zoonosis infect humans.
2. Inoculation of a medium with the specimen is the first lens, whereas a compound microscope relies on two with regardwill
tohelp
the typeprepare
of illness. What is the best response by the nurse? d.TEAS
A zoonosis is a d
step in culturing. Licensure lenses:
Exam). Written in the style These
Thesequestions
the ocular lens and the objective lens. NCLEX
questionswill
a. (National
A zoonosis
helptotoprepare
refers
Council
you
youtotosuccessfully
successfullyanswer
to any Examination).
Licensure viral disease.
answersimilar
similarquestions
questionsyou’ll
you’llsee seeon
onthe
theTEAS (Test
(TestofofEssenti
Essent
NCLEX (National Council Licensure Examination).
3. Incubation of the medium with the microbes under seen on 2.each
The exam,
total powerthese questions
of magnification help as the
is calculated b. A zoonosis is any disease that can be successfully treated with
the right conditions creates a culture with visible product of the ocular and objective magnifying1.1. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesisconverts
powers. antibiotics.
converts_____
_____energy
energytotochemical
chemicalenergy.
energy. 2.2. Enzymes
Enzymesfacilitate
facilitatechemical
chemicalreactions
reaction
growth. students3.forge a link between the chap- a.a. light
Resolution, or the resolving power, is a measure b.ofnuclearlight
a
a.a. lowering
loweringthe
theenergy
energylevel
levelofofthe
therea
re
b. nuclear b.
b. increasing the energy levelofofthe
increasing the energy level thep
4. Isolation of the microbes in the sample into discrete, ter contents and twocapacity
microscope’s of theto most impor-
make clear images of very
c.c. electrical
electrical c.c. lowering
loweringthe
theactivation
activationenergy
energyofofth
separate colonies is one desired goal.
5. Inspection begins with macroscopic characteristics of
tant examssmall objects. Resolution is improved with shorterd.d. heat
they’ll take in the future. heat
wavelengths of illumination and with a higher Writing Challenge
d.d. increasing
increasingthe
theenergy
energylevel
levelofofthe
ther
the culture and continues with microscopic analysis. numerical aperture of the lens. Light microscopes
6. Information gathering involves acquiring additional are limited by resolution to magnifications around
Writing Challenge
For each question, compose a one- or two-paragraph answer that includes the factual information neede
data from physiological, serological, and genetic 2,000×.
Writing
questions
Writing canChallenge
also be used for writing-challenge exercises.
tests. 4. Modifications in the lighting or the lens system give rise Challenge
7. Identification correlates the key characteristics that can to the bright-field, dark-field, phase-contrast, interference,
pinpoint the actual species of microbe.
Writing Challenge questions are sug- For
fluorescence, and confocal microscopes.
1. What
Foreach
does it mean to
eachquestion,
question,compose
say microbes
composeaaone-
one-or
are ubiquitous?
ortwo-paragraph
two-paragraphanswer
answerthat
thatincludes
includesthe
thefactual 5. needed
factualinformation
information Explain how microb
neededtotocompletely
completelyad
a
2. What
questions canisalso
meant by diversity
be used with respect
for writing-challenge to organisms?
exercises. evolutionary relatio
gested as a writing experience. Stu- questions can also be used for writing-challenge exercises.
and identified by sp
3.
1. What events,
1. Discuss the discoveries,
therelationship of or inventions were probably the most final finaltotals
totalsofofreactants
reactantsand
andproducts,
dents are asked to compose a one- or Discuss
significant
a.a. anabolism
anabolismto
relationship
in the
of
development of microbiology and why?
tocatabolism
catabolism ininthe
thepathways.
6. a. What are some o
pathways.
products,
two-paragraph response using the fac- b. ATP

4. c.b. ATPto
Explain toADP
ADP
how microbiologists use the scientific method to develop 5.5. Describe
Describefour b. Comment
fourrequirements
requirements foron
for the
fermen
ferme
c. glycolysis
glycolysisto tofermentation
fermentation 6.6. IsIsfermentation the dangers of in
fermentationcatabolic ororanabolic?
tual information learned in the chapter. theories
d.d. electronand
electron explanations
transport totooxidativeforphosphorylation
microbial phenomena. catabolic anabolic
End-of-Chapter Questions
transport oxidative phosphorylation
7.7. Name
Namethree
threeelectron
electroncarriers
carriersand
andthe
thev
2.2. Give
Givethe thegeneral
generalname
nameof ofthe
theenzyme
enzymethat
that their
theirfunction.
function.Explain
Explainwhat
whatactions
actionstht
a.a. converts
convertscitrate
citratetotoisocitrate
isocitrate associated
associatedvitamins
vitaminshave
haveininmetabolic
metaboli
Questions
264 are8divided
Chapter into two
An Introduction levels.
to Microbial Metabolism b.b. reduces
reducespyruvic
pyruvicacidacidtotolactic
lacticacid
acid
Concept Mapping
c.c. reduces
reducesnitrate
nitratetotonitrite
nitrite 8.8. Explain
Explainthe
and
thesimilarities
similaritiesand
anddifference
differenc
3.3. Explain andfermentation.
fermentation.
Explainwhat whatisisunique
uniqueabout
aboutthetheactions
actionsof
ofATPATPsynthase.
synthase.
4.4. Compare
Comparethe
On Connect yougeneral
the general equation
can find equation for
foraerobic
aerobicmetabolism
an Introduction metabolism (section
to Concept (section8.3)
8.3) that provides guidance for working with
Mapping
Assess Your Knowledge with
withthe thesummary
summaryof
activities for this chapter. ofaerobic
aerobicmetabolism
metabolism(figure
(figure8.22),
8.22),verify
verifythe
the
266 Chapter 8 An Introduction to Microbial Metabolism
These questions require a working knowledge of the concepts in the chapter and the ability to recall and understand the
Level I information you have studied.
Concept
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chapter.
Level II These problems go beyond just restating facts and require higher levels of un
problem solve, transfer knowledge to new situations, create models, and predict outcomes.
Select the correct answer from the answers provided. For questions with blanks, choose the combination of answers that most accurately completes the statement. Level II problem solve, transfer knowledge to new situations, create models, and pred
1. is another term for biosynthesis. 14. Fermentation of a glucose molecule has the potential to produce a net
a. Catabolism c. Metabolism number of ATPs.
Critical Thinking
b. Anabolism d. Catalyst a. 4 b. 2 c. 38 d. 32
2. Catabolism is a form of metabolism in which molecules are 15. Complete oxidation of glucose in aerobic respiration by a eukaryote
Critical Thinking
Critical is the ability tomolecules.
thinking into
transformed reason and solve problems using facts and concepts. These
could questionsyield
potentially can be approached
a net maximumfrom a number
output of of angles
ATPs.and, in
mosta.cases, they
larger, do not have a single
smaller correctacid,
c. amino answer.
protein a. 40 b. 30 c. 38 d. 2 Critical thinking is the ability to reason and solve problems using facts and concepts. These questions c
1. b. smaller,
Use larger graph to diagram
the following d. glucose, starch of a chemical
the energetics 3. The
16. Explain how it is
compound possible
that enters for
the certain microbes
Krebs cycle is to survive and grow in most cases, they do not have a single correct answer.
3. reaction,
An enzyme with and without an enzyme.
the activation Be sure
energy to position
required reactants
for a chemical the presence
a. citric acid of cyanide, which c. would killacid
pyruvic many other organisms.
1. What do you suppose the world would be like if there were cures for 2. How would you des
and products at appropriate points and to indicate the stages in the
reaction. b. oxaloacetic
4. Suggest acid
the advantages d. acetyl
of having coenzyme
metabolic A staged in
pathways
reaction and the energy levels.c. lowers all infectious diseases and a means to destroy all microbes? What various experiments
a. increases specific
17. The FADH membrane or organelle locations rather than being free in the characteristics of microbes would prevent this from happening?
2 formed during the Krebs cycle enters the electron generation?
b. converts d. catalyzes cytoplasm.
transport system at which site?
4. An enzyme a. NADH
5. Two dehydrogenase
steps in c. complex
glycolysis are catalyzed IV
by allosteric enzymes. These
a. becomes part of the final products b.
are:complex
(1) step II
2, catabolized by d. ATP synthase
phosphoglucoisomerase, and (2) step 10,
b. is nonspecific for substrate catabolized
18. The by pyruvate
proton motive force kinase. Suggest
is the result of what metabolic products
Energy Involved in Reaction
xx c. is consumed by the reaction might

a. ATPregulate
synthase these enzymes.protons
transporting How might
during oneATP
place these regulators
synthesis
d. is heat and pH labile in process
b. figure
an electron 8.17? between the matrix and the intermembrane
gradient
5. Catalysis occurs at the site of an enzyme. 6. Beerspace of a mitochondrion
production requires an early period of rapid aerobic metabolism
a. cofactor c. redox c. glucose
of a protonby gradient between
yeast. Given thattheanaerobic
matrix and intermembrane
conditions space of
are necessary to
b. allosteric d. active a mitochondrion
produce alcohol, can you explain why this step is necessary?
6. Many coenzymes contain 7. d.
Whata buildup
would beof negatively
the expectedcharged
pHs ofionsthe matrix and intermembrane
a. metals c. proteins 19. Photosynthetic organisms convert
space of the mitochondrion? Whatthe energy
about of
the stroma into
and thylakoid
chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd
b. vitamins 20 d. substrates chemical
lumen of energy.
the chloroplast? Explain your answers. 06/10/22 6:52 PM
Natural killer cells act nonspecifically against cancerous phagosome with a lysosome results in destruction of the
and virally infected cells. Leukocytes display both phagosome contents.
chemotaxis and diapedesis in response to chemical 2. Phagocytes use a type of PRR called toll-like receptors
mediators of the immune system. (TLRs) to recognize and adhere to foreign markers on
D. Lymphatic System microbes such as PAMPs.
1. The lymphatic system parallels the circulatory system B. Interferon (IFN) is a family of proteins produced by
and transports lymph while also playing host to cells of leukocytes and fibroblasts that inhibit the reproduction of
the immune system. Lymphoid organs and tissues viruses by degrading viral RNA or blocking the synthesis of
include lymph nodes, the spleen, and the thymus, as viral proteins.
well as areas of less well-organized immune tissues such C. Complement is an innate defense system that plays a role in
O rganized to Promote
as GALT and MALT. the destruction of bacteria, viruses, and parasites. It causes
14.3 Second-Line Defenses: Inflammation reactions on the surfaces of cells which result in the
A. The inflammatory response is a complex reaction to tissue formation of a membrane attack complex (MAC) that kills
Cri t ical Thinking

injury marked by redness, heat, swelling, and pain (rubor, microbial cells by creating holes in their membranes. It also
calor, tumor, and dolor). plays roles in inflammation and phagocytosis.
640 Chapter 19 The Gram-Positive Bacilli of Medical Importance

Assess Your Knowledge
The consistent layout of each chapter allows students to develop a learning strategy and gain
These questions require a working knowledge of the concepts in the chapter
Level
confidence in their ability to master the concepts, leading I.
to success in
andthe class!
the ability to recall and understand the information you have studied.
3. a. Outline the epidemiology of the major wound infections and food 9. a. Outline the unique characteristics of Mycobacterium.
intoxications of Clostridium. b. What is the epidemiology of TB?
Developing
b. WhataisConcept Inventory
the origin of the gas in gas gangrene?
Developing a Concept
c. Differentiate between TB infection and TB disease.
Inventory
4. a. What causes the jaw to “lock” in lockjaw? d. What are tubercles?
Students can assess
b. How wouldtheir
it beknowledge of basic
possible for patients withcon-
no noticeable infection e. Describe the applications of BCG vaccine.
Select the correct answer from the answers provided. For questions with blanks, choose the combination of answers that most accurately completes
cepts by answering
to presentthese questionsofand
with symptoms looking up
tetanus? the statement. 10. a. What characteristics make M. leprae different from other mycobacteria?
the correct
5. Howanswers in appendix
are botulism D. In
and tetanus alike andaddition,
different? 1. An example/examples of ab. Differentiate
nonspecific chemicalbetween
barrier to multibacillary6.and paucibacillary
A signaling Hansen’s
molecule from microbes recognized by phagocytes is
infection is/are disease. a. pyrogen c. complement
SmartBook
6. a. allows for students
Why is listeriosis to quiz
a serious themselves
problem even with refrigerated foods?
a. unbroken skin c. cilia in respiratory tract b. PAMP d. lectin
b. Which 11. a. What is the importance of NTM?
interactively usinggroups
these are most at risk for serious complications?
questions. b. lysozyme in saliva d. all of these 7. Monocytes are leukocytes that develop into .
b. Describe the effects of Mycobacteriuma.avium complex in AIDS
7. Why is erysipeloid an occupation-associated infection? 2. Which nonspecific host defense is associated with the trachea? granular, phagocytes
a. lacrimation c.patients.
desquamation b. agranular, mast cells
8. a. What are the distinctive morphological traits of Corynebacterium?
b. ciliary lining
12. a. d.Describe
lactic acid
the bacteria in the actinomycete c. agranular, macrophages
group, and explain what
b. How can the pseudomembrane be life446 threatening?
Chapter3.13
Which of the followingInteractions
Microbe–Human blood cells function primarily as phagocytes? d. granular, T cells
characteristics make them similar to fungi.
c. What is the ultimate origin of diphtherotoxin? a. eosinophils c. lymphocytes 8. Which of the following inflammatory signs specifies pain?
b. basophils b. d.Briefly describe two of the common diseases
neutrophils a. tumorcaused by this group.c. dolor
Concept Mapping Concept Mapping
a. spleen
4. Which of the following is not a lymphoid tissue?
c. lymph node
b. calor d. rubor
9. Toll-like receptors are proteins on .
b. thyroid gland d. GALT a. phagocytes that recognize foreign molecules
Concept Mapping activities have been On Connect you can5.find an Introduction Concept Mapping that provides guidance for working withb.concept
virusesmaps,
that stimulate immune reactions
What is included intoGALT? along with concept-mapping
designedConcept
for each chapter,
Mappingand an intro- activities for this chapter.
a. thymus c. tonsils c. skin cells that provide barriers to infection
d. lymphocytes that damage parasitic worms
duction to concept mapping can be b. Peyer’s patches d. breast lymph nodes
found on
On Connect.
Connect you can find an Introduction to Concept Mapping that provides guidance for working with concept maps, along with concept-mapping
activities for this chapter.
Application, Analysis, Evaluation, and Synthesis
Critical Thinking Level II. These problems go beyond just restating facts and require higher levels of understanding and an ability to interpret,
Application, Analysis, Evaluation, and Synthesis

problem solve, transfer knowledge to new situations, create models, and predict outcomes.
Using the facts and concepts they just studied, students must reason and problem-solve to
answer these specially developed questions. Questions do not have a single correct answer
These problems go beyond Critical Thinking
just restating facts and require higher levels of understanding and an ability to interpret,
Level
and thus II toproblem
open doors discussion
solve,and application.
transfer knowledge to new situations, create models, and predict outcomes.
Critical thinking is the ability to reason and solve problems using facts and concepts. These questions can be approached from a number of angles and, in
most cases, they do not have a single correct answer.
1. Discuss the relationship between the vaginal residents and the 7. Describe each of the following infections using correct technical
Critical Thinking
colonization of the newborn. terminology. (Descriptions may fit more than one category.)
2. Can you think of some medical consequences of this relationship? Use terms such as primary, secondary, nosocomial, STD, mixed,
latent, toxemia, chronic, zoonotic, asymptomatic, local, systemic,
3. How could the microbiome cause some infections to be more severe
-itis, -emia.
Critical thinking is the ability to reason and solveand
problems usingtofacts
other infections be lessand concepts. These questions can be approached from a number of angles and,
severe?
Caused by needlestick in dental office
in most cases, they do not have a single correct4.answer.
Each of the nine patient specimens listed below has produced a
Pneumocystis pneumonia in AIDS patient
positive culture when inoculated and grown on appropriate media.
Bubonic plague from rat flea bite
Indicate whether this result is indicative of infection, and explain why
1. a. What is the main clinical strategy in preventing gas gangrene?
or why not. 8. What would be the likely consequence
Diphtheria of diphtheria infection alone
Undiagnosed chlamydiosis
b. Why does it work? Urine from urethra Liver biopsy without
Blood toxemia? Acute necrotizing gingivitis
2. a. Lung biopsy
Why is it unlikely that diseases such as tetanus and botulismThroatwill 9. How Urine
canfrom
onebladder
tell that acne Syphilis
involves an infection?
of long duration
Saliva Cerebrospinal fluid Semen Large numbers of gram-negative rods in the blood
ever be completely eradicated? 10. Do you think the spittoons
5. Use the following formula to explain the relationships among the A boil on the back of thewere
of the last century neck effective in
b. Name some bacterial diseases in this chapter that could be controlling tuberculosis? Why
several factors and what happens when they change: or why not?
An inflammation of the meninges
completely eradicated, and explain how. 8. for
a. Suggest several reasons
Infection 11. a. ×Provide
No. of organisms Virulence an explanation the statement that why
TB respiratory,
is a “familysurgical, and
3. Why is the cause of death similar in tetanus and botulism? = gastrointestinal infections are the most common healthcare-
(infectious disease) disease.”
Host resistance associated infections.
4. a. Why does botulinum toxin not affect the senses? b. What, if anything, can beb.done
Name about multidrug-resistant
several tuberculosis?
measures that health care providers must exercise at
6. Assume that you have been given the job of developing a colony of all times
b. Why does botulism not commonly cause germ-free
intestinalchickens.
symptoms? c. Explain an important rationale fortonot
prevent or reduce theseBCG
administering types of infections.
vaccine
5. Account for the fact that boiling does not destroy botulism spores but
a. What will be the main steps in this process? in the United States to the general public.
b. What possible experiments can you do with these animals?
does inactivate botulinum toxin. 12. Carefully compare figures 19.11 and 19.23.
6. Adequate cooking is the usual way to prevent food poisoning. Why a. Describe the main differences observable in the lesions of these
doesn’t it work for Clostridium perfringens and Bacillus food two conditions.
poisoning? b. Explain how you would go about diagnosing them differentially.
7. a. Why do patients who survive tetanus and botulism often have no 13. Which diseases discussed in this chapter have no real portal of exit?
sequelae?
b. How has modern medicine improved the survival rate for these
two diseases?
xxi

