INTRODUCING PHONOLOGY: ASSIMILATION

1. PHONOLOGY:

Phonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the distribution of sounds in a language. The
study of how the pronunciation of sounds changes according to context is called phonology.
Phonologists analyze the patterns and rules governing the sounds of a language, including their
distribution, organization into distinctive units (phonemes), and their interaction within the
linguistic system.

Phonological Example: In English, vowel length is phonologically Significant, it can change the
meaning of a word. Consider the following pairs of words where the only difference is in the
length of the vowel: "bit" /bɪt/ - "beat" /biːt/.

If we use the word set [sɛt] instead of seat [si:t], the meaning of the word will change. the
Phoneme /ɛ/ is different from the phoneme /i:/

1.1 Assimilation:

Assimilation is the one of connected speech how to speak fast. This is often used with native
speakers to communicate. It is often defined as a process of replacing one sound (or changing
some properties of a sound) under the influence of another sound which occurs near to it. It has
also been characterized as an adjustment of speech sounds to their environment. According to
Peter Roach (1983) “Assimilation is how the phonemes of a particular word would be realizing
when the word was pronounced in isolation.”

Examples Words Transcription After Assimilation:

Word:

hand bag

Sand wich

Transcription

/hænd bæg/

/sænwɪč/

After Assimilation

/hæm bæg/

/sæmwɪč/

When alveolar nasal /n/ is affecting the bilabial \b\ /w/, the nasal /n/ becomes bilabial /m/ and the
dental /d/ is voiceless.
1.2 Types of Assimilation

Assimilation is the alteration of speech sound to make it more similar to it is neighbors. It is the
process of simplification by which a speech sound is influenced by the surrounding sounds to
make them more similar. There are Different types of assimilation:

1. Place of Articulation Assimilation

2. Manner of Articulation Assimilation
3. Progressive Assimilation
4. Regressive Assimilation
5. Voicing Assimilation

1.2.1 Place of Articulation Assimilation:

According to Peter Roach; Assimilation of place is most clearly observable in some cases where
a final consonant with alveolar place of articulation is followed by an initial consonant with a
place of articulation that is not alveolar. Place of articulation assimilation occurs when the place
of articulation of a sound changes to match the neighboring sound. Sounds May be Bilabials,
Velars, Alveolars etc. AWell known case is that of English word Alveolar consonant Such as t,
d. If a word Ending in one of these consonants is followed by a word whose initial consonant
begins with a bilabial p, b, a velar k, g, then the word alveolar consonant is likely to change its
place of articulation to match that at the beginning of the second word.

Example: Alveolar changes into bilabials re[b] box.

 That Pen Change into tha [p] pen That person to Tha [p] person
 That Box Change into tha [p] box
 Red Pen → re[b] pen
 Red Box → re[b] box etc.

2nd Example: Alveolars change into velars

 That Can → tha[k] can

 That gate → tha [k] gate
 Red Can → re[g] can
 Red Gate → re [g] gate

The alveolar articulation is replaced by a bilabial or velar articulation.

1.2.2. Manner of Articulation Assimilation:

Assimilation of manners is much less noticeable and is only found in the most rapid and casual
speech; generally speaking. Assimilation of manner is typical of the most rapid and casual
speech, in which case one sound changes the manner of its articulation to become similar in
manner to a neighboring sound.Manner of articulation Describe how the tongue, lips, jaw and
other speech organs are involved in making a sound.

For example [t], and [s] are both voiceless alveolars sounds. They differ in their manner of
articulations, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of the set of sounds called
stop and [s] sound of set called Fricatives. Sounds can be Stops, Fricatives, and Nasal. It is thus
possible to find cases where a final plosive becomes a fricative or nasal (e.g. ‘good night’/gʊn
naɪt/)

1.2.3. Progressive assimilation:

According to the Peter Roach, assimilation can happens where two words are combined, the first
of which ends with a single final consonant (which we will call Cf: Consonant final) and the
second of which starts with a single initial consonant (which we will call Ci: Consonant initial).
If Ci changes to become like Cf in some way, it is called assimilation progressive. Progressive
assimilation: Influence is left to right. A to B. Example: "get them" into "gɛt әm"

1.2.4. Regressive assimilation:

According to Peter Roach, regressive assimilation is most likely to be towards an easier

consonant-one which makes less obstruction to the airflow. It is thus possible to find cases where
a final plosive becomes a fricative or nasal. In regressive, the assimilated sound creates a new
sound. Regressive assimilation occurs when the final sound of the preceding word becomes
similar to initial word. Example:

 That side → (dæs said)

 Good night → (gʊn nait)
 That page → (dæt pedʒ)

The alveolar /t/ changes to /p/ because the second word, page begins with a /p/. It happens when
the final consonant affect in the initial. Regressive assimilation: Influence is right to left.
1.2.5. Voicing Assimilation:

This may refer to assimilation involving the feature [+/- voice]. In a certain environment we can
consequently observe the voiced or voiceless of a segment.

