Einstein and The Modern Physics Revolution - Handouts

10/2/2017
Concepts for today

• Intuition • Utilizing
Albert Einstein and the • Transformations • The metric system
•
Modern Physics Revolution • Special Relativity •
Algebra
Star Trek
• Simultaneity • Trains
• Mass equals energy • Pole vaulters
Dr. Elliott S. McCrory
Saturday Morning Physics • Spacetime
Lecture number 2
October 7, 2017
7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 2
Prof. Dan Hooper

September 30, 2017
But what is “Science”? Prof. Dan Hooper
September 30, 2017
Are There Alternatives to the Scientific Method?

Reliance on tradition or authority
 This is something of a straw man opponent to science; few would argue that science conducted
sufficiently fairly and carefully will often lead to conclusions that are likely to be false
 Many instances of reliance on tradition are actually a weak form of reliance on social science – if
many people held position X in the past, then this provides a limited degree of empirical evidence
that holding position X is likely to be helpful or advantageous
Reliance on pure reasoning (mathematics, philosophy)

 Many people think of mathematics as a part of science, but it is fundamentally not grounded in
empiricism (a central part of the scientific method)
 Although philosophers of science hold a range of opinions on this issue, my view is that math helps to
illuminate the relationships between ideas and can help to clarify our thinking, but does not itself tell
us anything about our world
We are guided by our intuition What is Intuition?

(noun)
• Must be careful! • The ability to understand something immediately, without the need for
• Ptolemeic view of the “universe” based on conscious reasoning.
beliefs and on intuition
• Experience, observation and intuition are “We shall allow our intuition to guide us"
linked
• a thing that one knows or considers likely from instinctive feeling rather than
• It can only takes you so far conscious reasoning.
• Intuition grows as we gain experience and “Your insights and intuitions as a native speaker are positively sought“
make observations
synonyms: instinct, hunch, feeling (in one's bones), inkling,
(sneaking) suspicion, idea, sense, notion;
7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 5 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 6
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Terminology: A quantity is said to be

• Invariant
Modern Physics: • If different observers would obtain the same result from a
Our Intuition is incomplete measurement of this quantity.
• The mass of an object.
Much is, at first, counter‐intuitive
• Relative
We must develop new intuition • If different observers would obtain different result from a
measurement of this quantity.
• The speed of an object.
Terms: Frame of Reference Terms: Inertial Frame of Reference

• A frame of reference in which the stuff in it has
• A coordinate system and some way to fix stuff no forces acting on them.
into that coordinate system. • The stuff is at rest or it moves at a constant velocity in
• A football field a straight line.
• This room • Examples:
• The car that brought you here this morning, moving steadily
y • A train car moving steadily
z • The bridge of the Enterprise
What are these symbols?
Physics Greek letters Frame of

Velocity : v Beta : ß reference
Distance : d Gamma : γ
Time : t
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Galileo?
Another term: Coordinate Transformations Galileo Galilei:
1564‐1642
• Italian astronomer
A regular transformation: •
•
Physicist
Engineer
• philosopher
• mathematician.
x  x0  vt He has been called

• "father of observational
astronomy",
t  t0 • "father of modern physics",

• "father of the scientific method",
and
• "father of science".
Galileo studied speed and velocity,

We call this the gravity and free fall, the principle of
relativity, inertia, projectile motion
“Galilean Transformation”
and also worked in applied science
and technology, describing the
properties of pendulums and
"hydrostatic balances", inventing the
thermoscope and various military
compasses, and using the telescope
for scientific observations of celestial
objects.
Coordinate Transformation Example:

Example of a coordinate transformation Throwing a ball from a moving train car
vball = -vtrain = 70 MPH
y0 y
v
v = 5 [m/s]
t0 = 10 [sec]
x  x0  vt
x0 = 0
t  t0
xo x What are x and t?
What is the velocity of the ball

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 15 7 October 2017
when itMcCrory:
emerges from the train?
Einstein's 1905 Revolution 16
The Year
Recap: Frame of reference
1905
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Physics into 1905: Many successes! Physics into 1905: Many successes!
• Newton’s laws of mechanics are known and are • Newton’s laws of gravity are very accurate
very accurate • Predicts orbits of the planets and their moons
• Predicts appearance of comets
• Predicts eclipses
• The laws of electricity and magnetism were

discovered and have been determined to be
very accurate
But .. Electricity and magnetism:

There are a few loose ends to tidy up.
A big one is contained within

Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell’s Equations of Electricity and Magnetism
Maxwell’s Equations, 1862 Maxwell’s Equations (for reference)
• James Clerk Maxwell, 1831‐1879

• Form the foundation of classical
electromagnetism, quantum field
theory, classical optics,
and electric circuits.