Visual Assessment
Visual Assessment questions take images and concepts learned in other chapters and ask studentsVisual
to apply that
Assessment 707
knowledge to concepts covered in the current chapter.
Visual Assessment
1. Identification of a unique skin rash can often be the first step in diagnosing a disease. What infectious agents are indicated by the rashes below?
enuengneng/Shutterstock
enuengneng/Shutterstock JamesGathany/CDC
James Gathany/CDC
xxii

Changes to Foundations in
Microbiology, Twelf th Edition
Global Changes to the Twelfth ∙∙ Making Connections: Frau Hesse’s Me- ∙∙ New information on the use of phenol and
Edition dium examines Angelina Hesse’s use of hydrogen peroxide has been added.
agar to prepare microbiological media. ∙∙ Seven new photos and illustrations.
∙∙ Thousands of changes were made to this ∙∙ Twenty new photos and illustrations.
edition, most of which you’d never notice.
Sentences were clarified, statistics were Chapter 12
updated, figure legends were changed. All Chapter 4 ∙∙ Updated discussion of pre-exposure pro-
in the name of making this edition a little ∙∙ The discussion of bacterial membrane phylaxis for HIV.
bit better than the last. The following list structure has been clarified. ∙∙ A new section focusing on the treatment of
represents a few of the larger changes ∙∙ Updated and clarified explanation of pro- COVID-19.
you’ll encounter. karyotic classification as well as the upper ∙∙ Five new photos and illustrations.
∙∙ Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion: and lower limits of bacterial size.
McGraw Hill is dedicated to creating ∙∙ Eleven new photos and illustrations.
products that foster a culture of belonging Chapter 13
and are accessible to all the diverse global ∙∙ New Case Study on coronavirus infection
customers we serve. Within this edition,
Chapter 5
in zoo animals and sylvatic cycles.
content has been reviewed to implement ∙∙ A new discussion of endosymbiotic theory ∙∙ New Clinical Connection examining ex-
inclusive content guidelines around topics opens the chapter. actly when humans begin to acquire resi-
including generalizations and stereotypes, ∙∙ Nineteen new photos and illustrations.
dent microbiota.
gender, abilities/disabilities, race/ethnic- ∙∙ Twelve new photos and illustrations.
ity, sexual orientation, diversity of names, Chapter 6
and age.
∙∙ Art Accessibility: Accessibility has been
∙∙ The chapter opens with a new introduction Chapter 14
to viruses. ∙∙ New discussion on the role of erythrocytes
improved in this edition by ensuring ∙∙ Seven new photos and illustrations.
meaningful text and images are distin- and neutrophil extracellular traps in the
guishable and perceivable by users with immune system.
limited color vision and moderately low Chapter 7 ∙∙ Five new photos and illustrations.
vision. ∙∙ An updated and expanded discussion of
human microbiota is now found in the Chapter 15
Chapter-Specific Changes chapter.
∙∙ New Case Study on the development of
Chapter 1 vaccines against SARS-CoV-2.
∙ New Case Study examines the similarities Chapter 8 ∙∙ New Clinic Case on the use of
between the 1919 Spanish influenza pan- ∙∙ Three new photos and illustrations. monoclonal antibodies in the treatment
demic and the COVID-19 pandemic. of COVID-19.
∙∙ New discussion of the slave Onesimus and ∙∙ New discussion of viral vector and RNA
variolation, his contribution to protecting
Chapter 9 vaccines.
the inhabitants of Boston from smallpox ∙∙ A short discussion of RNA and its contri- ∙∙ Seventeen new photos and illustrations.
in 1721. bution to the expression of genes through-
∙∙ Making Connections: A More Inclusive out the cell has been added.
WHO discusses the latest naming stan- ∙∙ Twenty-four new photos and illustrations. Chapter 16
dards established by the World Health ∙∙ Four new photos and illustrations.
Organization to promote equity and Chapter 10
inclusion.
∙∙ Thirteen new photos and illustrations.
∙∙ The explanation of recombinant DNA Chapter 17
technology has been clarified. ∙∙ A new discussion of MALDI-TOF
∙∙ A discussion of Onpattro, the first RNAi (Matrix-Associated Laser Desorption/
Chapter 2 therapy approved for use, has been added Ionization Time of Flight) as a means of
∙∙ New information on the use of liposomes to the chapter. identifying microbial samples.
to deliver mRNA in the SARS-CoV-2 ∙∙ Nineteen new photos and illustrations. ∙∙ A new discussion of point-of-care and
vaccine. rapid diagnostic tests.
Chapter 11 ∙∙ Seventeen new photos and illustrations.
Chapter 3 ∙∙ A discussion of the use of ultraviolet disin-
∙∙ Clarified discussion of microscopy, par- fection during the COVID-19 pandemic
ticularly magnification and resolution. has been added.
xxiii

Acknow ledgment s
The idea of “writing a book” has changed considerably over the last Lorraine Buczek, Designer David Hash, and Copy Editor Kevin
several years. It used to be ink on paper, very straightforward. Now Campbell. These are the hosts of the reality show Let’s Write a
it’s ink on paper, online content, clickable links, and the whole Textbook, where they bring their considerable powers to bear on,
thing downloads to your phone. Two things I’m grateful for. First, well, me, I suppose. Without them, Foundations in Microbiology
I’m not responsible for most of that, and second, I have a whole would not exist, and it is my great good fortune to work with
bunch of help. them once again.
Those who do know about online content and clickable links— Despite the careful work of all these people, typos, errors, and
and typefaces, paper types, permissions, and everything else that oversights may make it to the printed page. These errors belong
goes into a book—are the remarkable people at McGraw Hill. It solely to me. If you find an error or wish to make other comments,
is impossible for me to thank them adequately, so I will thank feel free to contact the publisher, sales representative, or myself
them inadequately: Portfolio Manager Lauren Vondra, Lead (barry.chess.micro@gmail.com). Enjoy.
Product Developer Krystal Faust, Sales Manager Tami Hodge, —Barry Chess
Project Manager Jeni McAtee, Content Licensing Specialist
xxiv

To t he Student
In this space I usually write something about microbiology being an For most of you, this course is a required prerequisite for your cho-
invisible science, and despite our close and constant interactions sen career, but microbiology is so much more. From before we’re
with microorganisms of all sorts, the subject is the very definition born until after we die, we have an intimate association with all
of “out of sight, out of mind.” manner of microorganisms, and the goal of this book is to make
these relationships more familiar. Which organisms are dangerous?
Not anymore.
Beneficial? Useful? Along the way, there will be Greek terminol-
The last 3 years have been dominated by one thing, and without set- ogy, a little chemistry, and some math. Sorry.
ting foot in a micro classroom or reading a single textbook page,
As you use this book, please, use this book; it was designed solely
you’ve taken a crash course in at least some aspects of microbiol-
with you in mind. Study the photographs, look up unfamiliar words,
ogy. You know about viral spikes, ivermectin, and herd immunity,
answer the questions, and make the information yours. Without
and you’ve had more than one conversation with a stranger over the
even being aware of it, you’ll gain a greater understanding of not
side effects of the Moderna versus Pfizer vaccines. You’ve received
only the world around you, but the world within you. Not a bad way
a scattershot course on microbiology, focused on a single organism
to spend some time.
(and most will say it’s not an organism at all, but let us put off that
discussion for six chapters) and driven in countless cases by people —Barry Chess
with an agenda that has nothing to do with facts. My hope is that we
can improve upon that.
xxv

C onte nts
CHAP T E R 1 2.3 Chemical Reactions, Solutions, and pH 39

Formulas, Models, and Equations 39
The Main Themes of Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures of Molecules 40
Microbiology 2 Acidity, Alkalinity, and the pH Scale 41
2.4 The Chemistry of Carbon and Organic
1.1 The Scope of Microbiology 4 Compounds 43
1.2 General Characteristics of Functional Groups of Organic Compounds 43
Microorganisms and Their Roles Organic Macromolecules: Superstructures
in the Earth’s Environments 4 of Life 45
Vintage Space/
The Origins and Dominance of AlamyStock Photo 2.5 Molecules of Life: Carbohydrates 45
Microorganisms 4
The Nature of Carbohydrate Bonds 47
The Cellular Organization of Microorganisms 7
The Functions of Carbohydrates in Cells 48
Noncellular Pathogenic Particles—Viruses
and Prions 8 2.6 Molecules of Life: Lipids 49
Microbial Dimensions: How Small Is Small? 8 Membrane Lipids 50
Microbial Involvement in Energy and Nutrient Flow 8 Miscellaneous Lipids 51
1.3 Human Use of Microorganisms 10 2.7 Molecules of Life: Proteins 51
Protein Structure and Diversity 52
1.4 Microbial Roles in Infectious Diseases 11
The Changing Specter of Infectious Diseases 11 2.8 Nucleic Acids: A Program for Genetics 54
Microbial Roles in Noninfectious Diseases 13 The Double Helix of DNA 55
Making New DNA: Passing on the Genetic
1.5 The Historical Foundations of Microbiology 13
Message 55
The Development of the Microscope: Seeing Is Believing 13
RNA: Organizers of Protein Synthesis 55
The Scientific Method and the Search for Knowledge 14
ATP: The Energy Molecule of Cells 56
The Development of Medical Microbiology 16
1.6 Taxonomy: Organizing, Classifying, and Naming
Microorganisms 18
The Levels of Classification 19
C HAP T E R 3
Assigning Scientific Names 19 Tools of the Laboratory:
1.7 The Origin and Evolution of Microorganisms 21 Methods of Studying
All Life Is Related and Connected Through Evolution 21 Microorganisms 62
Systems for Presenting a Universal Tree of Life 23
3.1 Methods of Microbial
Investigation 64
2
3.2 The Microscope: Window on an
Moredun Animal Health LTD/
CHAP T E R Invisible Realm 66 Science Photo Library/Alamy
Magnification and Microscope Stock Photo
The Chemistry of Biology 30 Design 66
Variations on the Optical Microscope 69
2.1 Atoms: Fundamental Building Blocks
of All Matter in the Universe 32 Electron Microscopy 71
Different Types of Atoms: Elements 3.3 Preparing Specimens for Optical
and Their Properties 33 Microscopes 73
CathyYeulet/amenic181/123RF
The Major Elements of Life and Their Primary Fresh, Living Preparations 73
Characteristics 33 Fixed, Stained Smears 73
2.2 Bonds and Molecules 35 3.4 Additional Features of the Six “I”s 77
Covalent Bonds: Molecules with Shared Electrons 36 Inoculation, Growth, and Identification
Ionic Bonds: Electron Transfer among Atoms 37 of Cultures 77
Electron Transfer and Oxidation-Reduction Isolation Techniques 77
Reactions 38 Identification Techniques 79
xxvi

Contents xxvii
3.5 Media: The Foundations of Culturing 80 The Glycocalyx 133

Types of Media 81 Form and Function of the Eukaryotic Cell: Boundary
Physical States of Media 81 Structures 133
Chemical Content of Media 82 5.3 Form and Function of the Eukaryotic Cell: Internal
Media to Suit Every Function 84 Structures 134
The Nucleus: The Control Center 134
Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Passageway and Production System for
Eukaryotes 135
CHA P TER 4 Golgi Apparatus: A Packaging Machine 136
Mitochondria: Energy Generators of the Cell 137
A Survey of Prokaryotic Cells Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis Machines 138
and Microorganisms 92 Ribosomes: Protein Synthesizers 139
The Cytoskeleton: A Support Network 139
4.1 Basic Characteristics of
Cells and Life Forms 94 5.4 Eukaryotic-Prokaryotic Comparisons and Taxonomy of
What is Life? 94 Eukaryotes 140
Overview of Taxonomy 140
4.2 Prokaryotic Profiles: The Bacteria Szasz-Fabian Jozsef/Shutterstock
and Archaea 94 5.5 The Kingdom Fungi 142
The Structure of a Generalized Bacterial Cell 96 Fungal Nutrition 143
Cell Extensions and Surface Structures 96 Organization of Microscopic Fungi 144
Biofilms 100 Reproductive Strategies and Spore Formation 144
4.3 The Cell Envelope: The Outer Boundary Layer of Fungal Classification 146
Bacteria 102 Fungal Identification and Cultivation 147
Basic Types of Cell Envelopes 102 Fungi in Medicine, Nature, and Industry 147
Structure of Cell Walls 103 5.6 Survey of Protists: Algae 149
The Cell Wall and Infections 104 The Algae: Photosynthetic Protists 150
Mycoplasmas and Other Cell Wall–Deficient Bacteria 105 5.7 Survey of Protists: Protozoa 152
Cell Membrane Structure 106 Protozoan Form and Function 152
4.4 Bacterial Internal Structure 107 Protozoan Identification and Cultivation 153
Contents of the Cytoplasm 107 Important Protozoan Pathogens 154
Bacterial Endospores: An Extremely Resistant 5.8 The Parasitic Helminths 158
Life Form 108
General Worm Morphology 158
4.5 Bacterial Shapes, Arrangements, and Sizes 111 Life Cycles and Reproduction 158
4.6 Classification Systems of Prokaryotic Domains: A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm 159
Archaea and Bacteria 114 Helminth Classification and
Prokaryotic Taxonomy: A Work in Progress 114 Identification 160
4.7 Survey of Prokaryotic Groups with Unusual Distribution and Importance of Parasitic
Characteristics 119 Worms 160
Free-Living Nonpathogenic Bacteria 119
Unusual Forms of Medically Significant Bacteria 120
Archaea: The Other Prokaryotes 122 C HAP T E R 6
An Introduction to Viruses,
CHA P TER 5 Viroids, and Prions 166
6.1 Overview of Viruses 168
A Survey of Eukaryotic Cells
Early Searches for the Tiniest
and Microorganisms 128 Microbes 168
5.1 The History of Eukaryotes 130 The Position of Viruses in the Greg Knobloch/CDC
Biological Spectrum 168
5.2 Form and Function of the Eukaryotic
Cell: External Structures 131 6.2 The General Structure of Viruses 168
Jorgen Bausager/Folio Images Size Range 168
Locomotor Appendages: Cilia /Getty Images
and Flagella 131 Viral Components: Capsids, Nucleic Acids, and Envelopes 170

xxviii Contents
6.3 How Viruses Are Classified and Named 175 Determinants of Population Growth 219
6.4 Modes of Viral Multiplication 175 Other Methods of Analyzing Population
Multiplication Cycles in Animal Viruses 177 Growth 221
Persistent Viral Infection and Viral Integration 181
6.5 The Multiplication Cycle in Bacteriophages 183 C HAP T E R 8
Lysogeny: The Silent Virus Infection 184
An Introduction to Microbial
6.6 Techniques in Cultivating and Identifying Animal
Viruses 185 Metabolism: The Chemical
Using Cell (Tissue) Culture Techniques 185 Crossroads of Life 228
Using Bird Embryos 185 8.1 An Introduction to Metabolism
Using Live Animal Inoculation 187 and Enzymes 230
6.7 Viral Infection, Detection, and Enzymes: Catalyzing the Chemical
Treatment 187 Reactions of Life 230 Ingram Publishing/Alamy Stock Photo
6.8 Prions and Other Nonviral Infectious Regulation of Enzymatic Activity and
Particles 187 Metabolic Pathways 237
8.2 The Pursuit and Utilization of Energy 240
Cell Energetics 240
CHAP T E R 7 8.3 Pathways of Bioenergetics 243

