Trigonometric functions

Trigonometric ratios
• If a triangle is right-angled, the trigonometric ratios for sine, cosine and tangent can be used to solve the
triangle (i.e. to calculate side lengths and magnitudes of angles).
• If using a calculator or other technology, ensure that it is set on the appropriate mode for degree measure.
• Exact values should be known. Either memorise the table of values or memorise the triangles and use SOH,
CAH, TOA to obtain the trigonometric ratios:

• Pythagoras’s theorem can be used to deduce one trigonometric ratio from another.
• Isosceles triangles are divided into two right-angled triangles by dropping a perpendicular line from the
vertex between the equal sides to the midpoint of the opposite side.
1
• The area of a right-angled triangle is area = (base)  (height).
2
 1
• The area of a triangle can be calculated using the formula A = ab sin(C ) where the angle C is included
2
between the two sides a and b.
• It is usually advisable to draw a diagram when solving problems.

Circular measure
• Circular measure means angles are measured in radians.
• One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius.
•  radians equal 180 .
180
• To convert radians to degrees, multiply by .


• To convert degrees to radians, multiply by .
180
• Radians are often expressed as multiples of  .
• A unit circle has a radius of one unit and, by convention, a centre at the origin of the coordinate axes.
• The real number line can be wrapped around the circumference of a unit circle so that the real number 
corresponds to the angle  in radian measure.
• Positive reals wrap around the circumference anticlockwise; negative reals wrap clockwise; zero is placed at
(1, 0) on the unit circle.
• Many numbers are placed in the same position on the unit circle’s circumference by this wrapping.
• The formula for arc length is l = r .
r 2
• The formula for the area of a sector is Asector = .
2
• The angle  in the arc length formula and area of sector formulas must be expressed in radians.
• The angle  is the angle at the centre subtended by the arc.
• The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference subtended by the same arc.
• All trigonometric functions have periodicity; that is, at established intervals, the function repeats itself in a
regular pattern.
Unit circle definitions
• The trigonometric point P   is the endpoint of a rotation of  around the circumference of a unit circle
from the initial point (1, 0).
• If the angle  is in radian measure, the arc length of the rotation is the real number  . This means
wrapping a number line around the circumference of a unit circle maps the real number  to P  
• Rotations are anticlockwise if  is positive, and clockwise if  is negative.
• cos( ) is defined as the x-coordinate of the trigonometric point P   .

• sin( ) is defined as the y-coordinate of the trigonometric point P   .

• tan( ) is defined as the length of the intercept that the extended radius OP cuts off on the vertical tangent
drawn to the unit circle at the point (1, 0).

• tan( ) is not defined for any value of  that is an odd multiple of , as OP is parallel to the vertical tangent
2
for these values.
y
• tan( ) = , x  0
x
Exact values and symmetry properties
• Trigonometric values of the boundary points can be calculated from their Cartesian coordinates.
• The CAST diagram identifies which of the trigonometric values are positive in each of the quadrants.
 • For  in the first quadrant, the symmetric points are found using    , 2   . The symmetric points are
always measured as  from the horizontal x-axis, with  giving their base.
• The symmetry properties express the relationships between   and points symmetric to it in other
quadrants.

• For base  , 0    , the quadrant forms are second quadrant  −  , third quadrant  +  and fourth
2
quadrant 2 −  .
• To identify the base, express the given value in quadrant form.
  
• If the base is one of , , , exact trigonometric values for the symmetric points can be calculated.
6 4 3
Graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions
• The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are closely related and share similar features.
• The graphs of y = sin( x) and y = cos( x) oscillate about the x-axis, the line with the equation y = 0. This line is
called the equilibrium or mean position.
• The graphs have a period of 2 units. This is the length of the domain interval for one cycle of the
oscillation.
• Each graph has an amplitude of 1 unit. This measures the vertical distance that the graph rises from the
equilibrium position to reach a maximum point, or the vertical distance that the graph falls from the
equilibrium position to reach a minimum point.
• The range of the graphs is  −1, 1 .

• A cycle of the basic sine graph starting from its equilibrium position follows the pattern, for each quarter
period, of:
equilibrium → range maximum → equilibrium → range minimum → equilibrium
• A cycle of the basic cosine graph starting from a maximum point of the oscillation range follows the pattern,
for each quarter period, of:
range maximum → equilibrium → range minimum → equilibrium → range maximum
• The graph of y = tan( x) has a distinct shape different to the wave shape of sine and cosine.

• A key feature of the tan graph is the presence of vertical asymptotes at multiples of .
2
• Range is R.
• Amplitude has no meaning for the tangent graph.