Note that the speed of light, c, is part of these equations
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Maxwell’s Equations: Powerful and accurate Maxwell’s Equations: Powerful and accurate
• Electricity and magnetism are the same thing
• But Maxwell’s Equations have a some strange features:
• Predict the existence of light waves.
• Light is a form of electromagnetism The speed of light is the same for all observers
• Light travels with a velocity of 299,792,458 meters
per second (“the speed of light”, c)
They are not invariant under a Galilean coordinate transformation
• Wow! That’s Fabulous!
The Speed of Light What do Maxwell’s Equations say?

• It seems like* speed is relative: x'  x  vt • Light travels at the same speed even if the observer is moving
t'  t
v'  v0  v • Velocities do not add up in the expected way
?
c'  c  v ?? v'  v0  v
• Maxwell's Equations say that the speed of light is invariant • How’s that?
• Mathematicians to the rescue
* Intuition
Hendrik Lorentz (1823‐1928) Coordinate Transformations

• Lorentz developed a coordinate Galilean transformation: Lorentz transformation:
transformation that kept Maxwell’s Equations
invariant
• By doing deep math on these complicated
x  x0  vt x   ( x0  vt )
equations – amazing!
t  t0  vx 
t    t0  2 
 c 
1
• Maxwell’s Equations are invariant under the 
Lorentz transformation. 1 v2 / c2
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Understanding of Lorentz Transformations in 1905 Understanding of Lorentz Transformations in 1905

• Even at the speed of sound, 340 m/s, this • For speeds a lot less than the speed of light,
“gamma” factor is almost irrelevant: x   ( x0  vt ) Galilean and Lorentz transformations are x   ( x0  vt )
 vx  identical.  vx 
t    t0  2  1 t    t0  2 
  1 / 1  (v / c ) 2  c    c 
1  v2 / c2
 1 / 1  (340 / 299,792,458) 2 1  1.00000000000064 1
 
 1 / 1  0.999999999999357 1 v2 / c2   1 1 v2 / c2
  1.00000000000064 x  x0  vt
* Intuition
t  t0 * Intuition
Understanding of Lorentz Transformations in 1905 Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)

x   ( x0  vt ) • At age 4 (1883)
• However, for speeds close to the speed of light,
• At 23 (1902): Patent clerk
Lorentz transformation predicted weird things.  vx 
• This seemed* so radical that scientist were reluctant to
t    t0  2  • At 26 (1905): Published 4 papers that
accept it  c  changed everything
• For example, what happens when v=c? 1 • At 29 (1908): Professor at U Bern
• Or worse: when v>c??  • At 36 (1915): Published The General Theory
1 v2 / c2 of Relativity
• Then there came along this patent clerk in Bern, • At 42 (1921): Nobel Prize
Switzerland ... • At 54 (1933): Emigrated to America
• At 76 (1955): Completes The Meaning of
* Intuition
Relativity, 5th edition 34
7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 33 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution
1905: Einstein’s Extraordinary Year 1905: Old Memes ‐ Gone

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis_papers • He introduced to humans:
• Annus Mirabilis = Extraordinary year • Quantum Mechanics
• Special Relativity
• Einstein published four spectacular papers, which derived • E=mc2
explanations for:
1. The Photoelectric Effect
2. Brownian Motion
3. Coordinate transformations in Maxwell’s Equations (Special Relativity) 
4. Mass‐energy equivalence 
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4 papers: More than a

Genius
century of physics
• Einstein was one of the hardest‐working scientists of the 20th Century
• Each of these papers, individually,

would have turned physics on its
head
• All of them together from one

person, in one year, is (to me) Thomas Edison, 1903
incomprehensible!
And now …
Physics: Velocity (v), Distance (d) and Time (t)