Catabolism: An Overview of Nutrient Breakdown and Energy
Microbial Nutrition, Ecology, Release 243
and Growth 194 Energy Strategies in Microorganisms 243
Aerobic Respiration 245
7.1 Microbial Nutrition 196
Pyruvic Acid—A Central Metabolite 247
Chemical Analysis of Cell
The Krebs Cycle—A Carbon and Energy Wheel 247
Contents 196
Eric Erbe, ChrisPooley/ARS/ The Respiratory Chain: Electron Transport and Oxidative
Forms, Sources, and Functions
USDA Phosphorylation 249
of Essential Nutrients 197
Summary of Aerobic Respiration 252
7.2 Classification of Nutritional Types 198
Anaerobic Respiration 252
Autotrophs and Their Energy Sources 199
8.4 The Importance of Fermentation 253
Heterotrophs and Their Energy Sources 201
8.5 Biosynthesis and the Crossing Pathways of
7.3 Transport: Movement of Substances across the Cell
Metabolism 255
Membrane 202
The Frugality of the Cell—Waste Not, Want Not 255
Diffusion and Molecular Motion 202
Assembly of the Cell 257
The Diffusion of Water: Osmosis 203
Adaptations to Osmotic Variations in the 8.6 Photosynthesis: The Earth’s Lifeline 258
Environment 203 Light-Dependent Reactions 259
The Movement of Solutes across Membranes 204 Light-Independent Reactions 260
Active Transport: Bringing in Molecules against Other Mechanisms of Photosynthesis 261
a Gradient 205
Endocytosis: Eating and Drinking by Cells 207
7.4 Environmental Factors that Influence
C HAP T E R 9
Microbes 207
An Introduction to
Adaptations to Temperature 208
Microbial Genetics 268
Gas Requirements 210
Effects of pH 212 9.1 Introduction to Genetics and Genes:
Osmotic Pressure 213 Unlocking the Secrets of
Miscellaneous Environmental Factors 213 Heredity 270
The Nature of the Genetic Source: Janice Carr/CDC
7.5 Ecological Associations among Microorganisms 213
Material 270
7.6 The Study of Microbial Growth 218 The Structure of DNA: A Double Helix with Its Own
The Basis of Population Growth: Binary Fission and the Bacterial Language 272
Cell Cycle 218 DNA Replication: Preserving the Code and
The Rate of Population Growth 218 Passing It On 273

Contents xxix
9.2 Applications of the DNA Code: Transcription and 10.4 Genome Analysis: DNA Profiling and Genetic
Translation 277 Testing 327
The Gene-Protein Connection 278 DNA Profiling: A Unique Picture of a Genome 327
The Major Participants in Transcription and
Translation 278
Transcription: The First Stage of Gene
Expression 279 C HAP T E R 11
Translation: The Second Stage of Gene
Expression 281
Physical and Chemical Agents
Eukaryotic Transcription and Translation: Similar yet for Microbial Control 336
Different 284
11.1 Controlling Microorganisms 338
9.3 Genetic Regulation of Protein Synthesis and General Considerations in Microbial
Metabolism 286 Control 338
The Lactose Operon: A Model for Inducible Gene Regulation in Relative Resistance of Microbial
Bacteria 286 Tadaki crew/Shutterstock
Forms 338
A Repressible Operon 287 Terminology and Methods of Microbial Control 340
RNA and Gene Expression 287 What Is Microbial Death? 341
9.4 Mutations: Changes in the Genetic How Antimicrobial Agents Work: Their Modes of
Code 289 Action 343
Causes of Mutations 289 11.2 Physical Methods of Control: Heat 344
Categories of Mutations 290 Effects of Temperature on Microbial Activities 344
Repair of Mutations 290 The Effects of Cold and Desiccation 347
The Ames Test 291
11.3 Physical Methods of Control: Radiation and
Positive and Negative Effects of Mutations 292 Filtration 349
9.5 DNA Recombination Events 293 Radiation as a Microbial Control Agent 349
Transmission of Genetic Material in Bacteria 293 Modes of Action of Ionizing Versus Nonionizing
9.6 The Genetics of Animal Viruses 298 Radiation 349
Replication Strategies in Animal Viruses 298 Ionizing Radiation: Gamma Rays and X-Rays 349
Nonionizing Radiation: Ultraviolet Rays 351
Filtration—A Physical Removal Process 352
CHA P TER 10 11.4 Chemical Agents in Microbial Control 353

Choosing a Microbicidal Chemical 354
Factors that Affect the Germicidal Activities of Chemical
Genetic Engineering and Agents 354
Genetic Analysis 306 Categories of Chemical Agents 355
10.1 Elements and Applications
of Genetic Engineering 308
Tools and Techniques of DNA
Technology 308
10.2 Recombinant DNA Technology: How to Imitate
Akil Rolle-Rowan/Shutterstock C HAP T E R 12
Nature 316 Drugs, Microbes, Host—
Technical Aspects of Recombinant DNA and The Elements of
Gene Cloning 316
Chemotherapy 370
Construction of a Recombinant, Insertion into a Cloning
Host, and Genetic Expression 317 12.1 Principles of Antimicrobial
Protein Products of Recombinant DNA Therapy 372
Technology 319 The Origins of Antimicrobial
10.3 Genetically Modified Organisms and Other Drugs 372 Scott J. Ferrell/Congressional
Quarterly/Getty Images
Applications 320 Interactions between Drugs and
Recombinant Microbes: Modified Bacteria and Microbes 373
Viruses 320 12.2 Survey of Major Antimicrobial Drug Groups 379
Recombination in Multicellular Organisms 322 Antibacterial Drugs that Act on the Cell Wall 379
Medical Applications of DNA Technology 325 Antibiotics that Damage Bacterial Cell Membranes 381

xxx Contents
Drugs that Act on DNA or RNA 381 Signs and Symptoms: Warning Signals of
Drugs that Interfere with Protein Synthesis 382 Disease 428
Drugs that Block Metabolic Pathways 383 The Portal of Exit: Vacating the Host 429
12.3 Drugs to Treat Fungal, Parasitic, and Viral The Persistence of Microbes and Pathologic
Infections 384 Conditions 430
Antifungal Drugs 384 13.4 Epidemiology: The Study of Disease in
Antiparasitic Chemotherapy 385 Populations 430
Antiviral Chemotherapeutic Agents 386 Origins and Transmission Patterns of Infectious
Microbes 431
12.4 Interactions between Microbes and Drugs: The Acquisition
The Acquisition and Transmission of Infectious
of Drug Resistance 389
Agents 433
How Does Drug Resistance Develop? 390
13.5 The Work of Epidemiologists: Investigation and
Specific Mechanisms of Drug Resistance 390
Surveillance 435
Natural Selection and Drug Resistance 393
Epidemiological Statistics: Frequency of
12.5 Interactions between Drugs and Hosts 395 Cases 436
Toxicity to Organs 395 Investigative Strategies of the Epidemiologist 438
Allergic Responses to Drugs 396 Hospital Epidemiology and Healthcare-Associated
Suppression and Alteration of the Microbiota Infections 438
by Antimicrobials 396 Standard Blood and Body Fluid
12.6 The Process of Selecting an Antimicrobial Drug 397 Precautions 441
Identifying the Agent 397
Testing for the Drug Susceptibility of Microorganisms 398
The MIC and the Therapeutic Index 399
Patient Factors in Choosing an Antimicrobial Drug 400 C HAP T E R 14
An Introduction to Host
C HAP T E R 13 Defenses and Innate
Immunities 448
Microbe–Human Interactions:
14.1 Overview of Host Defense
Infection, Disease, and Mechanisms 450
Epidemiology 406 Barriers at the Portal of Entry: An
Inborn First Line of Defense 450 Science Photo Library/
13.1 We Are Not Alone 408 Alamy Stock Photo
Contact, Colonization, Infection, 14.2 Structure and Function of the Organs
Disease 408 of Defense and Immunity 452
Resident Microbiota: The Human as a Custom Medical Stock How Do White Blood Cells Carry Out Recognition and
Habitat 408 Photo/Alamy Stock Photo Surveillance? 452
Indigenous Microbiota of Specific Regions 412 Compartments and Connections of the Immune
System 453
Colonizers of the Human Skin 413
Microbial Residents of the Gastrointestinal Tract 414 14.3 Second-Line Defenses: Inflammation 462
Inhabitants of the Respiratory Tract 415 The Inflammatory Response: A Complex Concert of Reactions
to Injury 462
Microbiota of the Genitourinary Tract 415
The Stages of Inflammation 463
13.2 Major Factors in the Development of an Infection 418
14.4 Second-Line Defenses: Phagocytosis, Interferon, and
Becoming Established: Phase 1—Portals of Entry 419
Complement 467
The Requirement for an Infectious Dose 421
Phagocytosis: Ingestion and Destruction by White Blood
Attaching to the Host: Phase 2 421 Cells 467
Invading the Host and Becoming Established: Interferon: Antiviral Cytokines and Immune
Phase 3 423 Stimulants 469
13.3 The Outcomes of Infection and Disease 426 Complement: A Versatile Backup
The Stages of Clinical Infections 426 System 470
Patterns of Infection 427 An Outline of Major Host Defenses 472

Contents xxxi
CHA P TER 15 Specific Diseases Associated with IgE- and Mast-Cell–Mediated

Allergy 521
Anaphylaxis: A Powerful Systemic Reaction to Allergens 524
Adaptive, Specific Immunity, Diagnosis of Allergy 524
and Immunization 478 Treatment and Prevention of Allergy 525
15.1 Specific Immunities: 16.3 Type II Hypersensitivities: Reactions that Lyse Foreign
The Adaptive Line of Defense 480 Cells 527
An Overview of Specific Immune The Basis of Human ABO Antigens and Blood Types 527
Responses 480 Nevodka/Alamy Stock Antibodies against A and B Antigens 527
Photo
Development of the Immune Response The Rh Factor and Its Clinical Importance 529
System 480
16.4 Type III Hypersensitivities: Immune Complex
Specific Events in T-Cell Maturation 484 Reactions 530
Specific Events in B-Cell Maturation 486 Mechanisms of Immune Complex Diseases 531
15.2 The Nature of Antigens and Antigenicity 486 Types of Immune Complex Disease 531
Characteristics of Antigens and Immunogens 486 16.5 Immunopathologies Involving T Cells 532
15.3 Immune Reactions to Antigens and the Activities of Type IV Delayed Hypersensitivity 532
T Cells 488 T Cells in Relation to Organ Transplantation 532
The Role of Antigen Processing and Presentation 488 Practical Examples of Transplantation 535
T-Cell Responses and Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI) 489
16.6 Autoimmune Diseases: An Attack on Self 536
15.4 Immune Activities of B Cells 492 Genetic and Gender Correlation in Autoimmune
Events in B-Cell Responses 493 Disease 536
Monoclonal Antibodies: Specificity in the Extreme 498 The Origins of Autoimmune Disease 536
15.5 A Classification Scheme for Specific, Acquired Examples of Autoimmune Disease 537
Immunities 499 16.7 Immunodeficiency Diseases and Cancer: Compromised
Defining Categories by Mode of Acquisition 499 Immune Responses 539
15.6 Immunization: Providing Immune Protection through Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases 539
Therapy 502 Secondary Immunodeficiency Diseases 541
Artificial Passive Immunization 502 The Role of the Immune System in Cancer 542
Artificial Active Immunity: Vaccination 502
Development of New Vaccines 505
Routes of Administration and Side Effects
of Vaccines 507 C HAP T E R 17
To Vaccinate: Why, Whom, and When? 508
Procedures for Identifying
Vaccine Protection: Magical but Not Magic 508
Pathogens and Diagnosing
Infections 548
CHA P TER 16 17.1 An Overview of Clinical
Microbiology 550
Disorders in Immunity 514 Phenotypic Methods 550
Genotypic Methods 551 John Watney/Science Source
16.1 The Immune Response: A Two-
Sided Coin 516 Immunologic Methods 551
Overreactions to Antigens: Allergy/ On the Track of the Infectious Agent: Specimen
Hypersensitivity 516 Baylor College ofMedicine,
Collection 551
16.2 Allergic Reactions: Atopy

PublicAffairs 17.2 Phenotypic Methods 553
and Anaphylaxis 517 Immediate Direct Examination of Specimen 553
Modes of Contact with Allergens 517 Cultivation of Specimen 553
The Nature of Allergens and Their Portals of Entry 518 17.3 Genotypic Methods 556
Mechanisms of Allergy: Sensitization and DNA Analysis Using Genetic Probes 556
Provocation 519 Roles of the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Ribosomal RNA in
Cytokines, Target Organs, and Allergic Symptoms 521 Identification 556

xxxii Contents
17.4 Immunologic Methods 558 APPENDIX A Detailed Steps in the Glycolysis Pathway A-1
General Features of Immune Testing 559 APPENDIX B Tests and Guidelines B-1
Agglutination and Precipitation Reactions 560 APPENDIX C G
eneral Classification Techniques and Taxonomy
The Western Blot for Detecting Proteins 561 of Bacteria C-1
Complement Fixation 562 APPENDIX D A
nswers to End of Chapter Questions D-1
Point-of-Care and Rapid Diagnostic Tests 563
ONLINE APPENDICES An Introduction to Concept Mapping,
Miscellaneous Serological Tests 564 Significant Events in Microbiology,
Fluorescent Antibody and Immunofluorescent Exponents, and Classification of Major
Testing 565 Microbial Disease Agents by System
17.5 Immunoassays: Tests with High Sensitivity 566 Affected, Site of Infection, and Routes of
Radioimmunoassay (RIA) 566 Transmission
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 566 Glossary G-1
17.6 Viruses as a Special Diagnostic Case 566 Index I-1

1
CHAPTER
In This Chapter...
1.1 The Scope of Microbiology
1.2 General Characteristics of Microorganisms and Their Roles
in the Earth’s Environments
∙∙ The Origins and Dominance of Microorganisms
∙∙ The Cellular Organization of Microorganisms
∙∙ Noncellular Pathogenic Particles—Viruses and Prions
∙∙ Microbial Dimensions: How Small Is Small?
∙∙ Microbial Involvement in Energy and Nutrient Flow
1.3 Human Use of Microorganisms

1.4 Microbial Roles in Infectious Diseases
∙∙ The Changing Specter of Infectious Diseases
∙∙ Microbial Roles in Noninfectious Diseases
1.5 The Historical Foundations of Microbiology

∙∙ The Development of the Microscope: Seeing Is Believing
∙∙ The Scientific Method and the Search for Knowledge
∙∙ The Development of Medical Microbiology
1.6 Taxonomy: Organizing, Classifying, and Naming

Microorganisms
∙∙ The Levels of Classification
∙∙ Assigning Scientific Names
1.7 The Origin and Evolution of Microorganisms

∙∙ All Life Is Related and Connected Through Evolution
∙∙ Systems for Presenting a Universal Tree of Life
A masked child stands in front of a closed movie theater in Seattle.