Transformations of sine and cosine graphs

• Sine and cosine graphs oscillate about an equilibrium or mean position.
• The period is the length of the domain interval for one cycle of the oscillation.
• The amplitude is the vertical distance that the graph rises from the equilibrium position to reach a maximum
point, or the vertical distance that the graph falls from the equilibrium position to reach a minimum point.
• Transformations of the trigonometric function can be interpreted in the same way as for any function.
However, the effect of the transformation on the period, amplitude and equilibrium position needs to be
readily identified.
• The graphs of y = Asin ( B ( x − C )) + D or y = Acos ( B ( x − C )) + D are the images of the basic sine and cosine
graphs respectively, under the following transformations:
o A dilation of factor A (assuming A is positive) from the x-axis; the graphs have an amplitude of A.
o A reflection in the x-axis if A  0 ; the graphs are inverted.
1 2
o A dilation of factor , B  0 from the y-axis; a period of .
B B
o A horizontal translation of C units to the right if C  0 or to the left if C  0 ; the graphs have phase
shifts of C, from the graphs of y = sin ( Bx ) and y = cos ( Bx ) respectively.
 o A vertical translation of D units up if D  0 or down if D  0 ; the graphs have the line y = D as their
equilibrium position.
o A cycle of a sine graph starting from its equilibrium position follows the pattern, for each quarter period,
of:
equilibrium → range maximum → equilibrium → range minimum → equilibrium if A  0 or
equilibrium → range minimum → equilibrium → range maximum → equilibrium if A  0 .
o A cycle of a cosine graph starting from either its maximum or minimum of the oscillation range follows
the pattern, for each quarter period, of:
range maximum → equilibrium → range minimum → equilibrium → range maximum if A  0 or
range minimum → equilibrium → range maximum → equilibrium → range minimum if A  0 .

o The sine and cosine graphs have a phase difference of with:
2
   
cos  x −  = sin( x) and sin  x +  = cos( x) .
 2  2
o There is no unique equation for a sine or cosine graph and each function can be expressed in terms of
the other function. Choose the function that does not require a phase shift if given the choice.

Trigonometric equations
• To solve the basic type of equation such as f ( x) = a , where f is either sin, cos or tan:
o Check whether the solution lies on a boundary between quadrants and, if so, use the unit circle to help
form the solutions.
o If the solutions are not boundary values, identify the possible quadrants in which the solutions can lie by
considering the sin, cos or tan function and the sign of a.
• To solve the basic type of equation (continued)
o Obtain the base value, or first-quadrant value. For exact solutions, this will require recognition of known
trigonometric ratios.
o A calculator may be required to obtain the base. For sin( x) = a , for example, the base is sin −1 (a) if a is
positive. Ignore the negative sign to calculate the base if a is negative.
o Check whether the base is required in radians or in degrees.
o Use the base value to generate the values for the quadrants required from their symmetric quadrant
forms.
o The domain of the equation indicates how many rotations need to be applied, and in which directions, to
obtain all solutions.
• For more complicated equations, use algebra or trigonometric relationships to reduce the equation to the
basic form, rejecting any instances for which the conditions −1  sin( x)  1 and −1  cos( x)  1 are not
satisfied:
o If sin( x) = a cos( x) , then convert to tan( x) = a by dividing both sides of the equation by cos( x) .

o If sin 2 ( x) = a , then convert to two basic equations sin( x) =  a using square roots.
o If a sin 2 ( x) + b sin( x) + c = 0 , then convert to a quadratic equation au 2 + bu + c = 0 using the substitution
u = sin( x) .

sin( )
• tan( ) =
cos( )
• The Pythagorean identify is cos 2 ( ) + sin 2 ( ) = 1 .

• The Pythagorean identify can be written as cos 2 ( ) = 1 − sin 2 ( ) or sin 2 ( ) = 1 − cos 2 ( ) .

• Algebraic techniques, such as factorisation and expansion, together with recognition of trigonometric
identities, may simplify trigonometric expressions.
• To deduce one trigonometric ratio from another:
o draw a right-angled triangle in the first quadrant with the sides in the given ratio, ignoring any negative
signs
 o use Pythagoras’s theorem to calculate the third side
o obtain the required ratio, inserting the appropriate sign from the ‘CAST’ diagram, for the actual
quadrant.
• Alternatively, the Pythagorean identity can be used to deduce one trigonometric ratio from another.
• To solve over a given domain equations of the form f (nx) = a where f is either sin, cos or tan:
o change the given domain for x to that of nx
o solve the equation to obtain the values of nx and hence obtain the solutions for x
o a substitution such as  = nx could be made, if preferred, and the domain changed to that for  . The
substitution  = nx + b is helpful when solving equations of the form f (nx + b) = a .

Applications of sine and cosine functions

• Sine and cosine functions can provide good models for a variety of situations where there is periodic change.
• The maximum value of both sin( x) and cos( x) is 1; their minimum value is -1. These values can be used to
calculate the maximum or minimum values of the model.
• The maximum and minimum values of the model can also be obtained from the range of the trigonometric
function.
• The model may be expressed in terms of variables other than x and y, so any graph should have axes labelled
accordingly.
• Consider the appropriate units to use when answering questions in context.
Exact values of trigonometric functions
Circle mensuration