United States History Teacher Resource 4Th Edition John J Newman All Chapter

United States History (Teacher
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TEACHER RESOURCE
ADVANCED PLACEMENT EDITION

®
JOHN J. NEWMAN
JOHN M. SCHMALBACH
Advanced Placement® and AP® are trademarks registered

and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved
in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
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TEACHER RESOURCE
ADVANCED PLACEMENT EDITION

®
JOHN J. NEWMAN
JOHN M. SCHMALBACH
Advanced Placement ® and AP® are trademarks registered and/or

owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the
production of, and does not endorse, this product.
Authors
John J. Newman, Ed.D., served for many years as an Advanced Placement® U.S. History teacher and the
Department Coordinator of Art, Foreign Language, and Social Studies at Naperville North High School,
Naperville, Illinois. He continued his career as Adjunct Professor of History at the College of DuPage and
Adjunct Assistant Professor of History Education at Illinois State University.
John M. Schmalbach, Ed.D., taught Advanced Placement® U.S. History and was Social Studies Department
head at Abraham Lincoln High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He continued his career as Adjunct
Assistant Professor at Temple University.
This book is dedicated to our wives,

Anne Newman and Rosemarie Schmalbach;
our children, Louise Newman, and
John, Suzanne, and Robert Schmalbach; and
our students, who share our study of America’s past.
Reviewers and Consultants

Chris Averill, Former Member of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee
Cosby High School | Midlothian, Virginia
Paul Faeh, AP® U.S. History Exam Leader
Hinsdale South High School | Darien, Illinois
Kamasi Hill, AP® U.S. History Teacher
Evanston Township High School | Evanston, Illinois
John P. Irish, Former Co-Chair of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee
Carroll Senior High School | Southlake, Texas
Michael Kim, AP® U.S. History Exam Table Leader
Schurr High School | Montebello, California
Susan Pingel, AP® U.S. History Exam Table Leader
Skaneateles High School (retired) | Skaneateles, New York
James Sabathne, Former Co-Chair of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee
Hononegah Community High School | Rockton, Illinois
© 2021 by Perfection Learning®
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CONTENTS
Introduction viii
UNIT 1—Period 1: 1491–1607

TOPIC 1.1 Contextualizing Period 1 1
TOPIC 1.2 Native American Societies before European Contact 1

Race and Justice: The First People in the Americas
TOPIC 1.3 European Exploration in the Americans 2

Race and Justice: Describing European Colonization
TOPIC 1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest 3
TOPIC 1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System 4
TOPIC 1.6 Cultural Interactions in the Americas 6

Race and Justice: Coerced Labor in the Colonies
TOPIC 1.7 Causation in Period 1 7
Unit 1—Period 1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
UNIT 2—Period 2: 1607–1754

TOPIC 2.1 Contextualization 10
TOPIC 2.2 European Colonization in North America 10
TOPIC 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies 11

Race and Justice: Hierarchies in Colonial Society
Historical Perspectives: How Influential Were the Puritans?
TOPIC 2.4 Transatlantic Trade 13
TOPIC 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans 14
TOPIC 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies 14

Race and Justice: Slavery in the Middle Colonies
TOPIC 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture 16

Race and Justice: Everyday Resistance
TOPIC 2.8 Comparisons in Period 2 18

Race and Justice: The Legacy of 1619
Unit 2—Period 2 Review: 1607–1754 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
UNIT 3—Period 3: 1754–1800

TOPIC 3.1 Contextualization Period 3 21
TOPIC 3.2 The Seven Years’ War 21
TOPIC 3.3 Taxation Without Representation 22
TOPIC 3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution 23

Race and Justice: Philosophy and Slavery
©Perfection Learning® UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY iii
TOPIC 3.5 The American Revolution 25
TOPIC 3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals 26

Race and Justice: How People Experienced the Revolutionary War
TOPIC 3.7 The Articles of Confederation 27
TOPIC 3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates Over Ratification 28
TOPIC 3.9 The Constitution 29

Historical Perspectives: What does the Constitution Mean?
TOPIC 3.10 Shaping a New Republic 30

Historical Perspectives: What Caused Political Parties?
TOPIC 3.11 Developing an American Identity 32

Race and Justice: Role of Religion
TOPIC 3.12 Movement in the Early Republic 33

TOPIC 3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3 34
UNIT 4—Period 4: 1800–1848

TOPIC 4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson 38
TOPIC 4.3 Politics and Regional Interests 39
TOPIC 4.4 America on the World Stage 39

Historical Perspectives: What Led to the Monroe Doctrine?
TOPIC 4.5 Market Revolution 41

Race and Justice: Technology and Slavery
TOPIC 4.6 Effects of the Market Revolution on Society and Culture 42
TOPIC 4.7 Expanding Democracy 44
TOPIC 4.8 Jackson and Federal Power 45
TOPIC 4.9 The Development of an American Culture 47
TOPIC 4.10 The Second Great Awakening 48
TOPIC 4.11 An Age of Reform 49

Historical Perspectives: What Motivated Reformers?
TOPIC 4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic 50

Race and Justice: The Ideas of David Walker
TOPIC 4.13 Southern Society in the Early Republic 51

Race and Justice: Presidents and Slavery
iv UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY ©Perfection Learning®

UNIT 5—Period 5: 1844–1877
TOPIC 5.2 The Idea of Manifest Destiny 58
TOPIC 5.3 Manifest Destiny and the Mexican–American War 59

Race and Justice: Westward Expansion
TOPIC 5.4 The Compromise of 1850 61
TOPIC 5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences 62
TOPIC 5.6 Failure of Compromise 64
TOPIC 5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession 65

Race and Justice: Emancipation in Comparative Perspective
TOPIC 5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War 66

Historical Perspectives: Why Did the Confederacy Lose?
TOPIC 5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War 67
TOPIC 5.10 Reconstruction 68
TOPIC 5.11 Failure of Reconstruction 70

Race and Justice: Emancipation in Comparative Perspective
TOPIC 5.12 Comparison in Period 5 72
UNIT 6—Period 6: 1865–1898

TOPIC 6.2 Westward Expansion: Economic Development 77

Race and Justice: The Impact of the Homestead Act
TOPIC 6.3 Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development 78

Race and Justice: The Frontier and Native Americans
Historical Perspectives: How Did the Frontier Develop?
TOPIC 6.4 The “New South” 80
TOPIC 6.5 Technological Innovation 81
TOPIC 6.6 The Rise of Industrial Capitalism 82

Historical Perspectives: Statesmen or Robber Barons?
TOPIC 6.7 Labor in the Gilded Age 84
TOPIC 6.8 Immigration and Migration in the Gilded Age 85

Race and Justice: Stereotypes and Generalizations
TOPIC 6.9 Responses to Immigration in the Gilded Age 86
TOPIC 6.10 Development of the Middle Class 88
TOPIC 6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age 90
©Perfection Learning® UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY v