(Spanish Flu): Vintage Space/Alamy Stock Photo; (White wine): John Thoeming/McGraw Hill;
(Mycobacterium): Janice Carr/CDC; (Algae unit): INTREEGUE Photography/Shutterstock; (female Aedes
aegypti mosquito): Frank Hadley Collins, Dir, Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases; University
of ND/CDC; (Louis Pasteur): Pixtal/age fotostock
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 2 10/6/22 6:31 PM

CASE STUDY Part 1 A Viral Pandemic
T
he origin of the virus will never be known for certain, social distancing recom
and the first person in the United States to contract mendations. Across the
the disease is likely also lost to history. In the United country, politics intruded as
States, cases first appeared in the Pacific Northwest, and people began to choose
the speed of the outbreak during March and April quickly sides. In Portland, a city council
outpaced early efforts to protect against the virus. debate became chaotic when
George Parrish, the health officer for Portland, Oregon, one member decried a masking
began a campaign to educate the public as to how the virus order as “autocratic and unconstitutional,”
was transmitted, emphasizing the need to control coughing adding that “under no circumstances will I be
and sneezing, especially in crowded public places. He muzzled like a [rabid] dog.” In San Francisco, 2,000 people
reached out to local religious leaders to help deliver the gathered indoors to join an anti-mask rally, which included
message from the pulpit to their congregations. A week physicians, as well as one member of the Board of
after the first confirmed case in the city, the Oregon State Supervisors. Public outcry grew louder when several city
Board of Health ordered the shutdown of all public officials, including the mayor, were photographed attending
gathering places; no restaurants, no theaters, and no school a boxing match without masks. The situation in San Francisco
for tens of thousands of students. Officials reminded the came to a head when a special officer for the Board of Health
public of the importance of hand washing and began a shot a man in a dispute over mask-wearing (he survived but
campaign to encourage social distancing. Two hundred was arrested for not following the officer’s orders).
miles to the north, Seattle had already seen a dozen deaths Because most public health decisions were made at
from the disease. The mayor asked that people avoid the local level, the success of mitigation strategies varied
gathering in churches, and some public gatherings were wildly. Health officials in Philadelphia advised the mayor to
banned entirely. On the opposite coast, the situation was no cancel several large public gatherings, including a parade,
better as the White House, Congress, and the Supreme to prevent the spread of the virus. The mayor refused, and a
Court were closed to the public. When masks were found to surge in cases followed. Meanwhile, in St. Louis, similar
reduce the risk of viral transmission, government agencies gatherings were quickly shut down, robbing the virus of an
publicized their usefulness. The San Francisco Chronicle opportunity to spread. In the end, St. Louis had one-eighth
printed a public service announcement calling those who as many deaths as did Philadelphia. While most medical
refused to wear masks “dangerous slackers” and em experts recommended quarantines and face masks, health
phasizing that beyond keeping oneself healthy, wearing a officials in many cities, according to the New York Times,
mask protected others who were more likely to suffer “opposed both these measures and placed great reliance
serious consequences. Shortly thereafter, the city of San on [the development of a] vaccine.”
Francisco passed a mask ordinance signed by the mayor The year was 1918. The wait for a vaccine would be
and the board of health. The Red Cross stepped up to 25 years.
address a mask shortage in the city, distributing 5,000
■■ What branch of microbiology focuses on the spread of
masks in less than an hour, and 100,000 over the next
disease in communities?
4 days. When a mask-buying frenzy left shelves bare,
instructions were provided on how to make your own mask ■■ How does an endemic disease differ from a pandemic
at home. disease?
As the pandemic moved through a second wave, and
then a third, fatigue set in. Despite the threat of fines, and To continue this Case Study, go to Case Study Part 2 at the end of
even imprisonment in some cities, mask wearing was the chapter.
difficult to enforce, and people did not always adhere to
Influenza virus particles

(inset) Cynthia Goldsmith/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; DigitalMammoth/Shutterstock
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 3 10/6/22 6:31 PM

4 Chapter 1 The Main Themes of Microbiology
1.1 The Scope of Microbiology ∙∙ Physiology—investigation of organismal metabolism at the

cellular and molecular levels
∙∙ Taxonomy—the classification, naming, and identification of
Learn
microorganisms
∙∙ Microbial genetics and molecular biology—the study of the
1. Define microbiology and microorganisms, and identify the major
organisms included in the science of microbiology.
genetic material and biochemical reactions that make up a
cell’s metabolism
2. Name and define the primary fields included in microbiological studies.
∙∙ Microbial ecology—the interrelationships between microbes
and the environment; the roles of microorganisms in nutrient
Put simply, you can always tell when there is an elephant in your cycles and natural ecosystems
living room. But for every elephant, oak tree, or person, there are
Studies in microbiology have led to greater understanding
billions of microbes. These microorganisms hide in plain sight,
of many general biological principles. For example, the study of
concealed by their small size. And whether we search for them be-
microorganisms established universal concepts concerning the
neath the polar ice caps, in toxic waste dumps, or in a bottle of
chemistry of life, systems of inheritance, and the global cycles of
kombucha, they are present. Microbes are ubiquitous.*
nutrients, minerals, and gases. Table 1.1 describes just a few of the
Microbiology is a specialized area of biology that deals with
occupations included within the greater field of microbiology.
these tiny life forms that are not readily observed without magnifi-
cation, which is to say they are microscopic.* And whether we call
them microorganisms, or microbes,* their effects are clearly
much greater than their size. The major groups of microorganisms 1.2 General Characteristics of
include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, and helminths Microorganisms and Their Roles
(parasitic worms). Each group exhibits a distinct collection of bio- in the Earth’s Environments
logical characteristics. The nature of microorganisms makes them
both easy and difficult to study. Easy, because they reproduce so
Learn
rapidly and can usually be grown in large numbers in the laboratory.
Difficult, because we can’t observe or analyze them without special 3. Describe the basic characteristics of prokaryotic cells and
techniques, especially the use of microscopes. eukaryotic cells and their evolutionary origins.
Microbiology is one of the largest and most complex of the
4. State several ways that microbes are involved in the earth’s
biological sciences because it integrates subject matter from
ecosystems.
many diverse disciplines. Microbiologists study every aspect of
microbes—their genetics, their physiology, characteristics that may 5. Describe the cellular makeup of microorganisms and their size
be harmful or beneficial, the ways they interact with each other and range, and indicate how viruses differ from cellular microbes.
the environment, and their uses in industry and agriculture.
In fact, many areas of the field have become so specialized The Origins and Dominance
that a microbiologist may spend an entire career focused on a sin- of Microorganisms
gle subspecialty, a few of which are:
For billions of years, microbes have shaped the development of the
∙∙ Bacteriology—the study of bacteria; small, single-celled pro- earth’s habitats and influenced the evolution of other life forms. It
karyotic organisms is understandable that scientists searching for life on other planets
∙∙ Mycology—the study of fungi; eukaryotic organisms that in- first look for signs of microorganisms.
clude both microscopic (molds and yeasts) and larger mem- The fossil record uncovered in ancient rocks and sediments
bers like mushrooms, puffballs, and truffles points to bacteria-like cells having existed on earth for at least 3.5 bil-
∙∙ Protozoology—the study of protozoa; a group of mostly lion years (figure 1.1). Early microorganisms of this type dominated
single-celled eukaryotes the earth’s life forms for the first 2 billion years. These ancient cells
∙∙ Virology—the study of viruses; noncellular particles that par- were small and simple, and lacked specialized internal structures to
asitize cells carry out their functions. The genetic material of these cells was not
∙∙ Parasitology—the study of parasites; traditionally including bound into a separate compartment called a nucleus or “karyon.”
pathogenic protozoa, helminth worms, and certain insects The term assigned to cells and microbes of this type is prokaryotic,*
∙∙ Phycology or algology—the study of simple photosynthetic meaning “before the nucleus.” About 1.8 billion years ago, there ap-
eukaryotes, the algae; ranging from single-celled forms to peared in the fossil record a more complex cell, which had developed
large seaweeds a nucleus and various specialized internal structures called
∙∙ Morphology—the study of the detailed structure of microor- organelles.* These types of cells and organisms are defined as
ganisms eukaryotic* in reference to their “true” nucleus. Figure 1.2
* ubiquitous (yoo-bik′-wih-tis) L. ubique, everywhere, and ous, having. Being, or

seeming to be, everywhere at the same time.
* prokaryotic (proh″-kar-ee-ah′-tik) Gr. pro, before, and karyon, nucleus.
* microscopic (my″-kroh-skaw′-pik) Gr. mikros, small, and scopein, to see.
* organelles (or-gan′-elz) Gr. organa, tool, and ella, little.
* microbe (my′-krohb) Gr. mikros, small, and bios, life. * eukaryotic (yoo″-kar-ee-ah′-tik) Gr. eu, true or good, and karyon, nucleus.
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 4 10/6/22 6:31 PM

1.2 General Characteristics of Microorganisms and Their Roles in the Earth’s Environments 5
TABLE 1.1 A Sampling of Fields and Occupations in Microbiology
Medical Microbiology, Public Health Microbiology, and Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering, and Industrial Microbiology
Epidemiology These branches revolve around the idea that microorganisms can be
Medical microbiology, which studies the effects of microorganisms on used to derive a desired product, from beer to vaccines.
human beings, remains the most well-known branch of microbiology. The Biotechnology focuses on the natural abilities of microbes, while
related fields of public health and epidemiology monitor and control the genetic engineering involves the deliberate alteration of the genetic
spread of diseases in communities. Some of the institutions charged with makeup of organisms to create novel microbes, plants, and animals
this task are the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) and the Centers for with unique behaviors and physiology. Industrial microbiology is the
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC collects information science of scaling up these processes to produce large quantities of a
and statistics on diseases from around the United States and publishes it desired product (see chapters 10 and 27).
in The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (see chapter 13).
A technician tests the
effectiveness of
microorganisms in the
production of new
sources of energy.
Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory
A parasite specialist
examines leaf litter
for the presence of
black-legged ticks—
the carriers of Lyme
disease.
Scott Bauer/USDA
Agricultural Microbiology
This branch is concerned
with the relationships
between microbes and
domesticated plants and
animals. Plant specialists
Immunology focus on plant diseases, soil
This branch studies the complex web of protective substances fertility, and nutritional
and reactions caused by invading microbes and other harmful interactions. Animal
entities. It includes such diverse areas as blood testing, specialists work with
vaccination, and allergy (see chapters 15, 16, and 17). infectious diseases and other
interactions between animals
and microorganisms. Microbiologists from the U.S.
A CDC virologist examines Food and Drug Administration
cultures of influenza virus collect soil samples to detect
that are used in producing animal pathogens.
vaccines. This work Black Star/Steve Yeater for FDA
requires high-level Food Microbiologists
biohazard containment. These scientists are concerned with the impact of microbes on the
James Gathany/CDC
food supply, including such areas as food spoilage, food-borne
diseases, and production.
A U.S. Department of
Agriculture technician observes
tests for the presence of
Escherichia coli in foods.
Keith Weller/USDA
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 5 10/6/22 6:32 PM

Humans
appeared.
Earliest Earliest
prokaryotic eukaryotic Mammals
cells cells appeared.
appeared. appeared.
Cockroaches,
termites
appeared.
Reptiles
appeared.
Probable Origin of
origin of earth.
universe.
14 billion 4 billion 3 billion 2 billion 1 billion Present

years ago years ago years ago years ago years ago time
Figure 1.1 Evolutionary time line. The first simple prokaryotes appeared on earth approximately 3.5 billion years ago, and the first eukaryotes
arose about 2 billion years ago. Although these appearances seem abrupt, hundreds of millions of years of earth’s history passed while they were
evolving to these stages. The fossil record for these periods is incomplete because many of the earliest microbes were too delicate to fossilize.
NASA
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell Virus
Figure 1.2 Basic structure of cells and viruses. Diagrammatic views of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, along with a virus compared to
electron micrographs of Helicobacter pylori (left), Giardia lamblia (center), and SARS-CoV-2 (right).
(helicobacter pylori bacterium): Heather Davies/Science Photo Library/Science Source; (giardia lamblia): Janice Haney Carr/CDC; (transmission electron micrograph): NIAID
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 6 10/6/22 6:32 PM

compares the two cell types and includes some examples of vi- are small membrane-enclosed structures that perform specific func-
ruses for comparison. In chapter 5 we will learn more about the tions, such as converting energy (in mitochondria) or modifying
origins of eukaryotic cells—they didn’t arise suddenly out of proteins (in Golgi apparatus). Although prokaryotic cells perform
nowhere; they evolved over millennia from prokaryotic cells similar functions, they tend to do so less efficiently because they
through an intriguing process called endosymbiosis. The early lack organelles.
eukaryotes, probably similar to algae and protozoa, started lines Prokaryotes are all microscopic in size and generally found as
of evolution that eventually gave rise to fungi, plants, and multi- single cells. The much larger eukaryotes run the gamut from
cellular animals such as worms and insects. You can see from small, individual cells to large multicellular organisms (fig-
figure 1.1 how long that took! The bacteria preceded even the ure 1.3). The study of microbiology focuses not just on micro-
earliest animals by about 3 billion years. This is a good indica- scopic, prokaryotic organisms like bacteria, but also on those
tion that humans are not likely to, nor should we try to, eliminate larger eukaryotes that are linked to illness or the spread of dis-
microorganisms from our environment. Considering their long ease; hence a microbiologist may be interested in parasitic worms,
evolutionary history, they are essential to maintaining the health or mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas that may spread infectious disease.
of the planet. A third group of organisms, archaea, are often grouped together
with the bacteria because they share several characteristics. From
a health standpoint, though, few if any diseases are linked to the
archaea, and so we will refrain from using the name archaea un-
The Cellular Organization of Microorganisms less we specifically wish to draw attention to those microbes. Just
Prokaryotic cells are nearly always smaller than eukaryotic cells and keep in mind that many traits ascribed to bacteria also apply to
in addition to lacking a nucleus, they lack organelles. Organelles archaea.
Reproductive structures A single virus particle
Bacteria: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a Fungi: Rhizopus, the common fungus seen on Virus: SARS-CoV-2, the cause of COVID-19
rod-shaped cell (15,500×). bread, with lollipop-like reproductive structures (100,000×).
(1,000×).
Algae: Micrasterias truncata (750×), one of the Protozoa: A protozoan, Oxytricha trifallax bearing Helminths: Roundworms of Trichinella spiralis coiled in the
predecessors of modern-day plants. tufts of cilia that function like tiny legs (3,500×). muscle of a host (250×). This worm causes trichinellosis.
Figure 1.3 The six basic types of microorganisms. Organisms are not shown at the same magnifications; approximate magnification
is provided. To see these microorganisms arrayed more accurately to scale, look for them in figure 1.4.
(bacteria): Janice Carr/CDC; (fungi): Rattiya Thongdumhyu/Shutterstock; (virus): NIAID-RML; (algae): Lebendkulturen.de/Shutterstock; (protozoa): National Human Genome
Research Institute; (helminths): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 7 10/6/22 6:32 PM

Noncellular Pathogenic Particles—Viruses

and Prions
Macroscopic
Viruses are well-studied in microbiology, as they are the most com-
mon microbes on earth and are responsible for diseases ranging Flea
from the common cold to AIDS, but they are not cells. Rather, vi- 2 mm Roundworm
ruses are small particles composed of a small amount of hereditary 1 mm
material, surrounded by a protein coat, and are so simple that most 200 μm Algae
biologists don’t consider them to be alive (primarily because they
Metric Chart
are incapable of replication on their own).
Length Symbol Log No. Multiplier
Prions—a contraction of the words proteinaceous infectious meter m 100 1× 50 μm
particle—are even simpler than viruses, consisting solely of millimeter mm 10–3 0.001×
Protozoan
micrometer μm 10–6 0.000,001×
protein. The very existence of prions was doubted until the late nanometer nm 10–9 0.000,000,001×
angstrom Å 10–10 0.000,000,000,1×
twentieth century, but they are now recognized as the causative picometer pm 10–12 0.000,000,000,001× 20 μm
agent of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, a group of
Microscopic
invariably fatal diseases, including mad cow disease and its human 10 μm Mold spores
counterpart Creutzfeld-Jakob disease. Both viruses and prions will
be examined in greater depth in chapter 6. 5 μm
2 μm Spirochete
Microbial Dimensions: How Small Is Small? Rods

When we say that microbes are too small to be seen with the unaided 1 μm Most bacterial cells
Cocci fall between 10 μm
eye, what sorts of dimensions are we talking about? This concept is and 1 μm in size.
Rickettsias
best visualized by comparing microbial groups with some organ-
isms of the macroscopic world and also with the molecules Poxvirus
and atoms of the molecular world (figure 1.4). The d imensions 200 nm Herpesvirus
HIV
of macroscopic organisms are usually given in centimeters (cm) and
Ultramicroscopic
meters (m), whereas those of most microorganisms fall within the Poliovirus
range of micrometers (μm) and, sometimes, nanometers (nm) and 100 nm
70 nm
millimeters (mm). The size range of most microbes extends from the 10 nm
smallest viruses, measuring around 10 nm and actually not much 2 nm DNA molecule
bigger than a large molecule, to protozoans measuring 3 to 4 mm
Most viruses fall between 1 nm
and visible with the naked eye. 200 and 10 nm in size. 0.5 nm Protein molecule
0.1 nm Glucose molecule
Microbial Involvement in Energy
Atomic
and Nutrient Flow Hydrogren atom
The microbes in all natural environments have lived and evolved

there for billions of years. We do not yet know all of their roles, but
it is likely they are vital components of the structure and function of Figure 1.4 The sizes of the smallest organisms and objects.
these ecosystems. Even though they are all very small, they still display extensive
Microbes are deeply involved in the flow of energy and food variations in size. This illustration organizes the common
through the earth’s ecosystems.1 Most people are aware that plants measurements used in microbiology, along with examples of
organisms or items that fall into these measurement ranges. The scale
carry out photosynthesis, which is the light-fueled conversion of
includes macroscopic, microscopic, ultramicroscopic, and atomic
carbon dioxide to organic material, accompanied by the formation dimensions. Most microbes we study measure somewhere between
of oxygen. But microorganisms were photosynthesizing long be- 100 micrometers (μm) and 10 nanometers (nm) overall. The examples
fore the first plants appeared. In fact, they were responsible for are more or less to scale within a size zone but not between size
changing the atmosphere of the earth from one without oxygen to zones.
one with oxygen. Today, photosynthetic microorganisms (includ- (flea): Cosmin Manci/Shutterstock; (roundworm): Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention; (algae): Lebendkulturen.de/Shutterstock; (protozoan): National
ing algae) account for more than 50% of the earth’s photosynthe- Human Genome Research Institute; (mold spores): Dr. Lucille K. Georg/CDC;
sis, contributing the majority of the oxygen to the atmosphere (spirochete): CDC; (rods, cocci): Janice Carr/CDC; (herpesvirus): Jeff Hageman,
(figure 1.5a). M.H.S/Janice Carr/CDC
1. Ecosystems are communities of living organisms and their surrounding environment.
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 8 10/6/22 6:32 PM

