WINTER SEMESTER 2023-2024

OPERATING SYSTEM – SWE 3001

FACULTY : SENTHIL KUMAR.P

SLOT : F1+TF1

DIGITAL ASSIGNMENT - 01

NAME: HARIHARAN.S
REGNO: 22MIS0340
 INTRODUCTION:

Linux is an open-source operating system that was

developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991. It provides a customizable
and secure alternative to proprietary systems, o ering stability and
performance across various devices, from personal computers to
servers and smartphones. The Linux Kernel, which serves as the
core of the operating system, manages the interaction between the
computer hardware and software, ensuring smooth and e cient
operation.

One of the key strengths of Linux is its collaborative development

model, where a global community of developers continuously
works together to enhance the system, making it a dominant force
in the computing world. Linux distributions, which are collections of
software packages and utilities built around the Linux Kernel, cater
to diverse user needs and preferences, o ering a range of avors
to choose from.

Linux's open nature allows anyone to explore and modify its source
code, fostering innovation and improvement. Known for its
e ciency, cost-e ectiveness, and stability, Linux has become a
popular choice for a wide range of applications, from personal
computing to large supercomputers. As technology advances,
Linux continues to evolve, maintaining its signi cance in the realm
of operating systems.
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 APPLICATIONS AREA OF LINUX OS:

The Linux operating system nds applications across a

wide range of areas due to its versatility, reliability, and open-
source nature. Here are some key application areas of Linux:

1. Servers: Linux is widely used as a server operating system due

to its stability, security, and cost-e ectiveness. It powers a
signi cant portion of servers globally, handling tasks like web
hosting, email services, cloud computing, and more.

2. Embedded Systems: Linux is a popular choice for embedded

systems in devices like set-top boxes, mobile phones, routers, and
IoT devices. Its low cost and high exibility make it ideal for these
applications.

3. Desktops: Although less prevalent on desktop computers

compared to Windows and macOS, Linux desktop distributions
like Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian o er a free and customizable
alternative for users seeking a secure and e cient operating
system.

4. Supercomputers: Linux dominates the supercomputing

landscape, running on the majority of the world's top
supercomputers. Its scalability and performance make it well-
suited for handling complex computational tasks.

5. Mobile Devices: Linux serves as the foundation for Android, one

of the most popular mobile operating systems globally. It powers
smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, and other mobile devices.

6. Networking Devices: Many networking devices such as rewalls,

routers, and switches run on Linux due to its robust networking
capabilities and reliability.
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 7. Education: Linux is widely used in educational institutions for
teaching purposes, providing students with access to a free and
open-source platform to learn about operating systems and
programming.

8. Research: Linux is extensively used in research environments for

its stability and exibility. It supports various scienti c applications
and tools required for research activities.

9. Data Centers: Linux is a preferred choice for data centers due to

its ability to handle high availability workloads e ciently. It o ers
scalability and reliability necessary for managing critical data center
operations.

10. Automotive Industry: Linux is increasingly being integrated into

vehicles for infotainment systems, navigation systems, driver
assistance features, and more due to its adaptability and
customization options.

Linux's diverse applications showcase its adaptability across

di erent sectors, making it a versatile operating system with
widespread adoption in various industries.
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 PROCESS IN LINUX OS:

In Linux, a process refers to the active execution of a program

and consists of various components like data retrieved from les,
user input, and program instructions. When an application is
launched, a program is run, or a command is executed in Linux, a
process is initiated. Each program or command creates only one
process, while an application can initiate multiple processes to
handle di erent tasks. Processes in Linux are often created by
forking o from an existing process known as the parent process.

There are di erent types of processes in Linux:

1. Parent and Child Process: A child process is created by another

process known as the parent process. This can be done using the
fork system call in Unix-like operating systems. A parent process
can create one or more child processes.

2. Zombie and Orphan Process: A zombie process is one that has

nished execution but still has an entry in the process table. An
orphan process continues to run even after the parent process has
been completed or terminated.