Hint: Use the units
v  d /t [meters per second] = [meters] ÷ [second]
d  vt [m] = [m/s]  [s] Special Relativity

t  d /v [s] = [m] ÷ [m/s]
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies”
Einstein stipulated
Special Relativity
• The laws of nature are the same in all inertial frames of

reference.
• Intuition
• The speed of light in the vacuum is the same in all inertial

frames of reference.
• Recognized as a (crazy?) feature of Maxwell’s Equations
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The Light Clock
What can we predict* from

these two assumptions?
Let invent a new type of clock and see
* Scientific method 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 44
Time = distance / velocity For the clock to tick at 1 second
t  2h / v h  12 tc
t  2h / c h  12 c
h  12 tc  c  299,792,458 [m / s ]
The clock ticks at a rate of 2h/c seconds h  149,896,229 [m]
For a clock that ticks every t seconds, the mirrors are ½ tc apart
(150 million meters: 1/3 of the way to the moon)
The Light Clock
Remember, we assumed
The speed of light

is the same for all observers
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From the perspective of the Light Clock
β ≡ v/c
“The Greek letter beta is defined to be v over c”
vEnterprise < c
50
From the perspective of the Enterprise How long does it take for the initial “Tock”?
t=0 t=x/v t=2x/v
t=0 t=x/v t=2x/v
h2  x2
t
c
 x  vt
h2  x2
h2  x2 h
h
h 2  vt 
2
v
v
t
x x
x x c
51 52
 v 
2
h 2  vt  h 2  t 2c 2 1    
2
A little algebra … t A little more algebra …   c  

c
t=0 t=x/v t=2x/v

h 2  t 2c 2 1   2 
h 2  vt 
2
tc  1
2
h 2  t2
t 2 c 2  h 2  vt 
h 2  vt 
 
2
2 t
c
c 1  2
h2  x2
t c h v t
2 2 2 2 2 ... h2 1
h
h2  t2 c2  v2   t 
2
c2 1  2
t 2 c 2  v 2t 2  h 2 v h
 
v
x x   t 1  2
t2 c2  v2  h2 c
c

h 2  t 2 c 2  v 2 ...  t  t0 / 1   2
53 54
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t0
Lorentz Transformation of time!
The time for the light
to travel this path t
1  2
is longer to the Enterprise observer
than it is
to the observer sitting on the clock!
The time is “dilated”

Wow! That’s Fantastic!
Dilate In other words …
v.tr. For the observer on the Enterprise and the

To make wider or larger; cause to expand. observer on the mirrors to see the light to go
v.intr. between the mirrors the same way, …
1. To become wider or larger; expand.
2. To speak or write at great length on a subject The passage of time on the Enterprise has to be
; expatiate. slower than the passage of time on the mirrors!
Recap: Time dilation

Special Relativity Shorthand
t   t0
Speed [m/s] Beta Gamma Example
0 0 1 You and me in Wilson Hall
36 1.210‐7 1 Me on I‐88 The time observed on the
343 1.110‐6 1 Speed of sound
3889 1.310‐5 1.00000000008 Speed of a GPS Satellite moving clock is longer than
1498962 0.005 1.00001 Fermilab Ion Source protons
1 2.997924E+07 0.1 1.01 the observer’s clock
 5.995849E+07 0.2 1.02
t0  t / 
1.498962E+08 0.5 1.15
1  2
2.098547E+08 0.7136 1.43 Fermilab Linac protons
2.698132E+08 0.9000 2.29 The time on the observer’s
2.967945E+08 0.9945 9.53 Fermilab Booster protons
2.994927E+08 0.9990 22.4 clock is shorter than the
2.997625E+08
2.997895E+08
0.9999000
0.9999653
70.7
120 Main Injector Protons
moving clock
2.997921E+08 0.9999990 707
2.997924E+08 0.9999999 2236
2.997924E+08 0.9999999898 7000 Large Hadron Collider protons
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How long is one second, as seen from the Earth,

on the Enterprise for v = 0.25c ? *
Light Clock also leads to length contraction
A. 0.9682
t E   t0
d
B. 3.1416
c/4 C. 0.7071
t E  t0 / 1   2
D. 1.0328 v = ßc
E. 1.1412
* ST:TNG Technical Manual: “High relativistic speeds are to be avoided unless absolutely necessary; impulse power should be limited to a maximum of 1⁄4 lightspeed”
d  d0 / 
7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 61 62
The time for the light to make one round trip d vt1
t1 
 The time for the light to go from
as seen while sitting on the clock c c left to right, as seen from NCC‐1701D
 v d
t0 : Time as seen on the
t1 1   
d0
clock  c c v = ßc
d0 : Distance as seen on d /c
the clock t1 
1 v / c
d - (a little bit)
v = ßc t : Time as seen on the
Enterprise
d : Distance as seen on the d
t1 
c1  v / c 
Enterprise
t 0  2d 0 / c d
t1 
cv
d v The total time for the light to go from left to