 Voiced: When the vocal folds are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly
pushes them apart as it passes through creating a vibration effect. Sounds in this way are
described as voiced. Sounds such as Z and V.
 Voiceless: When the vocal folds are spread apart the air from the lungs passes between
them without obstruction. Sounds produced in the way are described as voiceless. Sound
such as S and F. This sort of voicing assimilation only effect /v/ and /z/. For Example:
1. Voiced [v] [z]Girls \z\ , Pictures \z\ Newspaper /nju:speɪp give books /gɪv bʊks/
2. Voiceless [s] [f] Students \s\ Books \s\ Have to /hæf tu/ give peace /gɪf piːs/
2. The Organization of language:

2.1. Language:

Language is a complex and dynamic system of communication used by humans. It is a structured

set of symbols and rules that allows individuals to convey meaning, express thoughts and
feelings, and interact with one another. Harley (2001) defines language as “a system of symbols
and rules that enable us to communicate”,

Language uses symbols, such as words, sounds, and written characters, to represent ideas,
objects, and actions. These symbols carry meaning and can be combined in various ways to
create a vast array of expressions. Symbols are key to language.

2.2. The Building Blocks of Language:

The building blocks of language refer to the fundamental components that make up a language
system and enable communication. These components interact with each other to form the
structure and meaning of language. There are different building blocks of language:

2.3. 1. Phonemes:

Phonemes are the smallest, meaning full units of sound in a language that can distinguish
meaning. They are the basic building blocks of spoken language. For example, the words "pat"
and "bat" differ in meaning due to the distinct phoneme /p/ and /b/.

 /b/ as in "bat /f/ as in "fish“ /ʃ/ as in "ship"

2.4.2. Morphemes:

Morphemes are the smallest units of language that contain meaning. They can be free
morphemes, which can stand alone as words (e.g., "dog," "walk"), or bound morphemes, which
must be attached to other morphemes to convey meaning. Examples include Prefixes like “un-”
(as in “unhappy”) and Suffixes like “-s” (as in “dogs”) and “-ing” (as in “running”).

2.5.3. Syntax:

It Refer to the rules that governs how words can be meaningfully arranged to form phrases and
sentences. It explains how words and phrases are arranged to form correct sentences. For
instance, most sentences in English follow a Subject-Verb-Object word order, resulting in
syntactically correct sentences like:

 The boy kicked the ball.

 The cat sat on the mat.
 After the rain stopped, we went outside.

2.6. 4. Semantics:
Semantics examines the relationship between words and how different people can draw different
meanings from those words. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. For Example: The
word "bachelor" has the semantic meaning of an unmarried man.

 “Home” can mean a place where one lives.

 "Bank" can mean a financial institution or the side of a river.

2.7.5. Signifier:

The signifier is the physical form of the sign (sign means object or thing), such as a word,
sound, image, or gesture. It is the tangible or perceivable part of a sign that conveys meaning.
Example: In the word "cat," the is the signifier. The sound "meow" produced by a cat is also a
signifier.

 Signifier: The word "apple" or the visual representation of an apple.

2.8.6. Signified:

The signified is the conceptual or mental content associated with the sign. It is the abstract
meaning or idea that the signifier represents. Example: In the word "cat," the concept of a small,
domesticated, carnivorous mammal is signified. When you hear the sound "meow," the idea of a
cat is signified. Signified: The concept of a type of fruit with a specific taste, texture, and
appearance.

3. Basic and Derived Forms:

3.1. Lexicon/ Lexical Item:

The lexicon or lexical item refers to the vocabulary or the stock of words that a language
possesses. It includes all the words and their meanings that speakers of a language understand
and use. The lexicon of English includes words like "apple, "Take care of” "sunshine,"
"democracy," and "Elephant.
3.2. Lexical Representation:

Lexical representation refers to the mental representation of a word in a person's mind. It

includes information about the word's meaning, grammatical features, and how it relates to other
words in the lexicon. Example: Lexical representation of “Cat" includes information, A small
domesticated carnivorous mammal.

 “Cup” Acup is a small, typically cylindrical container used for holding and drinking
liquids.
 “Five” The Word Five is the cardinal number representing the quantity.
In particular, we have proposed that the last lexical sounds in these words are /p/, /t/ and /v/.
Respectively: lexical sounds are enclosed in slashes, to make them visually distinct from
phonetic sounds.