3. Daemon Process: Daemon processes are system-related

background processes that often run with root permissions,
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servicing requests from other processes. They operate in the
background without needing a controlling terminal.

The Linux operating system is a layered structure that

includes components that provide exibility and stability. It is based
on the Unix operating system and is known for its modular design
and open-source nature. The main components of the Linux
operating system are:

1. Kernel: The kernel is the core of the Linux operating system and
is responsible for managing hardware resources, providing virtual
resources to processes, and managing memory and CPU usage. It
is divided into di erent types, including monolithic, micro, exo, and
hybrid kernels, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

2. System Library: System libraries provide prede ned functions

that applications and system utilities can use to interact with the
kernel. Examples of common system libraries include the GNU C
library, which provides the foundation for C programs, and the
Linux kernel itself, which acts as the interface between the
hardware and the processes.

3. Application: Applications are the programs that users run on top

of the Linux operating system. They include database applications,
media players, web browsers, and presentations.

4. System Utilities and Libraries: System utilities and libraries

provide a wide range of functions to manage the system. They
interact with the kernel and handle various functionalities without
the kernel's direct intervention.

5. Hardware: The Linux operating system requires hardware

components to function, such as memory (RAM), the processor
(CPU), input/output (I/O) devices, and storage devices.

The process of running a command or a program in Linux involves

the following steps:
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1. Initializing a process: A process can be run in two ways:
foreground or background. In the foreground, the process receives
input from the keyboard and sends output to the screen. In the
background, the process runs without keyboard input and waits for
keyboard input when required.

2. Starting a process: When a command is issued in Linux, it

creates a new process. Each process in the system has a unique
process ID (PID).

3. Tracking ongoing processes: The `ps` command can be used to

see all the running processes, including their PID, CPU usage, and
memory usage.

4. Managing processes: Linux provides several commands to

manage processes, such as `kill` to terminate a process, `top` to
display a real-time view of processes, and `htop` for a more
advanced process viewer.

5. Process scheduling: The Linux kernel is responsible for fairly

distributing processing time among concurrently running
processes.

6. Memory management: The kernel manages memory resources

among the concurrently running processes[2].

7. Device drivers: The Linux kernel acts as a mediator between the

hardware and processes, allowing them to communicate with each
other.

8. System calls and security: The kernel receives requests for

service from processes and manages access to the executive
(CPU) and memory.
 Threads in Linux:

Threads, also known as lightweight processes (LWPs) in Linux, are

a fundamental concept for achieving concurrency and e cient
resource utilization within a process. They represent units of
execution that share the same memory space and resources with
other threads belonging to the same process. This shared
environment allows for seamless communication and data
exchange between threads.

Key Characteristics of Threads:

• Lightweight: Compared to processes, threads are

signi cantly less resource-intensive to create and manage.
This is because they don't require separate memory spaces,
reducing overhead for the operating system.
• Concurrent Execution: Multiple threads within a process can
execute instructions seemingly simultaneously, especially on
multi-core processors. This enables an application to handle
multiple tasks concurrently, improving responsiveness and
performance.
• Shared Memory: All threads within a process share the same
memory address space, heap, and open le descriptors. This
facilitates direct access to shared data structures and
simpli es communication mechanisms.
• Independent Execution Paths: Threads can execute
instructions independently, allowing them to progress at their
own pace. The operating system (OS) is responsible for
scheduling threads and determining when each thread gets
access to the CPU for execution.
Bene ts of Using Threads:

• Improved Responsiveness: In applications with user

interaction (e.g., graphical user interfaces), threads can
prevent the entire application from becoming unresponsive
while waiting for I/O operations. A separate thread can handle
UI updates while another thread performs the I/O task in the
background.
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 • E cient Resource Utilization: Threads are particularly well-
suited for tasks that involve a mix of CPU-bound and I/O-
bound operations. While one thread is waiting for I/O to
complete, another thread can utilize the CPU for
computations, maximizing resource usage.
• Simpli ed Communication: Since threads share the same
memory space, communication between them is faster and
more e cient compared to inter-process communication (IPC)
mechanisms used between separate processes.
Implementation Details:

• Thread Libraries: Linux itself doesn't provide built-in thread

support. Instead, thread libraries like POSIX Threads
(pthreads) or the Native POSIX Thread Library (NPTL) o er a
user-space API for creating and managing threads. These
libraries interact with the Linux kernel's scheduling
mechanisms to implement thread functionality.
• Kernel-Level LWPs: Internally, the Linux kernel represents
threads as lightweight processes (LWPs). LWPs are essentially
wrappers around processes that provide the illusion of
multiple execution units within a single process. The kernel
manages scheduling and context switching between LWPs.
Thread vs. Process: Key Di erences:

Here's a table summarizing the key di erences between threads

and processes:

Thread Process
Feature

Memory Space Shares memory space Has its own private

with other threads in the memory space
process
Resources Shares resources with Has its own set of
other threads in the resources (memory, le
process descriptors)
Creation/Destruction Relatively inexpensive Relatively expensive
Cost
Context Switching Cost Lower (due to shared Higher (due to saving/
memory) loading separate
memory)
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 Communication Faster and more e cient Slower and more
(shared memory) complex (IPC
mechanisms)

When to Use Threads:

• Concurrent Execution: If your application needs to perform

multiple tasks that can potentially be executed concurrently,
threads are a good choice.
• E cient Resource Utilization: When you have tasks that
involve a mix of CPU and I/O operations, threads can help
maximize resource usage.
• Simpli ed Communication: If your application requires
frequent communication between di erent parts of the code,
threads can facilitate faster and more e cient data exchange.
When to Use Processes:

• Memory Isolation: If your application components require

separate memory spaces for security or reliability reasons,
processes are the better option.
• Resource Control: Processes provide more granular control
over resource allocation, which might be necessary for certain
applications.
• Fault Tolerance: If a component failure could impact the
entire application, using separate processes can help isolate
the fault and prevent a complete crash.

SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS:
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The Linux operating system utilizes various scheduling algorithms
to manage the execution of processes e ciently. Here is an
overview based on the provided sources:

1. Multilevel Queue Scheduling:

In Linux, the multilevel queue scheduling involves partitioning the
ready queue into multiple queues, each with its scheduling
algorithm. For example, RR for foreground processes and FCFS for
background processes.

2. Multiprocessor Scheduling:
Linux employs di erent strategies for multiprocessor scheduling,
such as shared-memory multiprocessor and symmetric
multiprocessor architectures. It uses a global queue of processes
in Linux 2.4 and a per-CPU queue in Linux 2.6 for better scalability
and cache locality.

3. Real-Time Scheduling:
Real-time processes in Linux have timing constraints expressed
as deadlines or rate requirements. Linux supports both hard real-
time systems, which must complete critical tasks within a
guaranteed time, and soft real-time systems, where critical
processes receive priority over others.

4. Linux Scheduling Goals:

Linux scheduling aims to avoid starvation, boost interactivity,
provide fast user response despite high loads, scale well with the
number of processes, and maintain an O(1) scheduling overhead.
For multiprocessor systems, Linux aims for good CPU utilization,
fair process treatment, and CPU a nity.

5. Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS):

CFS is a scheduling class in Linux designed for normal
processes, emphasizing fairness and maximizing CPU utilization. It
uses a red-black tree for scheduling and aims to provide fair CPU
allocation among processes.

6. Scheduling Classes:
Linux uses di erent scheduling classes to apply speci c
scheduling policies to di erent types of processes. For example,
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 SCHED_NORMAL is used for normal processes, SCHED_BATCH
for batch processes, and SCHED_IDLE for low-priority tasks.

7. Epoch-Based Scheduling:
The Linux scheduling algorithm divides CPU time into epochs,
where each process has a speci ed time quantum. When a
process exhausts its time quantum, it is preempted, and a new
epoch begins. Processes can be selected multiple times within an
epoch until their quantum is exhausted.