TOPIC 6.12 Role of Government in the Gilded Age 92
TOPIC 6.13 Politics in the Gilded Age 93

Historical Perspectives: Who Were the Populists?
TOPIC 6.14 Continuity and Change Period 6 95
UNIT 7—Period 7: 1890–1945

TOPIC 7.2 Imperialism: Debates 101
TOPIC 7.3 The Spanish-American War and U.S. Foreign Policy to 1917 102
Race and Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Imperialism
Historical Perspectives: Did Economics Drive Imperialism?
TOPIC 7.4 The Progressives 104
Historical Perspectives: Reform or Reaction?
TOPIC 7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy 105

Historical Perspectives: Was Wilson a Good President?
TOPIC 7.6 World War I: Home Front 107
TOPIC 7.7 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology 109
TOPIC 7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies 110

Race and Justice: Changes in the KKK
TOPIC 7.9 The Great Depression 113

Race and Justice: Music in the Great Depression
TOPIC 7.10 The New Deal 114

Historical Perspectives: Was the New Deal Revolutionary?
TOPIC 7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy 116

Historical Perspectives: Was Pearl Harbor Avoidable?
TOPIC 7.12 World War II Mobilization 119
TOPIC 7.13 World War II: Military 121
TOPIC 7.14 World War II and Postwar Diplomacy 122
TOPIC 7.15 Comparison in Period 7 123
UNIT 8—Period 8: 1945–1980

Race and Justice: World War II and Race Relations
TOPIC 8.2 The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 129

Historical Perspectives: Who Started the Cold War?
TOPIC 8.3 The Red Scare 131

Race and Justice: Communism and African Americans
vi UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY ©Perfection Learning®

TOPIC 8.4 Economy after 1945 132
TOPIC 8.5 Culture after 1945 134
TOPIC 8.6 Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1960 136
TOPIC 8.7 America as a World Power 137
TOPIC 8.8 The Vietnam War 139

Historical Perspectives: What Are the Lessons of Vietnam?
TOPIC 8.9 The Great Society 140
TOPIC 8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s 142
TOPIC 8.11 The Civil Rights Movement Expands 144

Race and Justice: The LGBT Movement
TOPIC 8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s 146
TOPIC 8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968 to 1980 147
TOPIC 8.14 Society in Transition 148
Historical Perspectives: End of the Imperial Presidency?
TOPIC 8.15 Continuity and Change in Period 8 150

Race and Justice: Diverse Social Movements
Unit 8—Period 8 Review: 1945–1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
UNIT 9—Period 9: 1980–Present

TOPIC 9.2 Reagan and Conservatism 155

Race and Justice: African Americans and Conservatism
TOPIC 9.3 The End of the Cold War 157

Race and Justice: “We Didn’t Start the Fire”
TOPIC 9.4 A Changing Economy 160

Historical Perspectives: What Causes Booms and Busts?
TOPIC 9.5 Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s 162
TOPIC 9.6 Challenges of the 21st Century 164
Unit 9—Period 9 Review: 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
U.S. History Practice Examination 173

Historical Perspectives: Reproducible Pages 180
AP® United States History Correlation to the Course and
Exam Description 198
©Perfection Learning® UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY vii

INTRODUCTION
This Teacher Resource accompanies the 4th edition of United States History: Advanced
Placement® Edition. This revision was made in response to the the College Board’s AP® United
States History Course and Exam Description that became effective in the fall of 2019.
Answers
In developing this book, the priority was to ask students questions that matched the difficulty
of those found on the AP® U.S. History exam, not to make every question imitate current
samples of possible future College Board exam questions. Questions were usually designed to
review the previous topic or period.
The first purpose of the key is to provide recommendations for what could be included in
good responses to specific questions. Each multiple-choice question was written with one best
answer in mind, which is identified by the letter in the key. The recommendations for possible
responses to the short-answer, long essay, and document-based questions were intended to
provide guidance to teachers for the kind of analysis and historical evidence that could be
included in a good response. Unlike the grading guidelines provided by the College Board
to readers, the recommendations are not an exhaustive list of possible answers, but primarily
analysis and evidence that can be related back to the content of this textbook. Good responses
could also include analysis and evidence from outside of this one source.
The second purpose of the key is to correlate each question to the elements of the curriculum
framework presented in the Course and Exam Description. These correlations use the notation
system provided in that document.
• Historical Thinking Skills: See pages 15–17 of the CED.

• Themes: See pages 21 and 23 of the CED.
• Learning Objectives: See pages 33–216 of the CED.
• Text Pages: The key for each question lists the most relevant textbook pages that can
be used to support the answer.
Race and Justice Activities

Included within each unit are discussion questions, in-class activities, and short research
projects that focus on issues of race and justice in U.S. history.
Historical Perspectives
Included after the answer key are 18 reproducible worksheets that provide additional
Historical Perspectives features, similar to those included in the student textbook.
Correlation
The final element of this Teacher Resource is a correlation showing how the student textbook
meets the standards stated in the CED for the course content, historical thinking skills,
history reasoning processes, and themes.
viii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY ©Perfection Learning®

UNIT 1
Period 1: 1491–1607
TOPIC 1.1 Contextualizing Period 1, p. 1
Analyze the Context, p. 2
1. An understanding of the diverse Native American cultures that had developed in

the Americas by the 1490s would include understanding that the first people arrived
in the Americas at least 10,000 years ago. As people settled throughout the Western
Hemisphere, they were influenced by their immediate environments. As a result, they
developed varied cultures.
2. The background to understanding European exploration in the Americas from the

1490s to early 1600s includes recognizing that people had a combination of religious
and economic motives. The religious motive was to spread Christianity. The economic
motives included finding a new route to Asia, establishing trading posts, and gaining
control of natural resources.
3. The interactions between Europeans and Native Americans in the period from 1491
to 1607 had far-reaching effects. Contact between them resulted in a transatlantic
trade known as the Columbian Exchange. Colonies were established using natives
and enslaved Africans for labor in agriculture and mining precious metals.
TOPIC 1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact, p. 3
Race and Justice: The First People in the Americas

Historical Development :KC-1.1, KC-1.2
Thinking Skill: 5.A
Have students apply what they have learned about precolonial America and the period
of first contact to the region they live in. They can consult their library, a local history
museum, or the internet. They might answer questions such as these:
• What Native American groups lived or still live on the land?
• What Europeans first arrived in the region?
• Who were the first settlers and where did they come from?
Invite students to share their knowledge in a class presentation.
Reflect on the Learning Objective, p. 6

1. Native Americans in North America show a direct relationship between their culture and
the environment. In the Southwest, the societies were supported by farming with irrigation
systems in the dry climate. Those near the oceans, Atlantic or Pacific, or along rivers found
a rich diet of fish in addition to hunting which all supported permanent settlements. In
locations with good soil and farming, as in the Midwest and Plains, more permanent
settlements also were common. In the Northeast, poor farming or weak soil required the
tribes to relocate often to maintain their food supply.
©Perfection Learning® UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY 1