CLINIC CASE
Toxic Treatments Like over 100,000 of his Brazilian countrymen

(and over half a million people in the United States), Arnaldo Luis
Gomes suffered from kidney failure and depended on dialysis to
keep him alive. Three days a week he visited a clinic in the city of
Caruaru and spent 4 hours tethered to a machine that cleansed
the toxins from his blood. On this day, however, he knew some
thing was wrong. His head hurt, his stomach ached, and the
whites of his eyes began to turn yellow with jaundice, a sure sign
that his liver was failing. Despite the best efforts of his doctors,
2 hours later he was dead from toxic hepatitis. Over the next
3 days, more than 100 patients had similar symptoms. (a)
The culprit was identified as Microcystis, a type of algae which
produces a powerful liver toxin. Unlike most bacterial contamina
tion, water containing high levels of Microcystis cannot be made
safe by boiling; only removal of the algae can guarantee safety.
An investigation revealed that inadequate filtration of water from
a local reservoir allowed the use of toxin-laden water in the clinic,
eventually killing 46 clients.
Brazil is not the only place where toxic algae is a health
concern. Toledo, Ohio—which gets its drinking water from Lake
Erie—typically has several days each summer when tap water is
unsafe to drink due to high levels of Microcystis. A combination
of abundant sunlight from long summer days and agricultural
runoff into Lake Erie promote the growth of algae to dangerous
levels in the lake, which is exactly what happened in Brazil.
Speculate on why algae blooms, like the ones in Toledo, typically (b)
occur in summer.
Another process that helps keep the earth in balance is the

process of biological decomposition and nutrient recycling.
Decomposition involves the breakdown of dead matter and wastes
into simple compounds that can be directed back into the natural
cycles of living things (figure 1.5b). If it were not for multitudes
of bacteria and fungi, many chemical elements would become
locked up and unavailable to organisms. In the long term, micro-
organisms are greatly responsible for the structure and content of
the soil, water, and atmosphere. For example:
∙∙ Earth’s temperature is regulated by “greenhouse gases,” such
as carbon dioxide and methane, that create an insulation layer
in the atmosphere and help retain heat. A significant propor- (c)
tion of these gases is produced by microbes living in the envi- Figure 1.5 A microscopic world tour. (a) A summer pond is
ronment and in the digestive tracts of animals. heavily laden with surface scum that reveals several different types of
∙∙ Recent estimates propose that, based on weight and numbers, green algae called desmids (Micrasterias rotata, 600×). (b) A rotting
up to 50% of all organisms exist within and beneath the earth’s tomato being invaded by a fuzzy forest of mold. The fungus is Botrytis,
crust in soil, rocks, and even the frozen Antarctic (figure 1.5c). a common decomposer of tomatoes and grapes (250×). (c) Tunneling
through an ice sheet in Antarctica, one of the coldest places on earth
It is increasingly evident that this enormous underground com- (–35°C), to access hidden microbes. Nostoc, a red cyanobacterium
munity of microbes is a major force in weathering, mineral (3,000×), has been frozen beneath the ice here for thousands of years.
extraction, and soil formation. This environment may serve as a model for what may one day be
∙∙ Bacteria and fungi live in complex associations with plants. They discovered on other planets.
assist the plants in obtaining nutrients and water and may protect (a): Lynn Betts, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service;
(a, inset): Lebendkulturen.de/Shutterstock; (b): McGraw Hill; (b, inset): McGraw Hill;
them against diseases. Microbes form similar interrelationships (c): Ames Research Center/NASA; (c, inset): Image courtesy of the
with animals, notably as residents of numerous bodily sites. Priscu Research Group, Montana State University, Bozeman
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 9 10/6/22 6:33 PM

Practice SECTIONS 1.1–1.2
1. Define what is meant by the term microorganism and outline the im-
portant contributions microorganisms make to the earth’s ecosystems.
2. Describe five different ways in which humans exploit microorgan-
isms for our benefit.
3. Identify the groups of microorganisms included in the scope of
microbiology, and explain the criteria for including these groups in
the field of microbiology.
4. Observe figure 1.3 and place the microbes pictured there in a size
ranking, going from smallest to largest. Use the magnification as
your gauge.
5. Construct a table that displays all microbial groups based on what
kind of cells they have or do not have. (a)
6. Explain this statement: Microorganisms—we need to live with
them because we can’t live without them.
1.3 Human Use of Microorganisms

Learn
6. Discuss the ways microorganisms can be used to create solutions
for environmental problems and industrial products.
The incredible diversity and versatility seen in microbes make them

excellent candidates for solving human problems. By accident or
choice, humans have been using microorganisms for thousands of
years to improve life and further human progress. Yeasts, a type of
microscopic fungi, cause bread to rise and ferment sugar to make
alcoholic beverages. Historical records show that households in
ancient Egypt kept moldy loaves of bread to apply directly to (b)
wounds and lesions, which was probably the first use of penicillin.
The manipulation of microorganisms to make products in an
Figure 1.6 Microbes at work. (a) Algae being used as a
industrial setting is called biotechnology.* One application of this sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. (b) Biotechnology meets
process uses farmed algae to extract a form of oil (biodiesel) to be bioremediation. Scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratories
used in place of petroleum products (figure 1.6a). (PNNL) test the capacity of two newly discovered bacteria—Shewanella
Genetic engineering is an area of biotechnology in which the (green) and Synechococcus (yellow) (1,000×)—to reduce and detoxify
goal is to alter the genetic material of microbes, plants, or animals. radioactive waste. The process, carried out in large bioreactors, could
Often this involves combining DNA2 from multiple species, creat- speed the cleanup of hazardous nuclear waste deposits.
(a): INTREEGUE Photography/Shutterstock; (b): Source: Pacific Northwest National
ing recombinant DNA. These recombinant organisms may be use- Laboratory; (b, inset): Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
ful by themselves, or they may produce useful products, such as
bacteria that produce enzymes or hormones for human use. Bacte- Among the genetically unique organisms that have been de-
ria and fungi were the first organisms to be genetically engineered signed by bioengineers are bacteria that contain a natural pesticide,
because their relatively small genomes were more readily manipu- yeasts that produce human hormones, pigs that produce hemoglo-
lated in the laboratory. This technology has unlimited potential for bin, and plants that are resistant to disease (see table 1.1). The
medical, industrial, and agricultural uses (see table 1.1). techniques have also paved the way for characterizing human ge-
netic material and diseases.
Another way of tapping into the unlimited potential of micro-
organisms is the relatively new science of bioremediation.* This
process introduces microbes into the environment to restore stability

* biotechnology (by′-oh-tek-nol″-oh-gee) The use of microbes or their products in
the commercial or industrial realm.
2. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical substance that comprises the genetic
* bioremediation (by′-oh-ree-mee-dee-ay″-shun) bios, life; re, again; mederi, to
material of organisms. heal. The use of biological agents to remedy environmental problems.
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 10 10/6/22 6:33 PM

1.4 Microbial Roles in Infectious Diseases 11
or to clean up toxic pollutants. Bioremediation is required to control

TABLE 1.2 reatable or Preventable Neglected
T
the massive levels of pollution that result from human activities.
Tropical Diseases
Microbes have a surprising capacity to break down chemicals that
would be harmful to other organisms. Agencies and companies Disease Number of Cases
have developed microbes to handle oil spills and detoxify sites con-
Ascariasis 1,000,000,000
taminated with heavy metals, pesticides, and even radioactive Hookworm infection 700,000,000
wastes (figure 1.6b). The solid waste disposal industry is focusing Onchocerciasis (river blindness) 20,900,000
on methods for degrading the tons of garbage in landfills, especially Lymphatic filariasis 51,000,000
plastics and paper products. One form of bioremediation that has Schistosomiasis 240,000,000
been in use for some time is the treatment of water and sewage. Trachoma 2,000,000
With clean freshwater supplies dwindling worldwide, it will be-
come even more important to find ways to reclaim polluted water.
mosquitoes are most active in the evening.
Quick Search
1.4 Microbial Roles in Infectious Diseases Yet even this inexpensive solution is be-
Nothing But Nets
yond the reach of many people in develop- was started by
ing countries who cannot afford the $3 to
Learn sports columnist
$5 for nets to protect their families. Rick Reilly in 2006
and has raised
7. Review the roles of microorganisms as parasites and pathogens more than $70
that cause infection and disease. The Changing Specter of million for
8. Define what is meant by emerging and reemerging diseases. Infectious Diseases insecticide-treated
bed nets. www
The widespread use of antibiotics and vac- .nothingbutnets.net
It is important to remember that the large majority of microorgan- cines over the last several decades has done
isms are relatively harmless, have quantifiable benefits to humans much to alleviate the suffering caused by infectious disease. In
and the environment, and in many cases are essential to life as we 2022, 7 of the 10 leading causes of death worldwide were noncom-
know it. They are free living and derive everything they need to municable diseases—heart disease, stroke, and chronic obstructive
survive from the surrounding environment. Much of the time they pulmonary disease top the list. Simultaneously, HIV/AIDS deaths
form cohesive communities with other organisms, sharing habitat have fallen dramatically, dropping the disease from 8th to 19th over
and nutrients. Examples include the natural partnerships that are the last 20 years. But a closer look reinforces the fact that the play-
found in symbioses and biofilms.3 ing field is not level. In low-income countries, neonatal infections,
Some microbes have adapted to a non–free-living lifestyle lower respiratory infections (bronchitis, pneumonia), diarrheal dis-
called parasitism. A parasite lives in or on the body of a larger ease, malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS all remain among the
organism called the host and derives most of its sustenance from 10 leading causes of death, quite different from what is seen in
that host. A parasite’s actions generally damage the host through high-income countries (figure 1.7). Because humans are constantly
infection and disease. Another term that can be used to specify this interacting with microbes, we serve as a handy incubator for infec-
type of microbe is pathogen.* tious diseases, both those newly recognized and older ones previ-
Humanity is plagued by nearly 1,500 different pathogens and, ously identified.
worldwide, 10 million people a year die from infectious disease. Emerging diseases are newly identified conditions that are
Most of these deaths are attributable to a small number of infectious being reported in increasing numbers. Since 1980, at least 90 novel
agents and are concentrated in developing countries. Many of infectious agents have arisen within the human population. Some
earth’s 8 billion inhabitants are malnourished, not fully immunized, have been associated with a specific location, like the Ebola fever
and have little access to drugs, leaving them far more vulnerable to virus, named for the Ebola River, near which the disease was first
infections of all types. Table 1.2 displays the number of people af- seen, while other diseases are pandemic, meaning they spread
fected by what are commonly known as neglected tropical diseases across continents. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19,
(NTDs), a collection of conditions that thrive among the world’s provides a perfect example. Still others cause zoonoses,* which are
poorest populations and receive far too little attention. Most infectious diseases native to animals that can be transmitted to hu-
NTDs are easily treatable with drugs or preventable with vaccines. mans. One recent example is chikungunya virus, spread by mosqui-
Or take the case of malaria, caused by a microorganism transmitted toes to humans and other mammals. This virus traveled from the
by mosquitoes, which kills 400,000 people every year worldwide. Caribbean to Florida in 2014. It is unclear how fast the virus will
Currently the most effective way for citizens of developing coun- spread throughout the United States, as conditions become less fa-
tries to avoid infection is to sleep under a bed net, because the vorable to the life cycle of mosquitoes as one moves north. Even
more recently, Zika virus, which is spread by the same type of
mosquito (figure 1.8), has been detected within the United States.
3. A biofilm is a complex network of microbes and their secretions that form in most
natural environments, discussed further in chapter 4.
* zoonosis (zoh″-uh-noh′-sis) Gr. zoion, animal, and nosos, disease. Any disease

* pathogen (path′-oh-jen) Gr. pathos, disease, and gennan, to produce. Disease- indigenous to animals transmissible to humans.
causing agents.
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 11 10/6/22 6:33 PM

Leading causes of death in low-income countries Leading causes of death in high-income countries
2000 2020 2000 2020

1. Neonatal conditions 1. Ischaemic heart disease
2. Lower respiratory infections 2. Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias
3. Ischaemic heart disease 3. Stroke
4. Stroke 4. Trachea, bronchus, lung cancers
5. Diarrheal diseases 5. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
6. Malaria 6. Lower respiratory infections
7. Road injury 7. Colon and rectum cancers
8. Tuberculosis 8. Kidney diseases
9. HIV/AIDS 9. Hypertensive heart disease
10. Cirrhosis of the liver 10. Diabetes mellitus
0 200 000 400 000 600 000 0 1 2 3

Number of deaths Number of deaths (in millions)
Noninfectious Infectious Injuries Noninfectious Infectious
Figure 1.7 The burden of infectious disease. As the average income of a country increases, the risk of death from infectious disease
decreases dramatically. Chronic diseases, many of which occur later in life, take a much greater toll in developed countries.
Reemerging diseases are older, well-known diseases that are Altogether, government agencies are keeping track of more
increasing in occurrence. Among the most common reemerging in- than 100 emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. Reemerg-
fectious diseases are tuberculosis (TB), influenza, malaria, cholera, ing diseases demonstrate just how difficult it is to eradicate
and hepatitis B. Tuberculosis, which has been known since ancient microbes and the diseases they cause, even though we are aware of
times, still causes 10 million new infections and kills 1 million to them and often have drugs and vaccines to combat them. Only
2 million people every year. As you will see, numerous factors play smallpox has been eliminated, although we are very close to eradi-
a part in the tenaciousness of infectious diseases, but fundamental to cating polio. In fact, we continue to experience epidemics of child-
all of them is the formidable capacity of microbes to adapt to altera- hood diseases that are usually preventable with vaccines. A prime
tions in the individual, community, and environment. example is measles—considered eliminated from the United States
in 2000—which has reemerged as vaccination rates have declined.
A major contributing factor in the spread of disease is our in-
creased mobility and travel, especially by air—an infected person can
travel around the world before showing any symptoms of infection,
carrying the infectious agent to many far-flung locations and expos-
ing populations along the way, who in turn can infect their contacts.
A second factor is the spread of diseases by vectors, living organisms
such as fleas, ticks, or mosquitoes. Emerging viruses like chikungu-
nya, dengue, and Zika are all spread by the Aedes mosquito, which is
so aggressive it routinely follows people indoors to partake of a blood
meal (figure 1.8). Other significant effects involve our expanding
population and global food-growing practices. As we continue to
encroach into new territory and wild habitats, there is potential for
contact with emerging pathogens, as has been seen with Ebola fever,
Lyme disease, and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Our agricultural
Figure 1.8 The Aedes aegypti mosquito is the vector for practices can unearth microbes that were lying dormant or hidden. A
several emerging viral diseases. In this female mosquito, feeding bacterium carried in the intestine of domestic cattle, Escherichia coli
on her photographer, blood can clearly be seen within the fascicle O157:H7, the agent of a serious kidney disease, has been associated
(feeding apparatus) and filling the distended abdomen of the with hundreds of thousands of infections from food and water con-
mosquito. Because this species is found throughout the Americas, it is taminated with cattle feces. Mass-produced fresh food can also travel
thought to be only a matter of time before the Zika, dengue, and around the world, infecting people along the way. Several large out-
chikungunya viruses are well established in the United States.
breaks of salmonellosis, shigellosis, and listeriosis have been traced
Frank Hadley Collins, Dir, Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases;
University of ND/CDC to contaminated dairy, poultry products, and vegetables.
chess39366_ch01_002-029.indd 12 10/6/22 6:33 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
minne tahansa. Koillisesta wain näkyy korkean salmensolan kautta
wähä wäljempää, nimittäin wuonon selkää. Päästessämme perille oli
kello jo 6 aamulla ja siinä luulossa, että nyt kaikki maamatkat oliwat
lopussa ja me niinkuin entisetkin murmannilaiselle rannikolle
matkustawaiset pääsimme meritse eteenpäin kulkemaan,
rupesimme mielihywällä lewolle kestikiewarin jotenkin siistissä
huoneessa. Lie unet maistuneet lappalaiselle kantomiehellemmekin,
sillä oman sanansa mukaan ei hän ollut nukkunut sitte sunnuntai-
aamun ja nyt oli jo keskiwiikko-aamu.
Heti puolisten jälkeen kokoontuimat seudun suomalaiset