t2 
 t2 The time for the light to go from
c c right to left, as seen from NCC‐1701D right, and back, as seen from NCC‐1701D
 v d
t 2 1   
 c c v = ßc
d /c t  t1  t 2
t2 
1 v / c d + (a little extra)
d d
d t 
 cv cv
c1  v / c 
d
t2 
cv
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We’ll use this: d d tc

t   d 
c  v c  v 2 2
 2c   t0   t
 d 2 2 
 c  v 
 1 1   ab a b  2 cd  t 
t0
        
 a  b a  b   a  b a  b  a  b a  b    v2 
c 2  1  2  t c
 c  
 2a  2 
   2d  1 
 a  b a  b  


 
t c
c  1    2  0
2 
2a 2d
  2 d  ( t 0 c ) /( 2  )
 2 c
a  b2 ct
 d 0  t0c / 2
 d d0
2 2
d 
ct 
d 
2 2
Special Relativity Summary A nice velocity v  0.866 c

  0.866
t   t0 Time Dilation With,
  1 / 1  (0.866) 2
  1/ 1  2  1 / 1  .749956
1
d d0 Length Contraction   v/c  1 / 1  0.75
  1 / 0.5
2
Questions?
Simultaneity A thought experiment: Stationary train car

7.3 m (24 feet)
• Noun form of “simultaneous”
• Two events happen simultaneously
when you see/observe that they have
occurred at the same time. A light pulse
• The fact that the speed of light is the

same to all observers means that our 129
3 nanoseconds
6
intuitive understanding of simultaneity

needs to be extended.
• Let’s see why
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A thought experiment: Moving train car

The light pulses hit the ends simultaneously
About 7.3 m (24 feet)
12 nanoseconds
The light hits the back of the train car first Simultaneity is different (!!!)
• Because the speed of light is the same for all observers …
• The observer on the train sees the light hit the ends of the train
simultaneously
• The observer on the ground sees the light hit the ends of the train at
different times.
Repeat this animation
Physicist’s view of a pole vaulter

10 meters
Scientists tried to disprove

counter‐intuitive Velocity: v
aspects of Special Relativity
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Physicist’s view of a barn A pole vaulter and a barn

5 meters
5 meters
10 meters
Let the speed of vaulter be 0.866c (γ = 2) Barn, with doors shut, fully contains vaulter
d  d0 /  5 meters 5 meters
5 meters
And the vaulter keeps running, pole in tact From the point of view of the vaulter
5 meters
2.5 meters
10 meters
v=0.866c
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What causes the doors to close?

5 meters
A Paradox?
Either the pole gets smashed by the doors or it does not!

It cannot be both whole and broken.
Resolving this is a little tricky.
Questions? 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 86
causality
noun Causality can travel no faster
The relationship between cause and effect. than the speed of light
So, let’s use a light‐based signal to cause the doors to close
causal
adjective
Relating to or acting as a cause.
What causes the doors to close? The signal propagates to the doors …
5 meters 5 meters
Sensor Sensor
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… And causes doors to close And vaulter continues with an unbroken pole
5 meters 5 meters
Sensor Sensor

Just like the train car, previously!
7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 91 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution Questions?
92
From the point of view of the vaulter The front door closes (quickly)
2.5 meters
The front door opens Back door closes when the signal reaches it
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The paradox is resolved through

And vaulter continues with an unbroken pole
careful application of cause‐and‐
effect in Special Relativity
5 meters
10 meters
More on this apparent paradox …

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_paradox
• YouTube: “Relativity 5b ‐ pole and barn paradox”, by viascience.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TU1tKTOIj4
Equivalence of
At first, this seemed counter‐intuitive
mass and energy
We have improved our intuition
7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution
“Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?”
Special Relativity: E = mc2

• It is possible to derive this formula using algebra
• Energy = force  distance
E = mc2
• Force = the change in the momentum of an object

• Lorentz transformations of time (that is, the velocity)
• But it is easier (and cleaner) to use calculus
• http://www.emc2‐explained.info/Emc2/Deriving.htm
101 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 102
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E = mc2
Energy and mass
Derived using only math (mostly algebra) and the two conjectures:
1. The laws of nature are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
2. The speed of light in the vacuum is the same in all inertial frames of reference.
are the same thing
Mind: Blown!
Wonderful Theoretical Fun!
An aside: Our nomenclature at Fermilab What does this mean? E = mc2