Questions are on p. 7.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
Number Objective Pages
Multiple-Choice Questions
1 D 3.D Unit 1: B 7
2 B 3.B Unit 1: B 6–7
Short-Answer Questions
1 (a) See below. 5.B Unit 1: B 3–4
1 (b) See below. 5.B Unit 1: B 3–4
1 (c) See below. 5.A Unit 1: B 2
Short-Answer Question Responses
1. (a) A specific difference was that the North American societies, during the period
1491–1607, were smaller and less sophisticated than those in Central and South
America. It has been suggested that the reason for this difference was the slow
cultivation of corn (maize) which had come northward from Mexico.
1. (b) The people and societies of the Americas, during the period 1491–1607, may
have been diverse in some ways, but spread over a vast area, they all lived in
response to their environments with established systems and traditions that
guided their lives.
1. (c) While English, Spanish, and almost all other European languages were part of just
one language family (Indo-European), American Indian languages constituted
more than 20 language families. Among the largest of these were Algonquian
in the Northeast, Siouan on the Great Plains, and Athabaskan in the Southwest.
Together, these 20 families included more than 400 distinct languages.
TOPIC 1.3 European Exploration in the Americas, p. 8
Race and Justice: Describing European Colonization

Historical Development: KC-1.2.I.A
Thinking Skill: 2.C
Explain to students that some historians use the term “conquest” while others prefer the
term “exploration” when discussing the era of colonialism in 17th century America. Ask
them to consider these questions:
• What does each term mean?
• How does each shape an understanding of early American history?
• Why might most people in various groups—European rulers, expedition lead-
ers, and Native American inhabitants—in the 17th century have preferred one
term or the other?

1. The growing nation-states of Europe and private enterprise supported European
exploration and colonization in the New World. Motivation came from a combination of the
desire for wealth, personal ambition, and religious zeal.
2 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY ©Perfection Learning®

Questions are on pp. 12–13.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 C 2.A, 4.A Unit 1: C 11
2 A 2.A, 4.A Unit 1: C 12
3 A 2.A, 4.A Unit 1: C 12
1 (a) See below. 4.B Unit 1: C 9
1 (b) See below. 4.B Unit 1: C 9–10
1 (c) See below. 4.B Unit 1: C 8
1. (a) Multiple causes combined to lead to European colonization in the Americas

during the 15th and 16th centuries. Changes in thought and new forms of tech-
nology such as the sailing compass, gunpowder, and the printing press supported
colonization. These causes also included the desires of Roman Catholics and
Protestants to spread their faiths, the development of the nation-states, and the
search for new trade routes to Asia.
1. (b) Any of the causes not mentioned in the response to question 1 (a). Multiple
causes combined to lead to European colonization in the Americas during the
15th and 16th centuries. Changes in thought and new forms of technology such
as the sailing compass, gunpowder, and the printing press supported coloniza-
tion. These causes also included the desires of Roman Catholics and Protestants
to spread their faiths, the development of the nation-states, and the search for
new trade routes to Asia.
1. (c) Specific effects which resulted from European colonization in the Americas
during the 15th and 16th centuries could be seen in a number of areas. The in-
creased trade further strengthened the growth of the nation-states. The African
slave trade expanded to provide labor for the new colonies. Spain and Portugal
were the first European kingdoms to claim territories in the Americas. With the
Treaty of Tordesillas, these claims were settled, thus establishing Portugal’s claim
to Brazil and Spain’s claim to the rest of the Americas. However, other European
countries, especially England and France, soon challenged these claims with
colonies of their own.
TOPIC 1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest, p. 14

Historical Perspectives: Support an Argument, pp. 15–16
Viewpoints on Columbus range from praising him as the “discoverer” of a new world to
accusing him as a destroyer and “conqueror” of established societies. Praise for Columbus
lead to a national holiday in his honor in the 1930s, but by the 1990s, revisionists saw him as
a lucky self-promoter who caused the deaths of thousands of Native Americans. What cannot
be denied is that as a result of Columbus’s voyages, world history took a sharp turn in a new
direction. The debate over the nature of Columbus’s achievements continues.

1. The contact between Europeans and the original inhabitants of the Americas, who had
developed vastly different cultures, resulted in the Columbian Exchange. This transferred
plants, animals, and germs from one side of the Atlantic to the other for the first time. The
results included an improved food supply for many and new illnesses and countless deaths.
These exchanges, both biological and cultural, permanently changed the entire world.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 A 3.A Unit 1: D 14–15
2 A 2.A, 3.D Unit 1: D 14–15
1 (a) See below. 2.A, 3.C, 6.D Unit 1: D 14–15
1 (b) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 1: D 14–15
1 (c) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 1: D 14–15
1. (a) Nunn and Quian’s interpretation places an emphasis on the negative conse-
quences of the exchange, while Lewis and Maslin’s view focuses more on the
positive results.
1. (b) Nunn and Quian’s argument can be bolstered by looking more closely at the
impact on the European rivalries from the wealth gained from the New World
during the period 1491–1607.
1. (c) Lewis and Maslin’s argument can be expanded by showing that the Columbian
Exchange was part of a worldwide increase in contact and trade between differ-
ent people during the period from 1491–1607. European interaction with parts
of Asia served to increase the desire to trade and also improved the means to
navigate the oceans.
TOPIC 1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System, p. 19
1. Specific effects of the Spanish Empire’s colonization of the New World included establishing
an encomienda system, with the king of Spain giving grants of land and natives to individual
Spaniards. These Indians had to farm or work in the mines, but their numbers declined due
to Europeans’ diseases and brutality. Then the Spanish brought enslaved people from West
Africa under the asiento system. This required the Spanish to pay a tax to their king on
each slave they imported. With few families coming from Spain, the explorers and soldiers
intermarried with natives and Africans. A rigid class system developed in the Spanish
colonies, one dominated by pure-blooded Spaniards.

Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 D 3.A Unit 1: E 21
2 C 2.A Unit 1: E 21
3 C 2.B, 4.A Unit 1: E 9, 17
1 (a) See below. 3.A Unit 1: E 22
1 (b) See below. 3.D Unit 1: E 22
1 (c) See below. 3.D Unit 1: E 22
2 (a) See below. 4.B Unit 1: E 19
2 (b) See below. 4.B Unit 1: E 19–20
2 (c) See below. 4.A Unit 1: E 20
1. (a) Columbus wanted the Native Americans to become Christians, so he ordered

his men to treat them well.
1. (b) As he spoke of spreading the faith, Columbus was appealing to the Catholic
Church leaders.
1. (c) Interpretations will vary and can include the methods of the conquistadores, the
conquests of the Aztecs and Incas, the spread of diseases, and the establishment
of the encomienda system.
2. (a) The encomienda and asiento systems both supported the development of the
Spanish colonies during this period. The Spanish incorporated the Native
Americans into their own empire. With the encomienda system, Spain’s king
gave grants of land and natives to individual Spaniards. These Indians were
forced to farm or work in the mines. The profits from their work went to the
Spanish, who in turn had to “care” for the Indians. With the asiento system, the
Spanish colonists were required to pay a tax to the Spanish king on each en-
slaved person they imported from Africa to the Americas.
2. (b) Answer could include Columbus, the pope, Portugal, and the Treaty of
Tordesillas.
2. (c) The combination of Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans made the Spanish
colonies ethnically diverse. With most Spanish colonists being men, many had
children with native or African women resulting in many people with mixed
heritage. The Spanish developed a caste system that defined the status of people
in the colonies by their heritage: first, pure-blooded Spaniards, then several lev-
els of people ordered according to their mixture of European, Native American,
and African heritage, and at the bottom, people of pure Indian or Black heritage.
3. (a) Native Americans received access to sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses, as
well as new technology, such as the wheel, iron implements, and guns.
3. (b) Native Americans suffered from new diseases, lost control of land, and were
forced into laboring for the Spanish.
3. (c) The Spanish were influenced religious beliefs and their economic desire for
wealth.
TOPIC 1.6 Cultural Interactions in the Americas, p. 23
Race and Justice: Coerced Labor in the Colonies

Historical Development: KC-1.2.II.B, KC-1.2.III.B
Thinking Skill: 1.A
Have pairs of students divide a sheet of paper into fourths and write down examples of
the following themes in the lives of people in colonial America who were coerced laborers
(enslaved African Americans or Native Americans in the encomienda system):
• means of survival
• religious beliefs and practices
• resistance against oppression
• relationships with others

1. With initial contact, both the Native Americans and Europeans looked at each other with
curiosity and some trepidation. Quite quickly the relationships changed, as most Europeans
looked down upon Native Americans. They generally viewed Native Americans as inferior
people who could be exploited for economic gain, converted to Christianity, or used as
military allies. The Europeans used various approaches for controlling Native Americans. The
Native Americans had to adopt new ways to survive. Some tribes allied themselves with one
European power or another in hopes of gaining support, while others simply migrated to new
land to get away from the slowly encroaching colonists.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 A 2.A, 4.A Unit 1: F 23–24
2 A 2.B Unit 1: F 23–24
1 (a) See below. 4.B Unit 1: F 23–24
1 (b) See below. 4.B Unit 1: F 23–24
1 (c) See below. 4.A Unit 1: F 25
1. (a) There were a number of specific effects of Spain’s policy toward Native
Americans during the period 1492–1607. The Spanish overwhelmingly
subjugated Native Americans, resulting in death and a sharp reduction
in the native population. They established the encomienda system which
allowed the king to give grants of land and natives to individual Spaniards.
The Spanish also debated the status of Native Americans and the best way to
treat them. The work of Bartolomé de Las Casas, the New Laws of 1542, and
the Valladolid Debate all helped establish the basic arguments on behalf of
justice for Indians. This debate resulted in limited improvements, and justice
would long be denied the Native Americans.

1. (b) The English wanted little contact with the Native Americans. They sought to
dominate them and take their lands, and they had racist views towards them. The
French, looking for furs and converts to Catholicism, viewed American Indians
as potential economic and military allies. Compared to the Spaniards and the
English, the French maintained good relations with the tribes they encountered.
1. (c) Interpretations will vary, including that some adopted the ways of the Europeans,
others allied themselves with one of the European powers, and some simply
migrated west to new lands.
TOPIC 1.7 Causation in Period 1, p. 27

Questions About Causation
1. Migrating through the centuries prior to Columbus, people traveled southward from
near the Arctic Circle to the southern end of South America. Wherever they settled,
they adapted to the varied environments of the regions they found. Responding to their
surroundings, they became farmers, fishermen, gatherers, and hunters. When food was
plentiful and the climate supportive, populations and societies grew. The vastness of the
area enabled the development of hundreds of tribes with different languages and cultures.
2. Multiple factors in Europe during the 15th century contributed to exploration.

Improvements in technology including increased knowledge with the printing press
led to better shipbuilding and navigation. Religious conflicts after the Catholic victory
in Spain and the Protestant Reformation in parts of Europe triggered a zeal among
both Catholics and Protestants to spread their faiths. The development of the modern
nation-state further supported exploration to expand their revenues and power.
3. Positive aspects of the Columbian Exchange for Native Americans included the
supply of sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses, as well as the introduction of the
wheel, iron implements, and guns. Gains for Europeans included many new plants
and foods, including beans, corn, sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco.
UNIT 1—Period 1 Review: 1491–1607

Write as a Historian, pp. 30–31
Student responses will vary depending on which prompt they address. However, all responses
should demonstrate an understanding of the steps presented on the page.
Free-Response Questions p. 31
Thematic Learning Text

Item Number Answer Skill
Focus Objective Pages
Long Essay Questions
1 See below. 6.A, B, C, D GEO Unit 1: B 3–5
2 See below. 6.A, B, C, D MIG, WOR Unit 1: C 8–11
3 See below. 6.A, B, C, D WXT, WOR Unit 1: D 15
4 See below. 6.A, B, C, D WOR, MIG Unit 1: F 23–25

Long Essay Question Responses
1. Over time, people migrated southward from near the Arctic Circle to the southern tip
of South America. As they adapted to the varied environments they encountered, they
evolved into hundreds of tribes speaking hundreds of languages. In Central and South
America, the native population was concentrated in three highly developed civilizations.
The Maya built remarkable cities in the rain forests of the Yucatán Peninsula. After the
decline of the Maya, the Aztecs from central Mexico developed a powerful empire.
While the Aztecs were dominating Mexico and Central America, the Incas based
in Peru developed a vast empire in western South America. All three civilizations
developed highly organized societies and cultivated crops that provided a stable food
supply, particularly corn (maize) for the Maya and Aztecs, and potatoes for the Incas.
The population in the region north of Mexico (present-day United States and Canada)
included fewer people and had less complex social structures than those in Mexico
and South America.
One reason for these differences was how slowly the cultivation of corn (maize) spread
northward from Mexico. The nutrition provided by corn allowed for larger and more
densely settled populations. In turn, this led to more socially diversified societies in
which people specialized in their work. By the time of Columbus, most people in
the Americas in what is now the United States and Canada lived in semi-permanent
settlements in groups seldom exceeding 300 people. In most of these groups, the men
made tools and hunted for game, while the women gathered plants and nuts or grew
crops such as corn (maize), beans, and tobacco. The tremendous variety of landforms
and climates prompted people in North America prior to 1492 to develop widely
different cultures. While Europeans often grouped their varied cultures together, each
tribe was very conscious of its own distinctive systems and traditions. Not until much
later in history did they develop a shared identity as Native Americans.
2. The European explorers in the Americas—first the Spanish and Portuguese, then
the French and Dutch, and later the English—competed for land in the Americas.
Some were motivated by the desire to spread Christianity. The Catholics of Spain and
Portugal and the Protestants of England and Holland wanted to spread their own
versions of Christianity to people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The Spanish
incorporated the Native Indians into their empire. To control them, the Spanish
instituted the encomienda system in which Spain’s king gave grants of land and natives
to individual Spaniards. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began using enslaved
West Africans on plantations, and the profitability of these plantations worked by
enslaved Africans provided a model for other Europeans. The combination of Native
Americans, Europeans, and Africans made the Spanish colonies ethnically diverse.
Since most Spanish colonists were single men rather than families, many had children
with native or African women. The result was that the Spanish colonies included many
people with mixed heritage.
England’s earliest claims to territory in the Americas rested on the voyages of John
Cabot, an Italian sea captain who sailed under contract to England’s King Henry VII.
Cabot explored the coast of Newfoundland in 1497. England, however, did not follow
up Cabot’s discoveries with other expeditions of exploration and settlement. An
English adventurer, Sir Walter Raleigh, attempted to establish a settlement at Roanoke
Island off the North Carolina coast in 1587, but the venture failed.
Eventually the English colonists came in families rather than as single young men,
so marriage with natives was less common. They expelled the natives rather than
subjugating them.

