Chapter 21

Lambert’s Conformal Chart - 1

Why Conical Charts?
• We have seen that the Mercator chart has many powerful properties,
but it does have 2 limitations. These are:
• Great Circles are not projected as straight lines.
• The chart is not constant scale. Indeed, scale changes quite rapidly
on a Mercator chart.
• Navigators wished to maintain Rhumb Line tracks because they were
steering by compass, and therefore needed to have a constant track
direction.
• However, that situation started to change from about 1960 onwards,
when automatic computing became available.
• It is possible to calculate a desired Great Circle track direction by
spherical trigonometry formulae, and the computers built into INS,
IRS, FMS and GPS do this as a matter of course.
Background to the Lambert Projection
• The basis of the Lambert projection is the simple conical. However, the
simple conical projection has some limitations, not least that it is not
orthomorphic.
• A Swiss mathematician called Johann Heinrich Lambert made some
modifications to the basic conic in 1777.
• The result is the orthomorphic, near constant scale Lambert’s
Conformal Conic Chart.
The Simple Conic Projection - Convergence
• It is possible to project the graticule of the Earth on to the inside
surface of a cone. This process gives the conical family of projections
from which Lambert’s is derived.
• On the simple conical projection, scale is correct on the parallel of
tangency, in this example, 45°N. This parallel, on which scale is
correct, is called the
‘Standard Parallel’.
Scale expands on either
side of the Standard Parallel.
• when the cone is flattened 360° of longitude are represented in a
sector of a circle of 255 degrees, in this case. The size of the segment
is controlled by the parallel of latitude chosen to be the parallel of
tangency - the higher the latitude chosen the larger will be the sector.
• If The parallel of tangency is 45N, you get an isosceles triangle, with
the angle at the apex being 90°.
• On the other hand, if we had taken a parallel of tangency of 60N, the
angle at the apex (angle of the cone) would have been 120°. The
ultimate case is a parallel of tangency of 90N - the North Pole. In this
case we would get a flat sheet of paper and the angle at the North Pole
would be 180°. The angle at the apex of the triangle is always twice
the parallel of tangency.
• The relationship of the sector formed to the original 360° of longitude
change is determined by the sine of the parallel of origin.
arc of sector = change of longitude × sine of parallel of origin
= 360° × sine 45°
= 255°
angle of inclination of meridians = ch.long × sine of parallel of origin
• The angle of inclination of the meridians is known as chart
convergence.
• Therefore:
chart convergence = change of longitude × sine of parallel of origin
• This gives a general relationship, which is illustrated as follows:
• a change of longitude of 100° is represented on the chart by an angle
of inclination of the meridians of (100° × sin 45°), which is 70.71
The Simple Conic Projection - Scale
• On the simple conic projection the scale is correct at the parallel of
tangency - the paper touches the Reduced Earth at this point.
• However, the scale expands away from the parallel of tangency rather
rapidly
Lambert’s Conical Orthomorphic Projection
• Lambert modified the simple conic in order to reduce this rapid rate of
scale change.
• Instead of doing this:

(a) Simple Conic (b) Lambert

• Lambert made the cone of his
projection go inside the Reduced
Earth.
• The scale is now correct at these
2 points.
• These are now called the
Standard Parallels.
• The scale expands here: It contracts here:
(the yellow parts) (the yellow part).

• This new projection has two standard parallels on which the scale is
correct.
• The old parallel of tangency of the simple conic is renamed the
parallel of origin of the new projection, and scale s least on this
parallel, just as it was on the simple conic.
• the standard parallels are 43°N and 47°N and the parallel of origin is
45°N.
• The upper standard parallel appears one sixth of the way from the top
of the chart and the lower standard parallel, one sixth of the way from
the bottom of the chart.
• This is the ‘one sixth rule’, and ensures minimum scale variation over
the sheet.
Lambert Chart Convergence
• In the simple conic the angle of the cone was twice the latitude of the
parallel of tangency.
• the scale is correct at the standard parallels, but the convergence
factor is defined by the parallel of origin.

Non-perspective Chart
• Having brought the cone inside the Reduced Earth, it was necessary to
make some mathematical adjustments in order to make the chart
orthomorphic.
• The Lambert projection is a non-perspective chart.
Lambert Chart Properties
• Scale
• This is least on the parallel of origin. It expands away from the parallel
of origin, until it is correct on the standard parallels.
• Scale is greatest on the top and bottom parallels of the projection.

• Orthomorphism
• The chart is orthomorphic by mathematical construction
• Orthomorphism
• The chart is orthomorphic by mathematical construction.

• The meridians converge:

• But the parallels curve:

• When you put them together,

they cut at right angles.
• Graticule
• Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole.
• Parallels of latitude are arcs of concentric circles, all of which are
centred at the pole.
• The pole is usually off the map sheet which you are using.
• The map sheet is shown as a red broken rectangle here..
• Chart Convergence
• Unlike on the Earth, the meridians of a Lambert projection are straight
lines.
• Therefore, also unlike the Earth, the convergence between 2 given
meridians does not change with latitude.
• The formula for calculating chart convergence is: -
Chart Convergence = change in longitude × sine parallel of origin
• Rhumb Lines
• Except for meridians which appear as straight lines, Rhumb Lines are
curves concave to the pole of the projection (parallels of latitude).

• Great Circles
• Except for the meridians which appear as straight lines, Great Circles
appear as curves concave to the parallel of origin.
• A straight line in an ‘east-west’ direction most nearly represents a
Great Circle when drawn between two positions on the parallel of
origin.
• The following series of diagrams explain why:-
• .
• Imagine a spherical Earth, (i.e. the real Earth or a Reduced Earth).
• The meridians converge towards each other with increasing latitude.
• Now imagine 3 Great Circle tracks at different latitudes.
• What will happen when we project this real Earth situation onto a
Lambert chart with a parallel of origin of 45°N?
• Chart Convergence = Earth Convergence at the Parallel of Origin
• So Great Circles are straight lines at the parallel of origin and curves
concave to the parallel of origin at any other latitude.
• However, the amount of curvature from the straight line is exaggerated
simply to make the explanation clearer.
• for all practical purposes, including plotting, Great Circles on a Lambert
chart may be treated as straight lines.
End of Chapter 21