• Physicists at Fermilab set the speed of light equal to one • What is the energy of 1 gram of matter?
E = 0.001 [kg](2.998  108 [m/s])2

E=m E = 1  10-3 8.988004  1016 [kg m2/sec2]
E = 8.988004  1013 [Joules]
E ≈ 90 Terajoules
• This is only a change in units
• Emphasizing even more clearly that energy is the same thing as mass  Burning 691,538 gallons of gasoline
 Exploding 42,964,554 pounds (21.5 kilo‐tons (kT)) of TNT
First atomic bomb: Hiroshima (USA, fission) Largest bomb: Tsar Bomba (USSR, fusion)
• Hiroshima bomb: 63 Terajoules [6.3  1013 Joules] (15 kT) • Tsar Bomba: 240 Petajoules [2.4  1017 joules] (57 MT)
• Equivalent to about 0.7 grams of matter converted to energy • 3800 times larger than Hiroshima bomb
• Converted about 2.7 kg of matter into energy
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No Lorentz violations could be

How do we know measured thus far, and exceptions
Special Relativity in which positive results were
reported have been refuted or lack
is accurate? further confirmations.
Everyday uses of Special Relativity GPS is based on very accurate clocks

• Global Positioning System (GPS) • GPS clock ticks must be known to an accuracy of 20‐30 nanoseconds
• ~5 meters on the road.
• Muon Decay • GPS satellites are constantly moving relative to Earthly observers
• These clocks move a little more slowly
• Special Relativity predictions … next slide
• GPS also gets substantial corrections from General Relativity
http://www.astronomy.ohio‐state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit5/gps.html
GPS: How big an effect is satellite motion? An aside – GPS and General relativity
Speed of a GPS satellite is 14,000 KPH (3889 m/s) • The satellite is in micro‐gravity
• The receiver is in Earth gravity
βsatellite = 3889 / 299,792,458   v/c • General Relativity:
= 0.0000129633
• Earth clock runs 38 microseconds slower per day
γsatellite = 1.00000000008402
  1/ 1  2 • 5.4X bigger effect than Special Relativity
One day = 84600 seconds
γsatellite(one day) = 84600.0000071084 seconds t  t 0 • About a mile of error per day
7.1 microseconds off
This means that over a day, your position inaccuracy would grow from about 5 meters to about 300 meters.
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Muon Decay No relativity

• 1941 experiment Distance: 10,000 meters
Time = distance / velocity
• Now a common experiment in
a graduate physics laboratory t = 1104 [m]/( (0.98) (3 108 [m/s] ))
t = 34  10‐6 [sec]
Muon lifetime = 2.2  10‐6 [sec]

15.5X longer
Expect to see about 20 muons
20
115
With time dilation Special Relativity includes Newton and E&M

Distance: 10,000 meters
Time = distance / velocity
tEnterprise = t0 / γ • Special Relativity extends Newtonian Mechanics to close‐to‐c speeds,
t = (1104 [m]/( (0.98) (3 108 [m/s] )))/ γ
but it does not contradict it

1 • It includes all of Newtonian Mechanics in its entirety.
t = (34  10‐6 [sec]) / γ
1  2
1

Special Relativity
1  0.98 2
1

0.0396
Electro‐
 5.025
Newtonian
magnetism
t =6.8  10‐6 [sec] Mechanics
(Maxwell)
Muon lifetime = 2.2  10‐6 [sec]
3.1X longer
116,000 Questions?
Expect to see about 116,000 muons 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 118
General Relativity …
• Einstein’s Relativity does not
end here
• General relativity combines
acceleration (non‐inertial
reference frames) with gravity
• Gravity is a result of the
Spacetime
geometry of spacetime (!)
We are moving fast enough that you might think we have the
time to go over General Relativity in some detail.
But, alas, we do not.
20
10/2/2017
Time Time At about 12:05 PM today

As seen from Wilson Hall
Future
600 seconds You and me in 5 minutes 600 seconds
You and me now I‐88 I‐88

10 miles 15 miles
Davenport Fermilab Chicago Davenport Fermilab Chicago
Past What are our speeds?
You = 10 miles / (1/6 hr) = 60 MPH