The French monarchy first showed interest in exploration in 1524 when it sponsored
a voyage by an Italian navigator, Giovanni da Verrazzano, who explored part of North
America’s eastern coast, including the New York harbor. French claims to American
territory were also based on the voyages of Jacques Cartier, who explored the St.
Lawrence River extensively. The French, looking for furs and converts to Catholicism,
viewed American Indians as potential economic and military allies. Compared to the
Spaniards and the English, the French maintained good relations with the tribes they
encountered.
3. Europeans and the original inhabitants of the Americas had developed vastly different
cultures over the millennia. The contact between them resulted in the Columbian
Exchange, a transfer of plants, animals, and germs from one side of the Atlantic to the
other for the first time. Europeans gained many new plants and foods, including beans,
corn, sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. These food items transformed
the diet of people throughout Eurasia and touched off rapid population growth in
regions from Ireland to west Africa to eastern China. Europeans also contracted a new
disease: syphilis. People in the Americas learned about sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs,
and horses. In addition, they were introduced to new technology, such as the wheel,
iron implements, and guns. But while the Columbian Exchange led to population
growth in Europe, Africa, and Asia, it had an opposite effect in the Americas. Native
Americans had no immunity to the germs and the diseases brought by Europeans,
such as smallpox and measles; as a result, the native population declined rapidly in
the first century after contact. These exchanges, biological and cultural, permanently
changed the entire world.
4. The Spanish incorporated the Native Indians into their empire. To control them,
the Spanish instituted the encomienda system in which Spain’s king gave grants of
land and natives to individual Spaniards. Since most Spanish colonists were single
men rather than families, many had children with native or African women. The
result was that the Spanish colonies included many people with mixed heritage. The
English colonists came in families rather than as single young men, so marriage with
natives was less common. The American Indians saw their way of life threatened as
the English began to take more land to support their ever-increasing population. The
English occupied the land and forced the small, scattered tribes they encountered
to move away. They expelled the natives rather than subjugating them. The French,
looking for furs and converts to Catholicism, viewed American Indians as potential
economic and military allies. Compared to the Spaniards and the English, the French
maintained good relations with the tribes they encountered.

UNIT 2
Period 2: 1607–1754
1. From the first contact, Europeans saw Native Americans as inferiors to be used or
pushed aside. The Spanish faced strong Native American resistance, particularly in
Florida and with the Pueblos in New Mexico. The French, initially mainly trappers
and traders, often allied themselves with Native American groups for support against
other Europeans or Native Americans. Usually the British colonists largely viewed
the American Indian as an obstacle to growth. Often by taking different approaches,
the Royal Governors and the colonial settlers confused their relationships with the
Native Americans. Overall, the Native Americans suffered from their contact with
Europeans in the period from 1607 to the 1750s.
2. Gradually many of the colonists turned to agriculture, which brought with it a demand
for labor.
The Native Americans had proven hostile to laboring for the colonists, and their
population was decimated by European diseases. The supply of indentured servants
was limited and provided only short-term workers.
An alternative was the labor of enslaved Africans, especially in the southern colonies.
The transatlantic slave trade was important to the economy, and much of the trade,
the triangular trade, was financed or conducted by people in northern colonies. This
trade prospered in the period from 1607 to the 1750s.
3. The besieged colonial villages of the British colonies at the start of the 17th century
grew, and by the middle of the 18th century their inhabitants evolved a culture
distinct from any in Europe. The population grew dramatically due to two factors: the
immigration of almost a million people and a high birthrate among colonial families.
The immigrants were diverse groups from England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, as
well as from Western and Central Europe. Many were Protestants, including those
from France and German-speaking regions. With a growing economy and wealth and
social mobility for White males, a unique society and culture developed based on
varied European tastes and ideas.
TOPIC 2.2 European Colonization in North America, p. 34

1. The primary motivations for settling in the Americas in the period from 1607 to 1754 were
the desire to gain wealth, to spread Christianity, or to escape persecution. The different European
nations had various approaches and methods to develop colonies. The Spanish came in limited
numbers to establish mines and farms and used Native Americans and enslaved Africans, all of
whom were eventually included in their society in limited ways. The French came as trappers
and traders in small numbers and allied with some of the American Indian tribes. The British
came in larger numbers with their families as farmers, shipbuilders, and merchants.

Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 A 3.B Unit 2: B 36
2 C 3.B Unit 2: B 36
1 (a) See below. 3.A Unit 2: B 36–37
1 (b) See below. 3.B Unit 2: B 36–37
1. (a) Beverly believed that only a person of low class would leave England to explore
uncharted territories in the New World because England was such a safe and
comfortable place to live.
1. (b) Agreement with Beverly can be supported by reference to the criminals that came
to the colonies as well as the poor and destitute who were indentured servants.
1. (c) Those who disagree could note the educated and well-to-do who came to the
colonies for religious reasons or as investors in the new lands. The Pilgrims and
Puritans in New England, as well as the Calverts in Maryland and William Penn
in Pennsylvania, would be examples to refute this view.
TOPIC 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies, p. 38
Race and Justice: Hierarchies in Colonial Society

Historical Development: KC-2.1.II.C, KC-2.1.II.D
Thinking Skill: 4.B
Have students work with a partner to create a chart comparing relationships between
various pairs of groups of people in the colonies:
• slaveowners and enslaved people
• masters and indentured servants
• men and women
• settlers and American Indians
Students might compare which group had higher status in colonial society, easier access to
wealth, and greater control over their own lives.
Historical Perspectives: Support an Argument

See Teacher Resource page 183 for a reproducible handout, “How Influential Were the Puritans?”
Most historians agree that the Puritans were very influential, however they disagree on on
their influence. Those who focus on their sermons and religious teachings emphasize how the
Puritans encouraged conformity. Those who focus on other sources see stronger signs that the
Puritans fostered individualism.