ADVANTAGES:

Linux o ers a compelling set of advantages that make it a popular

choice for desktops, servers, and embedded systems:

1. Open Source:

• The cornerstone of Linux is its open-source nature. The

source code is freely available, allowing anyone to inspect,
modify, and distribute it. This fosters a large and active
community that contributes to its development and o ers
extensive support.
2. Security:

• Due to its open-source nature, Linux bene ts from the

scrutiny of a vast developer community. This constant
vigilance helps identify and address security vulnerabilities
promptly. Additionally, the permission-based access control
system in Linux helps enhance security.
3. Stability:

• Linux is renowned for its exceptional stability. It can run for

extended periods without crashes or freezes, making it ideal
for servers and mission-critical applications. This stability
stems from its well-tested codebase and focus on e ciency.
4. Customization:
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 • Linux provides unparalleled customization options. Users
have granular control over the look and feel of the desktop
environment, applications, and system behavior. This exibility
caters to diverse user preferences and work ows.
5. Wide Distribution Variety (Distros):

• Unlike most operating systems, Linux isn't monolithic. There

are numerous distributions (distros) tailored for speci c
purposes, from beginner-friendly options like Ubuntu to
server-oriented distros like Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).
This variety ensures users can nd a distro that perfectly suits
their needs.
6. Free to Use:

• Most Linux distributions are free to download and use,

eliminating licensing costs. This makes it an attractive option
for individuals, businesses, and organizations seeking a cost-
e ective operating system solution.
7. Lightweight:

• Compared to some other operating systems, Linux is

generally lightweight. It requires fewer system resources to
run, making it suitable for older or less powerful computers.
This e ciency also translates to faster boot times and better
performance on resource-constrained devices.
8. Multitasking and Multi-user:

• Linux excels at multitasking, allowing users to run multiple

applications simultaneously without compromising
performance. It also supports multiple user accounts,
enabling di erent users to work on the same system
independently.
9. Extensive Software Availability:

• While not as vast as some other operating systems, Linux

o ers a rich repository of software. Many popular open-
source applications are available for Linux, along with a
growing selection of commercial software with Linux
compatibility. Package managers like APT and YUM make
software installation and management a breeze.
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10. Vibrant Community:

• Linux boasts a large and active community of developers,

users, and enthusiasts. This community provides invaluable
support, tutorials, and contributions that enhance the overall
Linux experience. Users can nd assistance with
troubleshooting, customization, and exploring the vast
capabilities of Linux.
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DRAWBACKS:

While Linux o ers signi cant advantages, there are also some
drawbacks to consider:

1. Learning Curve:

• Compared to user-friendly operating systems like Windows or

macOS, Linux can have a steeper learning curve, especially
for new users. The reliance on the command line for certain
tasks can be daunting for those unfamiliar with it. However,
there's a wealth of online resources and tutorials available to
help users overcome this hurdle.
2. Software Compatibility:

• While the software selection for Linux has grown signi cantly,
it may not match the availability on Windows or macOS.
Some popular proprietary software applications might not
have native Linux versions, although there are often open-
source alternatives or compatibility layers like Wine that can
help bridge the gap.
3. Limited Hardware Compatibility:

• Hardware drivers, especially for newer or niche devices, might

not always be readily available or well-supported on Linux.
This can lead to compatibility issues with certain peripherals
or components. However, the open-source community is
constantly working to improve driver support.
4. Lack of Centralized Support:

• Unlike Windows or macOS with dedicated support channels

from a single vendor, Linux support can be more fragmented.
While the community is generally helpful, troubleshooting
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 issues might require consulting online forums or seeking help
from experienced users.
5. Gaming:

• Although the Linux gaming landscape is improving, it still lags

behind Windows in terms of game selection and compatibility.
Many popular games either don't have Linux versions or
might not run as smoothly due to limitations or compatibility
issues.
6. Potential Security Risks (if not managed carefully):

• While the open-source nature can enhance security due to

public scrutiny, it can also be a double-edged sword. Less
experienced users might inadvertently download malware or
compromise system security if they're not careful about
software sources and permissions. Proper security practices
are essential when using Linux.
7. Distro Fragmentation:

• The vast array of Linux distributions can be overwhelming for

new users. Choosing the right distro can be challenging, and
some software might not be universally compatible across all
distros. However, the variety also o ers exibility to nd a
distro that perfectly aligns with your needs.
8. Frequent Updates (for some):

• Depending on the distribution, Linux systems may receive

updates more frequently than some users are accustomed to.
While these updates often address security vulnerabilities and
improve functionality, they can require restarts and might be
disruptive for some work ows.
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 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS:

Here's a glimpse into some recent developments in the Linux world

(as of March 20, 2024):

Kernel Advancements:

• Linux Kernel 6.8: Released in February 2024, it's nearing a

major milestone of 10 million objects in its codebase. This
version focuses on bug xes, performance improvements,
and continued support for newer hardware.
• Improved File System Support: Enhancements to le
systems like F2FS, Btrfs, and JFS provide better performance,
scalability, and features like larger page sizes and temporary
le system IDs.
• Enhanced Security: The focus on security remains
paramount. Continued development strengthens
cryptographic algorithms and addresses potential
vulnerabilities.
Growing Hardware Compatibility:

• New Linux-based Hardware: The popularity of Linux on

devices like Chromebooks and the Raspberry Pi continues to
drive innovation. We might see more laptops, desktops, and
single-board computers designed speci cally for Linux.
• Improved Driver Support: The open-source community is
constantly working on improving driver compatibility for
various hardware components, making Linux more versatile
for diverse hardware con gurations.
Focus on Cloud and Supercomputing:

• Cloud Computing: As cloud computing continues its ascent,

Linux remains a dominant player due to its scalability, security,
and open-source nature. We can expect further optimizations
for cloud environments.
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 • Supercomputing: Linux is a cornerstone of high-performance
computing (HPC) due to its e ciency and ability to handle
large workloads. We might see advancements in areas like
containerization and resource management speci cally for
supercomputing needs.
Other Trends:

• The Great Ubuntu Revival: There are discussions about a

potential resurgence of Ubuntu as a popular desktop choice,
with a focus on user experience and ease of use.
• Continued Emphasis on Security: With the growing threat
landscape, security remains a top priority. We can expect
ongoing development of security tools and features within
Linux distributions.
Overall, the Linux landscape is constantly evolving, with a
focus on stability, security, broader hardware compatibility, and
catering to emerging trends like cloud computing and
supercomputing.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, Linux remains a powerful and versatile operating

system that continues to evolve and adapt to the changing
landscape of technology. With its open-source nature, robust
security features, cost-e ectiveness, stability, and e cient
performance, Linux o ers a compelling platform for a wide range of
users, from individual programmers to large enterprises.

Recent developments in the Linux ecosystem, such as the focus

on cloud computing, containerization, security enhancements, AI
and ML applications, IoT integration, and hardware innovations,
highlight the ongoing relevance and innovation within the Linux
community. These trends demonstrate Linux's adaptability to
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 emerging technologies and its ability to meet the evolving needs of
modern computing environments.

While Linux may present challenges such as a learning curve,

compatibility issues, and limited technical support in certain areas,
its strengths far outweigh these drawbacks. As Linux continues to
be a driving force in cloud computing, software development, and
hardware innovation, it remains a preferred choice for those
seeking a reliable, customizable, and cost-e ective operating
system.

Overall, Linux's rich ecosystem, strong community support, and

continuous development make it a compelling option for
programmers, businesses, and enthusiasts looking for a stable and
e cient platform to meet their computing needs. The future of
Linux appears promising, with ongoing advancements ensuring its
relevance and impact in the ever-changing world of technology.

REFERENCES:

Linux Online (2008). "Linux Logos and Mascots". Archived from the original on August
15, 2010. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
1. "GNU Userland". Archived from the original on March 8, 2016.
2. "Unix Fundamentals — System Administration for Cyborgs". Archived from the
original on October 5, 2016.
3. "Operating Systems — Introduction to Information and Communication
Technology". Archived from the original on February 21, 2016.
4. "The X Window System". Archived from the original on January 20, 2016.
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