Me = 15 miles / (1/6 hr) = 90 MPH
Time Time
Same thing, as seen from your car
2 sec
600 seconds
You on I88
-299,792,458 meters
299,792,458 meters
I‐88
Mirror at
Mirror at
1 sec
5 miles
Space
Us
Time
Causality:
Space
The fastest a signal can travel US
is c
21
10/2/2017
Time
Units of mass and energy

• We use “Electron Volts” as an energy
Causal • 1.6×10−19 joules
Non‐causal Non‐causal
• Since mass=energy, we also say that a
Space
particle has a mass in “electron volts”
me  510999 [eV ]
 511 [ keV ]
m p  938272081[eV ]
 938 [ MeV ]
Converting between energy and mass Intuition … reprise

• When two particles collide at high energy, the result has a lot of • How do we know what we know?
energy • Intuition
• Deduction
• Often (usually) this energy becomes mass. • Observation
• This talk:
• Intuition can be incomplete
• “Counter intuitive”
• Deduction and observation can be amazing
Special Relativity: Conclusions

• Time dilates
• Length contracts t   t0
In other words, Special Relativity is • Simultaneity is relative
• Matter and energy are the same thing 1
• It agrees, impressively, with experiments d d0
A triumph of the Scientific Method • Our old intuition must change 
• Maxwell’s Equations are correct
• And they always have been   1/ 1  2
• Einstein was clever
  v/c
22
10/2/2017
Weary, though fascinated!

• Einstein was one of the greatest minds ever
• 1905: Four papers changed humans’ understanding of the physical
Conclusions world
• Special Relativity: Old intuition of space and time must be adjusted
• Algebra is cool
Relativity does not end here

• General relativity
• Einstein’s life’s work
• Space is warped by mass
• Mass moves according to how That’s all, folks!
space is warped
• Mind‐blowing predictions:
• Precession of the orbit of Mercury
• Light is bent by a gravity field These slides:
• Black holes 1. https://smp.fnal.gov
• Expansion of the universe
2. “Session I: Fall 2017”
• Gravity waves
The other
1905 Einstein papers Brownian Motion
were also profound
23
10/2/2017
“Investigations on the theory of Brownian Movement”

Botanist Robert Brown,
Brownian Motion 1773‐1858
Brownian Motion
• A tiny, visible object

(suspended in water) will
move about randomly.
• Could the pollen grains be
alive?
• Nope. Shown to happen
with lab‐created
inanimate stuff
"On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light”
Brownian Motion: Einstein
Photoelectric Effect
• Einstein solved the

problem, assuming
“molecules” are what is
pushing the object
around.
• His calculations revealed
the size of these
molecules
• Avagadro’s Number
The Photoelectric Effect Interpretation based on Maxwell’s Equations

• Covered last week by Professor Hooper • Light is a wave
• Emission of electrons when light shines
onto a material … sometimes • Brighter light  More energetic electrons
• This phenomenon was discovered by • Brighter light  More prompt emission of electrons
Hertz and Hallwachs in 1887. • Dim light: electrons would be released slowly and at low energy
24
10/2/2017
Observations Max Planck

• In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted • Studied the radiation emitted from a glowing body
electrons increased with the color of the light, but not the intensity. • “Black Body Radiation”
• (Radiation: energy from light)
• Furthermore, when the color was blue enough, electrons would be

emitted instantly
How to fit this frequency curve? Max Planck and Einstein

• Assume that electromagnetic energy could be • Einstein showed that Planck’s assertion, that light is made up of
emitted only in quantized form particles, would resolve the photoelectric effect
• He introduced a new constant, h:
E = hν
• h is Planck's constant, • Light comes in quanta, and they behave like particles in the
6.62607×10−34 [Joules seconds] Photoelectric effect
• ν (“nu”) is the frequency of the radiation.
• Scientists appreciated the novelty and correctness • These particles (now called “photons”) hit electrons in the atoms of
(mathematically) of this assumption, but they did not the metal and can only kick them out if the energy of the photos is
(particularly) like what this meant! high enough
E  mc 2
Wave/particle duality Full equation for total energy E 2  m 2c 4

  m02 c 4
m02 c 4

• The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then‐emerging concept 1
v2
c2
of wave–particle duality in the nature of light.
E p 2c 2  m02 c 4 mc
m 2c 4  0 2
2 4
v
1 2
c
• Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and  v2 
m 2 c 4 1  2   m02 c 4
particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. • In other words …  c 
m 2 c 4  m 2 v 2 c 2  m02 c 4
• Anything with energy has  p  mv
• It was soon realized that particles with mass also have a wavelength momentum m 2 c 4  p 2 c 2  m02 c 4
m 2 c 4  p 2 c 2  m02 c 4
• A photon has momentum
Return E p 2 c 2  m02 c 4
25
10/2/2017
An aside: No new physics in 20th Century? Some perspective on Annus Miralilis