1. During the period from 1607—1754, the British colonies developed under many influences
including topography, natural resources, climate, and the background of their settlers. Starting
with Jamestown in 1607 and ending with Georgia in 1733, 13 distinct colonies developed with
each receiving its authority by a charter granting special privileges from the monarch.
Each charter described the relationship between the colony and the crown, and they included
three types: Corporate, Royal, and Proprietor. The British traditions of free farmers working
the land and a representative government provided a framework for the societies of these
colonies.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 D 4.A Unit 2: B, C 40–41, 47
2 C 3.B Unit 2: B, C 40–41, 47
3 A 5.A Unit 2: B, C 42
1 (a) See below. 4.B Unit 2: B, C 42
1 (b) See below. 4.B Unit 2: B, C 42
1 (c) See below. 4.A Unit 2: B, C 42–44
1. (a) Puritanism influenced the development of New England from 1630 to 1685
in a number of ways. The strict demands of the Puritan leaders led directly
to the development of separate, distinct colonies: Providence (Rhode Island),
Hartford (Connecticut), and Portsmouth. Representative government in New
England was supported beginning with the Mayflower Compact, an early form
of self-government and a rudimentary written constitution. Throughout New
England, communities held town meetings and elected members to colonial
legislatures. Voting rights were relatively broad for the time. In Massachusetts
Bay Colony, all freemen—male members of the Puritan Church—had the right
to elect the colony’s governor and a representative assembly. As the years passed,
strict Puritan practices weakened in most New England communities in order to
maintain church membership.
1. (b) Another way in which Puritanism influenced the development of New En-
gland from 1630 to 1685 would be any of the following not used to answer #1.
Puritanism influenced the development of New England from 1630 to 1685
in a number of ways. The strict demands of the Puritan leaders led directly
to the development of separate, distinct colonies: Providence (Rhode Island),
Hartford (Connecticut), and Portsmouth. Representative government in New
England was supported beginning with the Mayflower Compact, an early form
of self-government and a rudimentary written constitution. Throughout New
England, communities held town meetings and elected members to colonial

legislatures. Voting rights were relatively broad for the time. In Massachusetts
Bay Colony, all freemen—male members of the Puritan Church—had the right
to elect the colony’s governor and a representative assembly. As the years passed,
strict Puritan practices weakened in most New England communities in order to
maintain church membership.
1. (c) Thomas Hooker headed the establishment of Hartford which was settled with
a written constitution by a group of former Boston Puritans who were unhappy
with the Massachusetts authorities. Anne Hutchinson directed those creating
Portsmouth which became home to a group that questioned the doctrines of
the Puritan authorities and who were banished from the Bay colony. Roger
Williams led in the founding of Providence which was based partly on respect
for American Indians and on a desire for religious toleration for others, including
Catholics and Jews.
TOPIC 2.4 Transatlantic Trade, p. 49

1. Most European kingdoms in the 17th century adopted the economic policy of mercantilism,
which looked upon trade, colonies, and wealth as the basis for a country’s military and
political strength. For the English Colonies, mercantilist regulations may not have been
needed as England was naturally the colonies’ primary trading partner. But the colonists
resented the regulatory laws imposed by the government in London and this eventually would
lead to rebellion. A worldwide impact of trade can also be found in the exchange of plants,
crops, and animals which would in general improve the food supply throughout the world.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 C 5.A Unit 2: D 49–50, 52
2 C 5.B Unit 2: D 49–50
1 (a) See below. 4.B Unit 2: D 49–50
1 (b) See below. 4.B Unit 2: D 50
1 (c) See below. 4.B Unit 2: D 51
1. (a) Specific historical benefits the colonies received under the British policy of
mercantilism in the period 1607–1754 included military protection, guaranteed
markets in England for many of their exports, and access to British goods.
1. (b) Specific historical disadvantages the colonies had under the British policy of
mercantilism in the period 1607–1754 included the stifling of manufacturing,
requiring that many exports go only to England, requiring that most imports
only come from England, and limiting colonial money supplies.
1. (c) Specific historical actions the colonies took in response to the British policy
of mercantilism in the period 1607–1754 included smuggling, boycotts, and
political protests.

TOPIC 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans, p. 54
1. The general European opinion of the Native Americans as inferiors was well established by
the early 1600s. While at times some Native Americans served as allies for both the British
and French in their disputes with others, these alliances were dominated by the Europeans
and relatively short-lived. Gradually, the European desire for land resulted in the Native
Americans either dying, being driven away, or being reduced to powerless neighbors.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 B 3.B Unit 2: E 55, 57
2 C 3.B Unit 2: E 52, 57
3 C 3.B Unit 2: E, I 55–56
1 (a) See below. 2.A, 3.C, 6.D Unit 2: E 57
1 (b) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 2: E 41, 55
1 (c) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 2: E 39, 49
1. (a) Jonas Michaelius believed that the natives were savage and that it was a
useless endeavor to try and civilize them. John Eliot thought that the
Indians were uncivilized, but he believed that they were not without hope.
He believed that God would enlighten a few of the Indians to the error of
their ways and that those enlightened ones would eventually convert all the
others.
1. (b) Michaelius’s view can be supported by references to King Phillip’s War or the
death of Anne Hutchinson during a Native American uprising.
1. (c) Eliot’s assessment finds backing from John Rolfe and Pocahontas in Virginia,
the first Thanksgiving of the Pilgrims, and Penn’s experiences.
TOPIC 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies, p. 59
Race and Justice: Slavery in the Middle Colonies

Historical Development: KC-2.2.II.A
Thinking Skill: 6.A
Remind students that slavery was important in the middle colonies, even if enslaved
people were not as numerous as they were in the southern colonies. Have a group of
students make a presentation to classmates explaining the ways slavery affected the
middle colonies. They should consider political ideas that emerged and economic effects
that resulted.