huoneesemme, jossa pidettiin tawalliset papilliset toimitukset; niistä
ynnä jokaisen paikan wäkiluwusta antawat loppuun liitetyt luettelot
tarkemman selwän. Suomalaiset oliwat haudanneet kuolleensa
wanhan kirkon saarelle, jonne piti hieruan (laskuweden) aikana
kahlata wirran poikki. Hautoja lukiessa ja ihmisjoukon seistessä
karttui sinne niin suuri sääskien paljous, että se oli tosi-waiwaksi
paikalla asujillekin, mitä sitte tottumattomalle wasta tulleelle. Mutta
niin hupainen kuin tämä päiwä oli, kun sain ruweta wartonaiseen
toimeeni, jota warten olen tullut näille pohjan perille, niin ikäwä oli
seuraawa päiwä, sillä wenäläinen kyyditsijä Kuolassa, ruunun
palkkaama, kieltäytyi antamasta wenekyytiä. Tästä kuletaan nimittäin
suurilla weneillä 8 peninkulmaa meritse Jeretiikaan, joka on kauppa-
paikka saarella Uuramuonon suussa, ja siitä 2 peninkulmaa Uuran
kylään. Pitkällisten keskusteluin perästä suostui wiimein wenäläinen
antamaan meille oppaan maitse; ja meidän piti antautua tuolle
tiettömälle kolkolle 6 peninkulman taipaleelle jalkaisin waeltamaan.
Iloisia muistia mulla siis ei ole Kuolasta. Kestikiewarissakaan ei
saanut mitään ruokaa. Ensin täytyi kupetsasta käydä aineet
ostamassa ja sitte rupesi emäntä toki keittämään; ja niin saatiin
kuitenkin kunnon ryynipuuro. Maitoa saa Kuolassa myös. Lehmiä on
noin 30—40, ja niin suuria ja pitkäkoipisia lehmiä en ole koskaan
nähnyt. Kentällä ja kosken partailla näkyi olewan kyllä ruohoa, 1
hewonen kuului kaupungissa myös olewan. Katsellessamme karjaa
rannalla huomasimme siellä pikku mökkiä eli niinkuin ensin luulimme
huwihuoneita, mutta kun kurkistimme akkunasta sisään näimme
niiden olewan kappelia, joissa oli jumalankuwia nurkissa.
Semmoisiksi huoneiksi oliwat ne meistä kowin kehnoja; mutta
maassa maan tawalla.
2 suomalaista lähti meille kantomiehilsi Uuraan. Alkutaimal

kulettiin pienellä meneellä. Joku peninkulma kaupungista supistuu
wuono salmeksi, jonka länsipuoli on korkea kallioseinä. Sen ra'oissa
ja ulkonewilla pankoilla pesii ja asuu suuret joukot kaikenlaisia
wesilintuja, kalalokkia, tiiroja y.m., joista erittäinkin ensinmainitut
owat toisenlaisia kuin sisämaissa. Myötäänsä kantoiwat emät
pitkissä jonoissa kaloja korkeihin pesiinsä, ja pojat rääkyiwät, niin
että kalliot soiwat. Mutta tiirat oliwat oppineet kummallisiksi loisiksi;
tähystiwät milloin wesilintu toi kalaa pesäänsä, ja heti kuin emä oli
lähtenyt toista hakemaan, lensiwät he lähelle poikain päälle rääkyen,
ja kun nämä ojensiwat kaulansa ja suu auki nostiwat päänsä pystyyn
luullen emän tulewan, tekiwät nuo ilkiwaltaiset tiirat mestarillisen
pyöräyksen alaspäin, sieppasiwat kalan poikain edestä suuhunsa ja
puikahtiwat waiti pois. Linnuilla on meressä ruokaa ja asunto
rauhallinen näissä ihmisistä köyhissä maissa; sentähden ne
wiljehtiwät niin hywästi ja enenewät mahdottoman suuriin määriin.
Kuuluwat Kuolalaiset joskus koetelleen päästä lintujen pesille. Eras
wenäläinen nuorukainen oli wuoren päältä laskeunut nuoraa myöten
kallioseinän siwulle munia kootakseen pesistä, waan nuora oli kallion
teräwiä särmiä wastaan hankautunut niin etta oli katkennut, poika
parka pudonnut alas kuolijaaksi. Sitten ei sanota koetellun enää
häiritä lintukarjoja tällä paikalla. Mutta waikka kyllä on paljo lintuja
tassa, niin että se kyllä kummaksi käy sille, joka on nähnyt
ainoastaan Suomen lintuparwet, ei se kumminkaan ollut
sinnepäinkään, mitä nähtiin aawan meren rannalla.
Kuolan wuonon kummallakin rannalla oli lapinkotia, 2 länsi- ja 1

itärannalla meidän näkemiämme; ne oliwat suuren turpeen kaltaisia,
ja kyyristyen täytyy niihin sisään mennä. Purjehdittuamme lähes pari
peninkulmaa pantiin maalle erään nykyisin aution, pienen, hirsistä
tehdyn mökin luona, ja siitä oli alettawa tuo wähintäänkin 4
peninkulmaa pitkä maataiwal. Mökin luona laittauttiin reilaan. Se oli
merkillisellä paikalla, sillä ympärillä oli puita. Lahdelman pohjoisranta
oli korkea ja siten suojeltu pohjatuulilta; lisäksi oli se multamaata ja
sillä kaswoi tawallisen pitkiä koiwuja, jotka oliwat kewät-
wihannossaan; jopa pistihen koiwikosta ujosti esiin tuomikin; se oli
wasta puhkaissut kukkansa auki ja lewitti suloista tuoksuansa pitkin
tyyniperää rantaa. Sisempänä lahdenperässä oli toisiakin ja tekiwät
samaa wirkaa. Nähtiinpä pihlajiakin; ne oliwat nupussa ja odottiwat
lämpimän lisää. Tuota katsellessaan luuli olewansa kewään alussa;
ja pohjoislapin kewät olikin nyt kohta paraillaan; mutta meille se oli jo
kolmas: ensimäinen Kuopiossa, toinen Kuusamossa, kolmas
Kuolassa; kotoa lähtiessämme oli kewät jo ohitse, ja tuomen ja
pihlajan kukinta loppunut; mutta aiwan alku-tuoreudessaan kohtasi
meitä kewät taas Kuusamon wuoriseuduilla, ja ihmeeksemme
saimme ihailla wielä kerran kewäimen suloutta täällä kylmyyden
kotipaikoilla. Mutta tähän täytyikin meidän jättää kewäimen yksin
suloinensa iloa pitämään; tästä ylöspäin, siellä on maita, jossa ei
kewään, ei kesän kauneutta näy. Jyrkän rannan-törmän päältä alkaa
2 tahi 3 wirstan wastamaa wetistä rämettä, jossa siellä, täällä puroja
myöten wesi laskee wuorilta mereen, mutta enimmittäin waluu se
sammalikon läpi joka paikasta, ja ainoastaan näkywien kallion
kylkien kohdalla se juoksee pikku koskina. Tämmöistä maata
noustessaan wuorille tietää olewansa työssä; waiwannäköä ei
Lapissa wältä kukaan; pitää kaiken woimansa perästä polkaista
rahkasammaleesen kuoppa siksi kuin kowa wastaa kantapäätä; siitä
tun wetää jalkansa ylös, on selwittelemistä, ettei takerru
waiwaiskoiwu-warpuihin, jotka owat tiheät kuin pajupehkot puroin
warsilla; ja taas, kun on pujotellut saappaansa läpi warwikon, pitää
työntää jalkansa lähes polwiin asti sammaleesen, ennenkuin
kykenee toista nostamaan. Wähän wäliä istuu mielellään mättäälle
lewähtämän, ja ikäwällä katsoo wuoren kukkulalle, jossa on kowempi
maa astua; ainoastaan lyhyttä peuran jäkälää on someroisen maan-
kamaran päällä; sanotaan »mäen welkansa maksawan;» luulossa
että saa ruweta myötämäkiä laskemaan, astutaan mäen päälle;
mutta se toiwo peräti petti; heti takana ensimäisen on toinen kahta
korkeampi wuori, jolle taas kiipeämään. Ne notkelmat, jotta wuoren
korkeilta syrjiltä juoksewat alas sywiin laaksoihin, oliwat lunta täynnä;
ja kun saapas liukahteli luisulla hangella, hirwitti katsoa alas, sillä
sywyyden hämärään pohjaan olisi ollut kamala wauhti laskea mäkeä.
Lumijuowain wälillä on sulaa kalliota ja karkeata someromaata
wuorotellen; sitä on hywä astua, kun saa pikkuisen matkan päässä
lewähtää. Mereen päin wiettäwällä puolella ei olekaan niin paljo
sääskiä, kuin sisämaassa, jonkatähden saa rauhassa lewähtää, ja
se ei ole wähä etu. Päästiin wuorelle. Sen kukkulalla käwi
läpitunkewa wiima jäämereltä, joka liiaksikin ankarasti kuiwasi hien
ruumiilta. Mutta helposti lensiwät tuuliaispäät tunturien päällitse;
raittiit ne oliwat, ja helppo oli hengittää. Wälistä puski tuuli niin että
piti ottaa lakkinsa käteen, sillä waikea olisi käydä noutamassa, jos
wihuri keweän kesälakin siirtäisi toiselle tunturille. Waikka täältä
kylmyydestä pois päästäkseen mielellään kiirehtii eteenpäin, pitää
kumminkin siksi kestää seistä, että saa katsotuksi tämän kolkon
ilman alan autiot seudut. Niinkauas kuin silmä kantaa, on mäkiä
mäkien wieressä tällä tunturi-ylängöllä, kaikki kaljuja, ei puuta, ei
pensasta, ei edes pieniä kaswin warsiakaan ole; niin puhtaaksi on
pohjostuuli porottanut nämä maat. Kaikille ilman suunnille on
pelkkää autioutta, ääretöntä paljasta ja karkeata wuoristoa, jossa ei
elämän merkkiä näy. Tämän ympäristön keskellä ymmärtää, kuinka
totta sanoo, kun Kalewala puhuu »Lapin raukoista rajoista.» Kuolan
wuono oli jo jäänyt niin kallioiden lomaan, ettei sitä näkynyt, mutta
sisäjärwiä näkyi useita, suuriakin ja saarisia, mutta lintua ei nähty
koko matkalla yht'ainoata, ei wesilintua eikä kalalokkia; josta woi
arwata, etta järwet owat jolo kalattomia taikka luultawammasti hywin
wähä-kalaisia. Ennenkuin tästä lähdetään tunturia alas laskeumaan,
kysytään oppaalta: »minnepäin ruwetaan nyt painamaan.» Hän
tirkistelee kipeillä silmillään ja osoittaa erästä kaukana siintäwää
wuoren yppylää: »tuolla on puoliwäli.» »Puoliwälikö!» urahtaa yksi ja
toinen meistä yksiwakaisella äänellä; mutta wenäläinen nyökyttää
päätään ja sanoo: da, da. Me silloin huomasimme ettemme olleet
wäärin ymmärtäneet; ja meidän täytyi antaa puoliwälin olla niin
kaukana, kun sitä ei woitu siirtää lähemmäksi. Alaspäin oli huokea
astua, siksi kun tultiin taas rämeille; niillä kaswoi pikku mäntyjäkin
eteläpuolella mäkien rinteitä; mutta kitulijaita ja surkeita ne oliwat.
Rämeiden poikki päästyään, saa taas waaroja nousta ja waaroja
laskea. Somimmat paikat oliwat pienet mäkiharjanteet järwien
wälillä. Eräässä kohden oli wasemmalla puolen olewan järwen pinta
melkeen harjun tasalla, mutta oikeanpuolimainen järwi oli sywän ja
jyrkän mäen alla laakson pohjassa wuorien wälissä, eikä
minkäänlaista yhteyttä ollut näiden järwien wälillä, waikka harja oli
jotenkin kaitanen. Toisien järrwien siwu kun mentiin, täytyi kiweltä
kiwelle hyppimällä kulkea yli kuohuwien koskien, mutta ne eiwät
muodostaneet mitään jokia, maan ryntäsiwät järwestä järween mistä
kallion kolosta milloinkin, niinkuin täydestä maljasta wesi läikähtää yli
laidan mistä kohti sattuu. Ajattelin, ettei suinkaan sinä ilmoisna ikänä
ihmisjalka ole näitä maita kahlannut; ja niinpä taisi ollakin, sillä
oppaamme rupesi meitä kierrättelemään niin kummallisia teitä järwiä
pitkin ja soita poikki aina wain sinne, missä korkeinta mäen kukkulaa
oli. Minä jo luulin että hän tekee meille harmia siitä kun minä suota
rämpiessäni heitin takkini hänen taakkansa päälle, josta hän tuntui
kowasti suuttuwan ja äisteli mulle jotakin, jota en ymmärtänyt. Minä
kun en muuta osannut, sanoin: harasho, ja heittäysin pitkälleni
lewähtämään; mutta siitäkös tulistui wenäjän mies, tuppasi takkini
takkansa koloihin ja sytöi sillä wauhdilla, että olisin tawallisissa
oloissa surkutellut takki-riepuani, mutta nyt mielelläni siitä erosin, tuli
mihin tuli; se olikin painanut kauan hartioitani kuin raskaskin kuorma;
siihen äreään puheesen, jota mies takkaansa laitellessaan piti, en
walitettawasti saattanut mitään lauhduketta antaa; ja kun en muuta
osannut, sanoin mättäältä jolla selälläni makasin: harasho; silloin ei
takka paljo painanut, kun mies wiskasi sen selkäänsä ja pahaa
porinata pitäen lähti astua wiuhkaisemaan, että »töppöset löyhki»,
niinkuin sanotaan; kantajammekin nostiwat päätään: »joko se lähti».
Ei muu auttanut, kuin kesken lewähdyksen ylös ja polkea perästä.
Miehet selittiwät että wenäjän mies sitä nurkui, että hänelle pannaan
kantamista, waikk'ei hän muuta kuin opastamista warten ollut
isäntänsä käskystä tänne lähtenyt. Me käskimme miesten tulkita,
että hän saa kantamisestaan meiltä maksun, ja rauha oli jälleen
rakennettu. Kumminkin näytti hänen käytöksensä perästäpäin
oudolta; ja meillä käwi jo salaisesti ne ajatukset, että oppaamme
kenties karkaa kotiinsa tältä waiwaloiselta taipaleelta. Kantajamme
pitiwät toisia epäluuloja oppaastamme, ja kun hän yhdellä mäellä
kysyi: »näkeekö kukaan täällä jossakin pienempää kiweä
suuremman päälle nostettuna», niin wirkkoiwat hekin, että he jo
ammoisen aikaa owat katsastaneet, että taitaa opas joutaa pois
wiralta. Erottiin jokainen eri suunnille etsimään kiweä kiwen päältä.
Jonkun ajan perästä löytyikin semmoinen tien mutta, ja nyt opaskin
sanoi tuntewansa seudun, ja korjasi äsköisen osoituksensa
puoliwälin tunturista; oikea tunturi, meidän kulettawa, olikin
wasemmalle kädelle siitä, mikä ensin oikeaksi luultiin; mutta yhtä
kaukana se oli sekin. »Onko tuo nyt oikea tunturi», »da, da» wastaa
wenäläinen; »sitte kaikki pahat tuulet pois, ja marssitaan eteenpäin».
Oppaan silmät wettä keitti, kun tähysteli noita kiwiä kiwien päältä;
mutta katosi meiltäkin kaikki pahat epäluulot, niin uuras tien urkkija
oli hän. Ja kun näimme ne kengän hieromat, mitkä oliwat
jaloissansa, ja ne waate-repaleet, joilla koki kipeitään peitellä, niin
käwi mies-parka meille sääliksi.
Kuta etemmäksi päästiin, sitä hitaammaksi käwi matkanteko;