3.3: Phonetic Representation:

Phonetic representation involves the detailed representation of the sounds that make up a word.
It includes information about the articulation, duration, and acoustic properties of speech sounds.
Examples: Phonetic representation of the word “cat” and "apple" includes the specific sounds
of /æ/.

1. Cat: /kæt/ Apple: /ˈæpəl/ Cup: /kʌp/

It captures the way the word sounds in terms of its pronunciation. The symbols within slashes
(/ /) denote the phonetic transcription using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The
phonetic representation provides a detailed breakdown of the sounds and their pronunciation in
each word.

4. The Formalization of Rules:

Formalism, or formalization, is a methodological approach that involves expressing concepts,

rules, or systems in a clear, precise, and structured manner using formal languages. It is a
valuable tool for enhancing understanding and clarity. It is a means of presenting complex
concepts in a concise and clear manner. Formalized rules contain two main parts: the focus and
the environment.

4.1: Focus:

In a phonological rule formalization, the focus might be a specific sound or set of sounds
targeted for a change or assimilation.

4.2: Environment:

The environment would specify the surrounding sounds or phonetic context that triggers the
phonological rule.

 Example: Bad [bæd]

 Focus Sound: /d/ (voiced dental stop) Voicing assimilation leads to the voiced /d/
Environment: Followed by a voiceless consonant.
 The environment, formalizing the contextual trigger for the change.

5. Derivations:

In linguistics, derivation refers to the process of forming a new word by adding affixes (prefixes,
suffixes, infixes, or circumfixes) to a base or root word. For example, adding the suffix "-er" to
the verb "teach" results in the derived noun "teacher," indicating someone who teaches. Base
Word: Happy Derived Word: Happiness (by adding the suffix "-ness")

Derivations are valuable tools in phonology to illustrate and analyze the application of
phonological rules systematically, helping linguists and students understand how sounds change
in different linguistic environments.

 Example: Word: “cups“ Lexical Representation: /kʌps/ (voiceless /p/ followed by

voiceless /s/)
 Derivation Step: /kʌps/ → /kʌbz/ (the voiceless /p/ becomes voiced [b] before the voiced
/z/)

In this example, the derivation process shows the transformation of the word "cups" from its
underlying form (/kʌps/) to its surface form (/kʌbz/) through the application of voicing
assimilation. The voiceless /p/ changes to a voiced [b] before the voiced /z/, resulting in the
modified pronunciation "cubz."

5.1: Alternants:

Alternation is when part of a word is pronounced or spelled differently because of the

surrounding word elements. An example of alternation is seen in how the word "thief" ends with
the voiceless fricative /f/ (i.e., the sound made by forcing air through the teeth). But this changes
when we want to pluralize the word. The fricative /f/ changes to the voiced sound /v/, and
"thieves" becomes the appropriate alternant.

 The noun cat has plural cats pronounced with /s/

 But dog has plural dogs , pronounced with /z/

5.2: Allophone:

An allophone is a term used in phonetics and phonology to describe the different phonetic
realizations or variants of a single phoneme. Allophones are the various ways a single sound can
be pronounced without changing the meaning of a word in a particular language. Allophone is
the phonetic and physical representation of a sound.

For Example: In English the t sound in the word “hit” or “tip” are allophone, phonemically they
are considered to be the same sound although they are different phonetically in term of
aspiration, voicing and point of articulation.

6. Phonetics and Phonology:

6.1 Phonetics:

Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the physical aspects of speech sounds,
including their production, transmission, and perception. According to David Crystal “Phonetics
is the study of human speech sound.”
  It is concerned with the study of Articulation (how speech sounds are produced).
 Acoustic properties (physical characteristics of speech sounds), and
 Auditory perception (how speech sounds are heard and perceived).

6.2. Phonology:

Phonology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the abstract, mental representations of
sounds within a particular language. It is the study of how the meaning of a word can change
based on differences in sound patterns. Example: Identifying the phonemes in English words,
such as recognizing that the words "pat" and "bat" differ only in the initial phoneme /p/ and /b/.
The English plural morpheme "-s" changes its pronunciation based on the preceding sound, such
as in the words "cats" (/s/) and "dogs" (/z/).

7. Conclusion:
Assimilation is one of the phonological processes in which a sound undergoes a change based
on the phonological environments. It has many types and forms including place, manner,
voicing, progressive, and regressive, that can be either full or partial assimilation. Whether
progressive or regressive assimilation, reflects the dynamic nature of speech sounds and their
adaptation to neighboring phonetic environments. The focus and environment of phonological
rules play a crucial role in understanding how sounds change systematically. It's important to
note that the specific assimilation patterns can vary across languages and dialects.