• One school of thought: • Worked as an examiner at the Patent Office in Bern, Switzerland
•
•
Classical mechanics could cope with highly complex problems involving macroscopic situations
Thermodynamics and kinetic theory were well established
• Limited access to scientific reference materials,
• Geometrical and physical optics could be understood in terms of electromagnetic waves • Co‐worker: “[Einstein] could not have found a better sounding board for his
• Conservation laws for energy and momentum (and mass) were widely accepted ideas in all of Europe".
• It was generally accepted that all the important laws of physics had been discovered
• Research would be concerned with clearing up minor problems and particularly with improvements of method and
measurement. • Einstein tackles some of the era's most important physics questions
• However, A. A. Michelson's in his 1899 lectures Light Waves and Their Uses:
• These papers solved the primary scientific problems of the era:
• What would be the use of extreme refinement in the science of measurement? • Lord Kelvin lecture titled "Nineteenth‐Century Clouds over the Dynamical
• […] all future discovery must lie [here]. Theory of Heat and Light”
• The more important fundamental laws and facts of physical science have all been discovered, and these are now so firmly
established that the possibility of their ever being supplanted in consequence of new discoveries is exceedingly remote. • Michelson–Morley experiment
• Nevertheless, it has been found that there are apparent exceptions to most of these laws, and this is particularly true when
the observations are pushed to a limit, i. e., whenever the circumstances of experiment are such that extreme cases can be • Black body radiation.
examined. Such examination almost surely leads, not to the overthrow of the law, but to the discovery of other facts and
laws whose action produces the apparent exceptions. • Coordinate transformation of Maxwell’s Equations.
26

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10/2/2017

Concepts for today

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 2

Prof. Dan Hooper

Are There Alternatives to the Scientific Method?

Reliance on pure reasoning (mathematics, philosophy)

We are guided by our intuition What is Intuition?

Terminology: A quantity is said to be

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 8

Terms: Frame of Reference Terms: Inertial Frame of Reference

What are these symbols?

Physics Greek letters Frame of

x  x0  vt He has been called

t  t0 • "father of modern physics",

Galileo studied speed and velocity,

Coordinate Transformation Example:

What is the velocity of the ball

• The laws of electricity and magnetism were

But .. Electricity and magnetism:

A big one is contained within

Maxwell’s Equations, 1862 Maxwell’s Equations (for reference)

• James Clerk Maxwell, 1831‐1879

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 23

The Speed of Light What do Maxwell’s Equations say?

Hendrik Lorentz (1823‐1928) Coordinate Transformations

Understanding of Lorentz Transformations in 1905 Understanding of Lorentz Transformations in 1905

Understanding of Lorentz Transformations in 1905 Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)

1905: Einstein’s Extraordinary Year 1905: Old Memes ‐ Gone

4 papers: More than a

• Each of these papers, individually,

• All of them together from one

Physics: Velocity (v), Distance (d) and Time (t)

v  d /t [meters per second] = [meters] ÷ [second]

d  vt [m] = [m/s]  [s] Special Relativity

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 39

"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies”

• The laws of nature are the same in all inertial frames of

• The speed of light in the vacuum is the same in all inertial

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 42

The Light Clock

What can we predict* from

* Scientific method 7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 44

Time = distance / velocity For the clock to tick at 1 second

(150 million meters: 1/3 of the way to the moon)

The Light Clock

The speed of light

From the perspective of the Light Clock

The time is “dilated”

Dilate In other words …

v.tr. For the observer on the Enterprise and the

Recap: Time dilation

7 October 2017 McCrory: Einstein's 1905 Revolution 59

How long is one second, as seen from the Earth,

d v The total time for the light to go from left to

We’ll use this: d d tc

Special Relativity Summary A nice velocity v  0.866 c

Simultaneity A thought experiment: Stationary train car

• The fact that the speed of light is the

intuitive understanding of simultaneity

A thought experiment: Moving train car

Repeat this animation

Physicist’s view of a pole vaulter

Scientists tried to disprove