1. The early colonists in Maryland and Virginia saw the chance to gain wealth from the
European demand for tobacco. Land was available, but labor was scarce. For various
reasons neither American Indians nor indentured servants provided a sufficient workforce

to produce the profits the colonists sought. When presented with the opportunity to
purchase enslaved people from Africa, colonists saw an answer to their problem. Although
facing overwhelming power, many Africans challenged enslavement. They made efforts to
maintain traditions and customs through oral history. Some would endure hunger strikes
or run away. They faced strong punishment for their actions but never stopped battling
enslavement. Over the years, owners reacted to resistance from those enslaved by enacting
new laws to control them.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 A 5.A Unit 2: F 60, 62
2 D 3.B Unit 2: F 60, 62
1 (a) See below. 4.A Unit 2: F 60–61, 63
1 (b) See below. 4.A Unit 2: F, H 60–61, 63
1 (c) See below. 5.B Unit 2: F, H 60–61, 63
1. (a) Specific historical developments or circumstances between 1660 and 1780 that
led to the changes in slavery levels depicted in the graph included several factors:
• Reduced migration as increases in wages in England reduced the supply of
immigrants to the colonies.
• Desire for a dependable workforce as large plantation owners were disturbed
by the political demands of small farmers and indentured servants and by
the disorders of Bacon’s Rebellion. They thought that slavery would provide a
stable labor force totally under their control.
• Desire for low-cost labor as tobacco prices fell and rice and indigo became the
most profitable crops. To grow such crops required a large land area and many
inexpensive, relatively unskilled field hands.
• The increased demand also supported the active, profitable, and ruthless trian-
gular trade.
1. (b) The British authorities during the 17th and earlier 18th centuries made orga-
nized efforts to increase the population in this period. They provided indentured
servants who were under contract with a master or landowner who paid for
their passage across the Atlantic and agreed to work for a specified number of
years in exchange for room and board. At the end of that period, they gained
their freedom and could work for wages or obtain land of their own. There was
also the headright system in Virginia which attempted to attract immigrants
through offers of land. It offered 50 acres of land to each immigrant who paid for
his own passage and to any plantation owner who paid for an immigrant’s passage.
Recognition of the profitable transatlantic slave trade was an additional means of
increasing the overall population.

1. (c) There were a number of specific causes for the periodic shortages of labor in the
colonies during the period between 1660 and 1780. One was the unavailability of
American Indian labor due to multiple factors including their resistance to forced
labor, their ability to flee westward to freedom, and their declining numbers due to
disease and violence from the colonists. Another reason was a periodic decline in
immigration from Europe whenever wages and stability improved there. Further
shortages occurred when efforts to plant labor-intensive crops such as rice and
indigo were expanded.
TOPIC 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture, p. 63
Race and Justice: Everyday Resistance

Historical Development: KC-2.2.II.C
Thinking Skill: 4.A
Historian Stephanie Camp has written about how enslaved African women engaged
in acts of “everyday resistance.” For example, they would limit their work by stopping
completely, taking lengthy breaks, or escaping temporarily. These actions often go
overlooked in historical narratives because they are not grand examples of large-scale
rebellions. Tell students to research a method of “everyday resistance” by enslaved
women or men and discuss its impact. They can evaluate the method in several ways:
• how common it was
• how enslaved people were punished for using it
• how successful it was
• how supporters of slavery developed misconceptions about enslaved people
to explain this form of resistance
Students might present the information as a journalist’s interview of an enslaved person.
For more details, students should see Stephanie M. Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved
Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South. They might also see John Hope
Franklin and Loren Schweninger, Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation.
Historical Perspectives: Support an Argument, p. 72

One view is that, for the times, the vast majority of White male citizens could vote which
demonstrated a degree of democracy. Others challenged this view, saying that voting did not
ensure true democracy. The freedom to question and debate issues were features of a real
democracy and missing as the primary goal was to form a consensus on issues. A third view
is economic, in that as wealth increased, an elite class developed that assumed power, thereby
limiting any real democracy. Ultimately one must define clearly what they see as a democracy
before they can evaluate colonial society.
1. During this period diverse groups migrated from the British Isles and Western and Central
Europe. Most were Protestants with varied motives and settled in the middle colonies and on
the western frontier. Their influences on society varied. Religious toleration was noticeable
as many had fled persecution. The English traditions of representative government were
recognized, as was a desire for a better life, especially for White male property owners, and
there was an acceptance of social mobility in a new world.

Item Learning Text
Answer Skill
1 B 2.A, 4.A Unit 2: H, I 74
2 A 4.B Unit 2: H, I 74
3 A 2.A, 4.B Unit 2: H, I 74
1 (a) See below. 4.A Unit 2: H 71, 74
1 (b) See below. 4.A Unit 2: H 71, 74
1 (c) See below. 4.A Unit 2: H 69–70, 74
1. (a) The various ethnic groups who migrated to the colonies in this period each
contributed to the culture and society. The Germans largely became farmers
and maintained their German language, customs, and religious beliefs as
Lutherans, Amish, Brethren, or Mennonites. They obeyed colonial laws but
took little interest in English politics. The Scotch-Irish were English-speaking
Protestants who came from the northern part of Ireland. They had little respect
for the British, who had pressured them to leave Ireland. Other European groups
included French Protestants (known as Huguenots), the Dutch, and the Swedes.
The largest single group of people entering the English colonies were forced to
from Africa. They had been taken captive and sold as enslaved laborers. They
furnished the needed labor and worked a range of occupations, such as laborer,
bricklayer, or blacksmith, but the most common work was as field laborers on
plantations. Most lived in the southern colonies. A few Africans obtained their
freedom. However, every colony passed laws that discriminated against African
Americans. The American Indians, while often violently pushed aside, impacted
the farming and trapping of the colonists and the conflicts between the European
powers in the colonies.
1. (b) There were a number of causes of the religious revivals in the mid-18th century.
This movement was commonly known as the Great Awakening, a movement
of fervent expressions of religious feeling among the masses. One cause was a
reaction to the recent changes with ministers giving less emphasis than their
ancestors to human sinfulness and damnation. There was an inherent appeal in
this new revival which taught that ordinary people with faith and sincerity could
understand the gospels without ministers to lead them. There was an empow-
erment of the individual to take control of their religious life and this would
gradually influence the people’s view of politics.
1. (c) There were a number of specific reasons for the differences in economic devel-
opment between colonial regions. The most significant was the varied environ-
ments of the different regions. The climate, with longer growing seasons in the
South and shorter ones in New England, made a difference, as did the rocky soil
of New England and the rich soil of the Middle colonies. The particular groups
of people who settled in a region also contributed to the distinct economic na-
ture of the region. The Germans and Scotch-Irish came as farmers and pursued
that work where they settled. The Puritans in New England espoused the family
farm and business. Another factor was British mercantilist policy which limited
manufacturing in all regions and forced colonists to decide on what their region
could best support among agriculture, forestry, and fishing.
TOPIC 2.8 Comparisons in Period 2, p. 75
Race and Justice: The Legacy of 1619