noustessamme puoliwälitunturin päälle, ei tahtonut wasen jalka
jaksaa oikean rinnalle, eikä oikea edelle wasemmasta. Tunturin
päällä suuren kiwen takana otettiin pitkä lepo; se olikin
tositarpeesen. Näköala tällekin tunturille on kolkkoa; laaksoin
pohjissa olewia puita ei näy. Göthe, Saksan runoilija, kuuluu
sanoneen Neapelin näköalasta: »joka on nähnyt Neapelin, ei woi
tulla onnettomaksi». Yhtä hywästi saattaisi sanoa: »joka on nähnyt
Lapin raukkoja rajoja, ei woi tulla onnelliseksi;» niin kolkon ja kylmän
kuwan ne jättäwät katsojan mieleen. Mutta kun me ajattelemme
seudun kolkkoutta, näkyy ihmispäitä wilkkuwan wieressä olewan
tunturin harjun takaa; ne hääliwät edes ta'as; pilkistäwät kiwen takaa
ja katoawat. Me jo rupesimme lukemaan, kuiuka monta meitä on; »6
miestä!» ei Lapissa sen suurempaa sotajoukkoa tarwitse — ja me
makaisimme tyynesti. Ei kaukaakaan, kun jo wetäypi 3
kolttalappalaista meidän tunturillemme, awopäin ja säikähtyneenä.
He oliwat lähisen tunturin huipulta katsoneet kauan, mitä liikettä se
oli, kun me kiwen takana makailimme ja kääntelimme ruumistamme,
ja tulleet siihen päätökseen että me olimme karhuja. Laukkunsa,
lakkinsa ja muut kapineensa heittiwät tunturille ja tuliwat nyt
tarkemmin asiaa tutkimaan meidän luoksemme. Huomattuansa
meidät matkamiehiksi tuliwat tietä kysymään. Kolttalaiset eiwät
nimittäin olleet ennen käyneet tätä tietä, tiesiwät wain missäpäin
Kuola on, ja oliwat lähteneet sitä suuntaa tunturien yli waeltamaan;
oikeassa oliwatkin, mutta siinä erehtyiwät, kun luuliwat Kuolan
olewan sen tunturin alla, jolla me lewähdimme, ja kun me ilmoitimme
heille, että he owat wasta puoliwälissä Kuolan wuonon lahteen, josta
wielä saawat kierrellä wuonon rantoja pari peninkulmaa, ennenkuin
saapuwat kaupunkiin, niin suurilla silmillä katsoiwat pitkään toinen
toiseensa; lähtiwät sitte noutamaan rippujaan ja pitkittiwät
matkaansa. Sanoiwatko nuo totta, wai oliwat roswoamis-matkoilla,
niinkuin yleisesti kolttalaisilla tapana on, sitä emme tienneet, mutta
meidän kantomiehemme wakuuttiwat, että semmoinen kolttalainen
on; kunhan saa wähänkään suunnan tietää jonnekin, niin kyllä hän
osaa sinne, tunturit owat hälle tuttuja, ei hän niille eksy.
Kolttalappalaiset, eräs lappalaissuku, jotka owat kaikki
wenäläiskreikkalaista uskoa ja suurempikaswuisia, kuin tawalliset
lappalaiset, owat ylönkatsotut joka paikassa; luulenma juuri
epärehellisyytensä wuoksi. Meidän lewähdyspaikastamme
lounaasen päin joku matka on tawallinen koiwumetsä, jossa on
peuransyöttöpaikka talwella; se on ainoa metsikkö tällä tunturi
taipaleella (lukuunottamatta Uuran wuonon koiwikkoa) ja on
puoliwälissä, kun suoraa tietä talwella ajetaan Uurasta Kuolaan, 6
peninkulmaa. Wirkistyneinä lähdettiin eteenpäin. Matka oli
samanlaista alinomaista nousemista ja laskeumista. Sen uuden
löydön teimme kuitenkin, että waaroilla kaswoi pieni kukka; nimeä en
tiedä; se wiwahti paljo neilika-lajiin. Nähtiin tunturi-metsäkanojakin,
jotka juosten, lentäen pyöriwät edessämme ja surkealla äänellään
walittiwat olemistaan, mutta laaksoihin eiwät lähteneet, palasiwat
korkeille tuntureilleen; siellä oli heillä kumminkin hywä olla.
Wastahakoisesti ja pelkotunteilla mekin tällä matkan loppupuoliskolla
lähestyimme laaksoin pohjia; kyllä meillä jo oli ollut tekemistä noiden
pohjoisimpain maitten kiusantekijöiden kanssa, mutta nyt wasta
meille pula tuli. Sitä sääskien paljoutta, mitä oli tyynissä laaksoissa,
on mahdoton toiselle selittää tahi uskottawaksi saattaa. Meillä oli
niistä tosi waiwa. Ilma oli niin kuuma, ettei käwellessään jaksanut
minkäänlaista liina-bashlik'ia taikka harsowaatetta pitää kaswoillaan,
ja tunkeutuiwat ne niidenkin läpi jos jostakin reiästä. Kun sääskiä on
niin paljo ja syötäwiä ihmisiä niin erittäin wähä, niin ehdättäwät
edelliset toinen toisensa kilwan ihmisraukkain niskaan, eiwätkä huoli
huiskuttamisesta ja pieksämisestä mitään, waan töytääwät suoraan
ihoon ja pistäwät samassa nahan läpi. Näin parhaaksi koetella
suojella ainoastaan kaswojani ja heittää niska ja kädet aiwan alttiiksi.
Tuskalla saattoi pelastaa silmänsä, sieramensa ja korwansa tukkoon
joutumasta; myötäänsä piti pyhkiå nenäliinalla sitä syöpäläisten
siiwoa silmiltään pois; kuolleita oli kuin tahasta ja yhä utakammasti
toista tuli; missä wain wähänkään lehtimetsää ja lätäkköpaikkaa oli,
sieltä niitä sawupilwinä pemahti wastaan. Pysäyspaikoissa sai
parhaiten rauhassa olla, jos päälllyspaidan eli liinapaidan weti
korwiensa yli ja rupesi pitkälleen kaswot mätästä wasten. Muuten on
näissä taisteluissa syöpäläisiä wastaan paras neuwo ajatella: wähät
muusta, kunhan hengissä pysyy. Sittekuin oli kylään tultu, sanoiwat
Uuralaiset, ettei tänä kesänä paljo sääskiä ollut, waan kun on ollut
pitkälliset tyyneet, silloin niitä paljo on; notkopaikoissa ei silloin saata
kukaan olla. Siihen me emme osanneet mitään wirkkaa.
Keskiyön aikoihin noustiin wuoriseudun wiimeiselle korkealle

tunturille, jolle näkyy aawa meri niemineen, saarineen. Oli kuinka
myrskyinen ja julma tahansa, etäälle se wain näyttää tyyneltä ja
miellyttäwältä, kun päiwä takaa paistaa. Sentähden oli meistäkin,
niinkuin jo olisi oltu muun maailman yhteydessä erillään erämaan
kolkkoudesta, kun meri nähtiin. Kuta lähemmä matkan päätä
päästiin, sitä enemmin oli lehtipuuta ja joitakuita wirstoja wuonon
perästä on tawallista pientä koiwikkoa, josta jo alkoi polku wetää
taloihin. Keweniwät jalat, kun pääsiwät polun päälle, eikä kenenkään
mieli tehnyt lewähtämään; uteliaalla toimeliaisuudella hiipi toinen
toisestaan siwu, ja rantamäen koiwikosta astuttiin ulos; silloin
näkiwät silmämme ensi kerran suomalaisen uutisasutuksen
jäämeren rannalla. Montakertaa olin kotonani ajatellut,
minkähänlaiset kansalaistemme asumasiat mahtanewat olla noilla
kaukaisilla perukoilla; waeltaissamme kauwan wallan wieraista
omista olipa jo muistissamme melkeen solahtanut tuonnemmaksi,
minkälainen suomalaisen talo onkaan; ja ainakin arwellen
suomalaisten ihan eri lailla asuwan täällä korkeassa pohjaisessa
kuin kotonaan, kiinnitin silmäni heidän taloihinsa, jotka waloisan
aamuyön tyyneydessä pitiwät hiljaista yölepoansa meidän
edessämme; mikä sywästi ilahuttawa näky oli toki tuo, kun
huomasimme talossa 2 pientä tupaa wastakkaa ja wälillä porstuan,
johon on kartanolta owi portaineen, kartanon toisella puolella pienen
nawetan ja kodan, huomasimme huoneiden ympärillä semmoisen
siisteyden ja puhtauden, joka meidän matkamme warrella oli jäänyt
Suomeen, näimme pystöaidan, joku ympäröi pihan ja pienen
nurminiityn; kun wielä tiesimme nyt astuwamme kansalaistemme
katon alle, jossa tarjotaan kättä, puhetta ja ruokaa semmoista kuin
syntymämaalla, niin woi jokainen arwata miten lämpimillä tunteilla
me nousimme
Saaniwuonon
Juhana Petter Lyhytniemen owea kolkuttamaan. Wanhat owat
aina warullaan; heti heräsikin isännän äiti ja tuli kysymään tulijoista;
mutta kun kuuli, kuinka kaukaa tällä kerralla oliwat wieraat, meni hän
emäntätä herättämään; ja yhtäkkiä olikin tupa järjestyksessä; ja me
heti sisään, kun lukko aukeni. Isännät owat kaikki tähän aikaan
kesässä kalassa. Me tiesimme, että tässä talossa ei tarwitse itse
tehdä wuodettaan, niinkuin matkalla tähän asti, ja sanoimme: »älkää
nyt, emäntä, ruwetko muuhun puuhaan, waan laittakaa meille
wuode, että pääsemme lewolle». »Kahwi on heti walmista», arweli
emäntä ja kiirehti toiseen tupaan, mutta meistä ei kukaan
yrittänytkään emäntää kieltämään, sitä juomaa ei oltu nähtykään
sittekuin Kuusamossa, ja jos yksi ja toinenkin, niin taisi joku
maisterimies meistä olla erittäinkin kahwin rakastajia miehiä. Hywällä
mielellähän me joimme kahwit. Sitte kerrottiin emännälle äsköinen
kehoitus, wäsymys oli näet käskijä; »tee-wesi on heti walmista;»
silloin ei katsottukaan toisiimme niin hymysuin, kuin äsken; mutta
emännän hywä tahto loisti hänen silmistänsä, ja mielelläänhän tekee
toiselle mieliksi, kun niin wähällä woipi. Tuskin oli teet saatu loppuun,
kun emäntä kantaa pöytään tuoreita loistawia wiilipyttyjä ja kowaa
keltaista woita, walmistaa ruokapöydän, niin kunnollisen, ettei
semmoista oltu nähty sittekuin Kuusamossa; eikä yksikään meistä
yrittänytkään kieltämään; käski nälkä pöytään, waikka wäsymys
wuoteesen; mutta tuon ruuan ääressä olikin ruokahalu semmoinen,
ettei mokomaa — sittekuin Kuusamossa. Ja kun emäntäkin wähä
asettui liehumasti, että saatiin ruweta haastelemaan, kuultiin että
hänkin oli Kuusamosta, ja hänen miehensä ja anoppinsa ja
lapsensa, kaikki, kaikki oliwat Kuusamosta, ja kuinka tänne oliwat
Kuusamosta tulleet, siitä olisimme tarkastikin saaneet kuulla, jos
olisimme jaksaneet, mutta kun emme jaksaneet, täytyi se jäädä
wastaiseksi; mutta heti kun se oli lykätty wastaiseksi, ummistui
meidän silmämme ja ainoastaan muutamia silmänräpäyksiä liikkui
wielä lämpimät kiitollisuuden tunteet Kuusamolaisten
ystäwällisyydestä wäsyneessä mielessämme, ja sitte waiwuimme
semmoiseen makiaan uneen, ettei mokomaa — — sittekuin
Kuusamossa.
Jo edeltä puolenpäiwää kello 10 aikana herätettiin meidät sillä

ilmiannolla, että jos mieli tänä pänä Uuraan, niin oli nyt hieruan
aikana mentäwä, ennenkuin ulli-wesi (nousuwesi) peittää wuonon
perän leweät lietteet. Meren rannalla woi näit jo ennakolta tietää,
milloin wesi on wähimmillään. Se nousee 6 1/2 tuntia ja laskee 6 1/2
tuntia; jos hieruan aika tänään on 9 aikana e.p.p., niin se on
huomenna kl. 10 ja ylihuomenna kl. 11, j.n.e. aina 1 tuntia
myöhemmin. Sentähden piti meidän tuo pikku 3 wirstaa matka tehdä
ennen puoltapäiwää, ellemme tahtoneet ruweta kiertämään
poluttomia rantatörmiä. Ja pitkiin käwelemisiin ei tehnyt mieli,
sittekuin olimme kulkeneet tuon waikean wiime taipaleen; noin 12
aikana olimme edellisenä päiwänä lähteneet Kuolasta ja kl. 3
aamulla tultiin Saaniwuonoon. Oli merkillistä että tämä 14 päiwä
Heinäkuuta oli juuri se päiwä, jonka seuduissa olin jo kotoa
kirjoittanut tulewani Uuraan, jos terwennä pysyisin. Saaniwuonon
länsirannalla ja joen wasemmalla puolen on Lyhytniemen talo; ne
muut 3 suomalaista ja 1 karjalainen owat wuonon itärannalla. Joki
laskee wuonoon Saanijärwestä, johon pienempi Lastajärwi etelästä
laskee. Uuran wuono on paljoa suurempi kuin Saaniwuono, ja
kummallista on kuinka pian sen hiekkalietteet kuiwawat heti weden
laskun perästä, niin että niitä saattaa kuiwin jaloin käwellä; tuskin
jalkopohjakaan kastuu. Kuiwanakin ollessa asuu hiekkapohjassa
eräs pikku, wikkelä kala, Pisanki, teräwä kuin äimä; ja aiwan kuin
mato kaiwaa se tien itselleen mullassa. Lietteet kuwastawat
walkeammilta luin owatkaan noita tummia ja korkeita kallioseiniä
wastaan, jotka owat wuonon ympärillä.
Uuran
kylästä oli samaten kaikki mieswäki kalassa, mutta heti tultuamme

lähti pari henkeä pienellä weneellä wiemään merelle sanaa
tulostamme. Minulle oli jo tilattu walmiiksi kortteeri eräässä talossa
Uura-joen suussa. Kaikki kylän talot, joista suurin osa on hirsistä
rakennettu, ainoastaan muutamat turpeista, owat asetetut joen
wasemmalle puolen pitkin rantaa, kenties 3 wirstan matkalle joen
suusta ylöspäin; yksi lappalainen talo, Wilkis-oiwi, on oikealla puolen
jokea joensuussa ja toinen suomalainen talo, joka on ylinnä joen
warrella, on samaten oikealla rannalla. Joessa on koskia ja siitä
saadaan muutamia lohi-lajia; tawataanpa wälistä made ja haukikin
joen suussa; muuten on niissä järwissä, joista Uurajoki laskee,
niinkuin muissakin pohjoislapin järwissä ahwen, hauki ja muutamia
lohikaloja. Uurajärwessä ei kuulu tawatun särkeä, eikä siikaa; waikka
ne löytywät Tuuloman järwissä. Löytyy rääpyskin Imanterossa ja sen
pohjoispuolella olewissa järwissä. Näistä maajärwien kaloista eiwät
suomalaiset, niinkuin muutkin rannan asukkaat, paljo hyödy.
Pyytäwät joskus loma-aikana, kun merikalastus joudattaa, ja
laittawat lapsensa ja waimonpuolensa pyytämään, että saisiwat
wälistä maistaa sitä kalaa johon owat Suomessa tottuneet, sillä
kaikella merenkalalla on omituinen ihwinen maku, joka warsinkin
wastatulleen suuhun maistuu hywin oudolta. Merikalastusta warten
oiwat Suomalaiset tänne tulleet ja siitä he eläwät. Sitä ruwetaan
Maarian päiwältä kewäällä ja pitkitetään Juhannukseen, jolloin
tullaan kotiin joksikuksi wiikoksi tahi pariksi; sitte taas mennään
merelle ja wiiwytään Elokuun alkupuolelle ja keskipaikoille, jolloin woi
kalastuksen pitää jo loppuneena, waikka yksi ja toinen pitkittää yhä
edelleen, sillä merestä saattaa kalastaa milloin tahansa, kunhan ei
erinomaista saalista aina halua. Kala, joka on kaikkein paras
pyydettewä, on turska, jonka pyytäjät jo merellä heti saannin perästä
myöwät wenäläisille kauppijoille, tahi wiewät norjalaisille
maakauppijaille tällä murmannilaisella rannikolla tahi sitte wiewät
suoraan Wuoreijaan (Wardö'hön,) tahikka Wesisaareen (Wadsö'hön)
kaupan. Turska kuiwataan pitkissä jälleissä eli toisin sanoen orsilla
paljaan taiwaan alla. Turskan hinta on kolmekertaa suurempi kuin
muiden kalain, waikka itse kala tuorenna ei ole niinkään makea kuin
muut kalat. Kun on oikein hywä turskan saanti, niin on tapahtuuut,
etta mies päiwässä ansaitsee 160 kruunua. Mutta toisinaan taas
saawat kalastajat tehdä turhaa työtä päiwittäin, wiikottain. Turska syö
nimittäin pientä lota-kalaa, ja jos lota-parwit eiwät jostakin syystä
ajau rantaan päin, niin turskakin asuu yksi siellä, toinen täällä.
Helposti kalastaja huomaa, milloin lota-parwi lähestyy, sillä sitä
seuraa toisetkin wiholliset kwin turskat, jotka eiwät kalastajan
silmään pistä, nimittäin kajawat, pitäen sitä suurempaa ääntä, kuta
suurempi on heidän ruoka-alansa. Minnepäin kajawat wetäywät,
sinne rientää kalastajakin weneineen. Kalastajain pitää aina olla
wartiolla, wuorotellen toinen toisensa perästä, merkitä lintuin lento-
suuntia, koetella ongellaan eli koukullaan, oli sää mikä tahansa, tahi
aika mikä tahansa. Jos kaloja ei kuulu missään, makaawat muut
kajuutassa, yksi on main kokeilla. Ohilullewiltakin kysytään
missäpäin kaloja olisi nähty enemmältä; ja sitä myöten mennään
wälistä Ruijan rannalle, toisen kerran Kalasaarennon (niinkuin
kartoilla on kirjoitettu) rannikolle, jopa Kiltinäänkin asti Kuolawuonon
itäpuolella. Paitsi tätä alinomaista huolta on kalastajalla
jokapäiwäinen pelko äkkimyrskyn nousemisesta. Liikuttaissansa
koukkuaan weneen laidalla pälyy hän joka suunnalle pitkin meren
pintaa, missä sattuisi hawaitsemaan mustan wäreen käywän
wenettä kohti; silloin kysytään näppäryyttä panna purjeet kokoon,
ankkurit järjestykseen ja peränpitimet reilaan, sillä tuuliaispää ei
odota kauan, kun kerran tulossa on, ennenkuin jo tupruaa weneen
ympärillä ja raiwoon nostaa weden ja ilman; joka wene silloin ei ole
walmis tuulta wastustumaan, se pyörähtää kumoon auttamattomasti.
Tämä ainainen huoli ja epäwakaisuus kaiken puolesta tekee
tunnokkaamman miehen koko elämän sangen lewottomaksi, ja
hänen päänsä harmaaksi ennen aikaa. Muuten on kyllä löyhä työ
miehillä, ja moni arwelikin, selittäessään meille olojaan meren
rannalla: »mitenhän käwisikään, jos pitäisi ruweta maatyötä
tekemään!» Toiselta puolen walittiwat epäterweelliseksi ja ruumista
jähmeyttäwäksi tuota elantojärjestystä, kesällä walwoa päiwät
päästään ja yöt lisäksi, ja talwella maata päiwät päästään ja yöt
lisäksi. Jos pimeän aikana juuri käwisikin laatuun toimittaa jotain
käsityötä, niin eiwät he sitä rupea tekewään; wähä korjailewat
weneitään; ne tahtowat he hywät ja hywät ne näkyiwät melkeen
wähillä poikkeuksilla olewankin; sillä lähteä huonolla weneellä
aawalle merelle, jossa äkkipikaa usein tyynestäkin wihurit nostawat
myrskyn, on sama kuin mennä tapposen tahallaan surman suuhun.
Wahinko wain että useammat suomalaiset sinne lähteneistä owat
warattomia, etteiwät jaksa hankkia itselleen omaa wenettä, mutta jos
werrataan nykyaikaa jo kuluneihin, esim. muuankaan tahi pari
kymmenkunta wuotta taa'päin, niin huomataan suuri edistys.
Muutamilla warakkailla on 2 jopa 3:kin wenettä, ja wähempikin
warainen, joka on jaksanut talon hommata itselleen, pyrkii
pyrkimälläkin hankkimaan lisäksi wenettä, joskohta ei kokonaista
jaksi, niin kumminkin puolet weneestä, ja toinen pienen talon mies
ottaa toiset puolet tehdäkseen. Nämä weneet eiwät näet olekaan sitä
kokoa kuin sisäjärwien soutuweneet, waan suuria, tawallisen lankku-
lotjan kokoisia, joita woisi kutsua jollakin laiwanimityksellä.
Suurimmat weneistä owat kaksimastoisia ja niitä kutsutaan Ruijan
kielellä »lysterbåtiksi»; niitä on harwalla suomalaisella. Useimmalla
on wähä pienempää kokoa wene, joka on yksimastoinen, ja
kutsutaan »fembörding» josta meikäläiset owat ottaneet niitä
kutsuakseen »wämpööriiksi»; se on sopiwin kala-wene merellä.
Wielä on myös monella »otrinki,» joka on pienin merellä kulkewista
weneistä; se on muuten rakennukselleen wämpöörin kaltainen.
Kaikissa näissä on perässä kajuuta, jossa on rautauuni, 2,3
reikäinen, pannuineen, patoineen, ja penkit owat naulatut seiniin
ympäriinsä. Koko talous on matkassa. Weneessä on tawallisesti. 4
miestä, joista yksi on weneen omistaja, kapteeni, ja toiset 3
osamiehiä saaliisen. Kalat jaetaan sopimuksen mukaan, kenties
enimmästi niin että wene saa puolet ja toinen puoli jaetaan tasan 4
miehelle. Jako tietysti on toisellainen, jos jollakin on osa weneessä,
tahi jos joku on toisen työssä, tahi pidetään huonompana
työmiehenä. Kowin huonoja työmiehiä sinne ei toki tulekaan, sillä se
on kaikille tietty asia, että joka näillä mailla ei itse elätä henkeään,
kuolkoon; ei auta täällä asetusten nojalla ruweta suurella suulla
waatiwaan itselleen laillista waiwais-eläkettä; ja jos joku tapaturman
kautta työhön kykenemättömäksi tullut sai hywiltä ihmisiltä köyhän
apua, kyllä se tiesi toisten armosta eläwänsä.
Toinen kala, jota suomalaiset myös pyytäwät, waikka

wähemmässä määrässä kuin turskaa, on saita. Se kala liikkuu
weden pinnalla, kun on pyydettäwissä, ja ui suurissa parwissa. Se
syö nimittäin pientä ewällistä eläwätä, jota kutsuiwat kalaksi,
waikt'eiwitt tienneet nimeä; se pieni eläwä on eräs molluski-laji, joka
nousee weden pinnalle wälistä. Saita-nuotta on nelis-nurkkuinen,
kuin huiwi, noin 15—22 syltä kanttiinsa, joka nurkkaan sidotaan
köysi 40—50 syltä pitkä. Kun huomataan saidan olewan liikkeellä,
wiedään tämä nuotta eteen, lasketaan weden pinnan alle ja
odotetaan siksikuin saitaparwi on uinut päälle, silloin wiskataan kiwiä
parwen keskelle, ja saita on sentapainen etta wähästäkin
melskeestä säikähdyttyänsä, menee pohjaan suoraan kwin kiwi.
Kuin kala weden pinnalta on painunut nuotan päälle, soudetaan
weneet yhteen ja nuotasta tehdään pussi, jonka pohjassa saitaparwi
kiehuu. Muita kaloja ei näin tukussa saada, eikä saata pyytääkään.
Jos Jäämeren kummallisia kaloja tahtoisin mainita, niin ottaisin
esimerkiksi Kunttipillarin (pikku horkkelin), jolla on monisarwinen pää
ja rintaewät leweät kuin siiwet; se on lentokalan näköön; eräs toinen
on tuo ilettäwän ruma Ronkeksi (wilukala), joka on limainen ja
täynnä kuhmuja, niinkuin olisi isossa rokossa.
Pian leweni sana tulostani merellä, ja miehet alkoiwat kokoontua

wähitellen kylään. Tosin en ketään ollut ennen nähnyt, mutta kyllä he
oliwat tutut, jopa toinen toistaan tutummat. Kuulumiset kysyttiin ja
selitettiin, kuuden wuoden kuulumiset. Kuka oli käskenyt sanoa
terweisiä Kuusamosta, kuka Pudasjärweltä, Oulusta, Näseestä; ne
tuliwat kaikki perille, ja kait oliwat yhtä lämpimiä, waikk'ei puoliakaan
nimenomaan muistettu. »Johan se kuuluu kuolleen, Snellmankin,
joka meitä täällä käwi opettamassa.» »Ei, sen nimellistä on monta
Suomessa, ja se Snellman, joka on kuollut, oli senaattori, ja suuri
Suomen kansallisuuden puollustaja, jonka tähden hänen
kuolemansa on kuulunut tänne asti.» »Wai wielä se Snellman elää
joka käwi täällä», wirkkoiwat emännät penkiltä, »entäs se kirktoherr
Thauwon». Oli heillä muistissa pappein wiime käynnit ja heidän
innokkaista kyselemisistänsä olisi outokin ymmärtänyt, että
Murmannin rannikon suomalaisille on se juhlia, kun Suomesta
lähetetään sinne pappi. Siellä on käynyt Iin nykyinen kirkkoherra
Johan Fredrik Thauwon Kuolajärweltä talwella 1870 ja Polangalta
kesillä 1871, 1872, 1873 ja 1874; ja myös Muhoksen nykyinen
kirkkoherra Gustaf Adolf Snellman Pudasjärweltä kesällä 1876,
jonka perästä ei pappia Suomesta ollut siellä käynyt.
Rippikoulussa oli 3 lapinlastakin; ryhdyin oppimaan tuota

lapsellista kieltä, mutta se ei ollutkaan niin helppoa kuin Norjan kieli
ruotsin taitawalle; wanha tulkki Abram Arpela oli kyllä apuna, mutta
ei hänkään osannut lausua noita waikeita kurkku-ääniä niinkuin
lapset; niiltä se sujui luontewusti. Hankaluutta lapinkielessä tekee se,
kun Norjalaiset owat kääntäneet ja painaneet heidän kirjansa, ja
kirjoittaneet kirjaimet oman kielensä mukaan. Jos suomalainen
oppinut olisi kirjoittanut heidän katkismuksensa, niin se olisi
lappalaisellekin helpompi oppia. Mutta jos oli haluakin saada wähä
oppia tätä kieltä esim. Luth. wäh. katkismuksen, niin ei ollut aikaa.
Aamusta iltaan oli asiamiehiä kylästä ja ympärillä olewista taloista ja
kodista. Uuran yöt oliwat sitte niin kauniit, että unonen wasta
myöhään, eli sanoakseni, warhain wasta aamulla tohti astua pikku
kamariimme, joka oli pohjoista kohden ja pikku akkunallaan tarkasti
kokoili yön auringon miedot säteet peräseinälle; ja ainoastaan sen
wähäisen hetken, kun aurinko siwuutti korkean wuoren kukkulan,
joka oli meistä pohjaan päin, oli tuo ystäwällinen päiwän paiste
matalalta peräseinältämme poissa, waan se saapui kohta jälleen ja
toi muassaan muistot kaukaa Sawon salmien rannoilta niistä
nukkujista, joiden lapsuuden wiattomuus lepää heidän kaswoillansa,
niinkuin puhdas, läpipuhdas päiwänpaiste.
Tawallisissa oloissa maataan pitkään aamusella. Jos 7 ja 8 wälillä

lähtee kylään käwelemään, niin ei näe ketään liikkeellä; kaikki on
yöunessaan; wasta 9 aikana ja wähää ennen alkaa wäki nousta.
Miehillä ei ole juuri mitään tekemistäkään kotona; »mutta mitäs
waimonpuolet tekewät kun olette itse kalassa», kysyin eräältä
isännältä; »juowat kahwia ja käywät kylässä», kuului lyhyt wastaus,
ja liki mailleenpa taisi sattuukin; olkoon kumminkin kaukana tässä
ruweta moittimis-lauseita heistä latelemaan; olot tekewät ihmisen
mukaiseksensa; mutta nyt kun suomalaiset owat hankkineet itselleen
lehmiä, lampaita, on emännillä niiden hoitamisessa ja ruuan
kokoamisessa koko työpaikka; joen warsilta kootaan heiniä, talon
ympärille lannoitetaan pikku niitty, jopa pikku pottumaakin, peuran
jäkäliä kankailta nyhdetään ja pannaan suuriin kokoihin, tuodaan
kotiinkin kesällä, turskan päitä kuiwataan, joita keitetään sitte
jäkälien kanssa hywiksi hauteiksi lehmille. Näissä töissä tietysti
miehet auttawat, kun owat kotona, ja erittäinkin syyspuoleen owat he
kyllä kotona. Willoista tehdään päällyswaatteita ja sukkia, muut pito-
waatteet ostetaan. On waimowäellä siis työtä, ja kun lukuun otetaan
se seikka wielä, että meren rannalle on waeltanut enempi
miehenpuolia kuin waimonpuolia, jonka wuoksi siellä on olemassa
puute waimonpuolisista ihmisistä ja moni mies, waikka todellakin
haluaisi ruweta perhe-elämään, näkee kumminkin täytywänsä olla
sitä wailla, ellei lähde Suomesta noutamaan waimoa itselleen, mikä
tietysti tulisi sangen kalliiksi — kun tämä waimowäen harwalukuisuus
tiedetään tosiasiaksi, niin arwaa myös, että heillä on sitä enemmän
työtä kyläpaikoissa, joissa monta tarwitsee heidän apuansa
leipomisessa, ruuan laittamisessa, waatteen korjaamisessa j.n.e.
Uuran ympärillä on petoeläimiäkin, karhuja ja susia. Uuran joen

suusta pari wenäjän wirstaa ylöspäin oli karhu wähää ennen meidän
tuloamme repinyt pahasti yhtä isäntää, joka oli witaksia mennyt
hakemaan. Yksi sormi oli kädessä aiwan poikki ja toisia oli
pureskeltu. Sudet tekewät lampaissa paljo häwiötä. Yhdestä talosta
oliwat niinikään wähää ennen tuloamme tappaneet 7 lammasta.
Ympäristöllä on jäniksiäkin, jotka syöwät heinäsuowat ja jäkäläko'ot
kylän reunalla. Lappalaiset pyytäwät kettuja, ampumalla ja muulla
pyyntikeinolla. Wahinkoa tekemät myös porot, kun laumoissa
laskeuwat sisätuntureilta meren rannalle. Yksin kartanon
ympärilläolewaa heinääkin ja muun kaswin warsia on waikea niiltä
warjella; niitetty heinä pannaan sentähden korkeille pylwäille
kuiwamaan ja säilymään poroilta. Pyydettäwää riistaa owat wielä
tawalliset ja tunturi-metsäkanat. Suomalainen ei aikaansa tuhraa
näiden metsästämiseen; rauhassa hältä sa lappalainen ja
kolttalainen wallita tunturien aawoja ylämaita, niinkuin he
wuosisatoja jo ennen owat tehneet. Kalastukseen on suomalainen
kyllä omiaan, ja kun hän rikkaan meren köyhälle rannalle saapuu,
katsoo hän ensi työkseen ympärilleen, missä wakaan jalansian
keksisi; hän rakentaa mökin itselleen, jos ei muusta, niin maan
turpeista; se on hänen kotinsa, johon hän meren epäwakaisilta
ilmoilta tulee lewon pitoon, niinkuin ennen kotimökkiinsä Suomen
salolla. Sitte on hänelle mieleen yhteis-elämä; yhden mökin wiereen
nousee toinen, ja kolmas; ja niin syntyy kylä. Mutta se on hänelle
wastenmielistä, kun ei ole yhteis-elämälle mitään lakia; kaswaneena
lakien suojelemassa yhteiskunnassa, kaipaa hän sywästi laillista
järjestystä ja sen walwojia; tässä on Murmannin rannikon
Suomalaisten kipein kohta. Sitä walittiwatkin jok'ainoassa kylässä.
Keskinäisille riidoille ei löydy mitään ratkaisijaa; mutta jos tämä puute
olisikin jotakuinkin kärsittäwissä, niin on suurin se, ettei löydy
tuomaria eri kansallisuuksien wälillä, erittäinkin wenäläisten ja
muiden. Wenäjän wirkamiehiä on tosin, mutta ne owat kaukana
Kuolassa, ja eiwät ymmärrä muuta kuin wenäjää. Näistäkin puhuttiin
samaa, mitä ylipäätään wirkamiehistä Wenäjällä, mutta sen puheen
perää en tietysti takaa. En ole mikään yleinen kanteen nostaja;
ainoastaan »relata resero» niinkuin wanhat Romalaiset sanoiwat,
s.o. kerron toisten kertomia.
Pohjois-wenäläiset owat wiime aikoina ruwenneet pitämään näitä

meren rannikoita yksinomaisena alusmaanaan; katsowat sentähden

Talaros Foundations in Microbiology Basic Principles 12Th Edition Barry Chess Full Chapter

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Talaro's Foundations in Microbiology -

Basic Principles 12th Edition Barry

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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Cover Image: Steve Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library/Getty Images

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t irel y u n d er t h e cl ou d of S A RS - C oV-2, t he g reate s t exa m p l e of

t h e co n t inu in g rel ev a n ce of m icro b io l o g y in eve r y a sp e c t of o u r

Steve Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library/Getty Images

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Tools to enhance your unique voice

A unique path for each student

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Effective tools for efficient studying

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Art and organization of content make this book unique

TM Memory CD4 T cell

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CASE STUDY Part 1 A Viral Pandemic

continues to set the standard. Common sense, backed by many

1 Binding: HIV binds to receptors on the surface of a CD4 cell.

2 Fusion: The HIV envelope and the CD4 cell

Source: AIDS info, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd 14 06/10/22 6:51 PM

serum contains anti–Treponema pallidum antibodies. In toxin

Maintenance of the Normal Microbiota

Learn and Practice

only and adults (MIS-C, MIS-A), in Learn

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2.3 Chemical Reactions, Solutions, and pH 39

To analyze the phenomenon, let us again re- + −

C rea t ing L if elo n g Le ar n e r s

here. In other reactions,

In Some Eukaryotes early related.

leading to changes in the composition of the

and mats; protection 1.7 The Origin and Evolution

When you encounter the tecture name to flagella,

Selective permeability; cell-cell Learn interactions; using the phrase

in eukaryotes, and biologists use shorthand to summarize the content

Bright-field microscope Dark-field microscope Phase-contrast Differential interference

chess12665_fm_i-xxxii_1.indd 18 06/10/22 6:52 PM

Plague Is Not an Opportunistic Infection, Unless . . . The patient

Drugs meant to reduce stomach acid (to combat heartburn) may

Pedagogy designed for varied learning styles

lighted. Key terms

two-paragraph response using the fac- b. ATP

xx c. is consumed by the reaction might

Cri t ical Thinking

640 Chapter 19 The Gram-Positive Bacilli of Medical Importance

Application, Analysis, Evaluation, and Synthesis

Application, Analysis, Evaluation, and Synthesis

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1.6 Taxonomy: Organizing, Classifying, and Naming

or to clean up toxic pollutants. Bioremediation is required to control