Historical Development: KC-2.1.II.E, KC-2.2.II
Thinking Skill: 5.B
Ask students how the year 1619 changed the landscape of American history. Discuss what
followed from the formation of the Virginia House of Burgesses and from the arrival of
the first Africans in Virginia in the same year. Compare and contrast the implications and
legacy of each development.
Questions About Comparisons, p. 76
1. The early colonists in New England, mainly Puritans, had a narrow view of religious
toleration whereas colonists in Pennsylvania and Maryland enjoyed much greater
religious freedom. The economies in the various regions gradually followed the
influence of environmental factors. In New England, poor soil led to lumber,
shipbuilding, fishing, and trading as primary industries. The Middle colonies, with
better soil and a more temperate climate, turned to both commercial and subsistence
farming. The warmer climate and soil of the Southern colonies encouraged cash crops
such as tobacco, rice, and cotton. Regardless of the type of charter, Corporate, Royal,
or Proprietary, initial difficulties were basically overcome when the people adapted to
their new environment.
2. All of the colonies recognized the British tradition of representative government. This
continued even when colonies experienced an influx of non-British immigrants. While
there was general dissatisfaction with mercantilism, it was greatest in the “trading”
cities, particularly in New England. Religious differences among the colonies were
clearly evident. The proprietary colonies of Pennsylvania and Maryland offered the
greatest toleration of different religions, while the New England colonies, with some
exceptions, took a narrower view of those who had different beliefs. Gradually as trade,
transportation, and communication improved among the colonies, they developed a
unique American culture and society separate from Britain and Europe.
3. Initially, all of the colonies accepted slavery. During this period, all the colonies, in
varying degrees, engaged in the trading of slaves. Gradually the economics of slavery
proved to be of limited value in the environment of those in New England and Middle
Atlantic colonies. In the South, with its favorable climate and soil, slavery became very
profitable for some. With the development of the southern plantation system, efforts
were made to legalize hereditary slavery. These efforts were supported by racism and
beliefs that non-Christian Africans were fundamentally different.
Think as a Historian: Argumentation, p. 77
1. Most students will say this claim is historically defensible. Sources may include
colonists’ letters about and records from the triangular trade.
2. Most students will say this claim is not historically defensible. Sources may include
the text of the Navigation Act and letters or records related to trade in the colonies.
letters and birth and death records that show the existence of Native Americans who
intermarried and became part of white colonial culture. Sources may also include
websites and documents from the Native American tribes and nations who live in
New England today.

4. Most students will say this claim is historically defensible. Sources may include tax
records, letters, and illustrations that show the inequality among white colonists in
the South.
demographic information from the thirteen colonies and women’s accounts of daily
life and child rearing.
6. Most students will say this claim is historically defensible. Sources may include tax
records or other documents related to the incomes and lifestyles of those who owned
land and those who did not.

Write as a Historian, p. 78
Student presentations should indicate that they will be able to choose from three questions
the one they feel best able to answer. After choosing their question, they will need to develop
and support an evidence-based argument.
Free-Response Questions pp. 79–83
Item Thematic Learning Text

Answer Skill
Number Focus Objective Pages
1 See below. 6.A, B, C, D WOR, SOC Unit 2: B, C 34–35
2 See below. 6.A, B, C, D MIG, SOC Unit 2: B, C 39–45
3 See below. 6.A, B, C, D GEO Unit 2: C 66–67, 39–40
4 See below. 6.A, B, C, D NAT, PCE Unit 2: H 68–69
Document-Based Question
1 See below. 6.A, B, C, D NAT, WXT Unit 2: D, H, I 65–72
Long Essay Question Responses
1. The Spanish colonies were founded by conquistadors who were supported by the
Roman Catholic King and Queen as well as the church leaders. One of their major goals
was to convert the natives to their religious faith, even under the penalty of death for
those who refused conversion. Many of the English, including the Puritans, Pilgrims,
Catholics, and Quakers, fled to the New World to escape religious persecution. There
was limited interest in the English colonies in the religious conversion of the American
Indians.
2. While many of the early English colonists had escaped religious persecution, their
reactions varied in the New World. The Puritans of New England opposed differing
religious views so as to preserve their own beliefs, while the Catholics of Maryland
pledged toleration to all Christians and the Quakers of Pennsylvania and the Baptists
of Rhode Island were open to all faiths.

3. The Jamestown settlement’s location in a swampy area along the James River resulted
in fatal outbreaks of dysentery and malaria. The Plymouth colony grew slowly but
remained dependent on fish, furs, and lumber. In most of New England, rocky soil
and long winters limited farming while milder weather and rich soil led to profitable
crops in the Middle Colonies. The diverse environments (geography and climate) of
the southern colonies resulted in a varied agriculture with small subsistence farms
and large plantations using hundreds of slaves.
4. Living thousands of miles from a controlling mother country, England, the colonists
slowly expanded on their democratic heritage as evidenced by a series of events
during the period from 1607 to 1745 that established a desire for self-rule. One of
these influential events was the Great Awakening which provided many Americans
for the first time with a shared or common experience. It had a democratizing effect by
changing the way people viewed authority. If common people could make their own
religious decisions without relying on the authority of ministers, then they might start
to make their own political decisions without deferring to the authority of the great
landowners and merchants. The revolutionary idea fermented for years and would
later support the challenges to the authority of the king and his royal governors.
Document-Based Question Response p. 80

1. In the early 17th and 18th centuries, England’s government in London, preoccupied with
domestic and foreign troubles, offered only minimal assistance to the American colonies.
Furthermore, few of the joint-stock companies and proprietors who held charters to the
colonies were able to offer much material assistance to the settlers. Left to their own resources,
William Penn, Benjamin Franklin, and several other colonial leaders proposed that the
various colonies form a common government and act together in common cause. In the
first two documents we see efforts to establish self-government in individual colonies. In
Document 1 we find the colonists writing and signing a document that pledged majority rule
and an early form of colonial self-government. Similarly, Document 2 was developed with the
start of a new colony by settlers unhappy with the Massachusetts authorities. These settlers
drew up the first written constitution in American history that established a representative
government consisting of a legislature elected by popular vote and a governor chosen by that
legislature.
Three of the documents presented here represent early efforts at inter-colonial cooperation
and union. Only one, Document 3, was actually put into effect, forming a confederation
to provide a common defense against Indian attacks. The other two plans in Documents 4
and 5 were never adopted. Document 4 responded to a need for military and economic
cooperation among the colonies. Document 5 was the last of the colonial plans of union to
be considered before the outbreak of the American Revolution. Unwilling to give up control
over their powers to tax, the various colonies rejected the plan, and it never went into effect.
The cartoon in Document 6 most likely was in support of the Albany Plan as it shows the
need for the thirteen colonies, or parts of a snake, to be united with the caption to “join or
die.” The final document, 7, argues for colonial unity in terms of being part of the British
Parliament. Together with his Albany Plan of Union, we see Franklin retaining the hope that
the needed colonial unity would be created with England. The failure of any of these plans to
result in lasting unity can be found in the origins and unique nature of each colony. At the
same time, the number of plans for union and their varying nature, together with the support
they received, suggest widespread and growing interest in unity as the means of dealing with
common problems.

UNIT 3
Period 3: 1754–1800
1. After the Seven Years’ War ended in 1763, the British desired greater control and
revenue from the colonies they were protecting. At the same time, many American
colonists saw themselves as self-sufficient and questioned their relationship with the
British government. These changing views on both sides would lead to the conflict
between the British and their American colonies.
2. Some in the colonial leadership had developed new beliefs of an “enlightened” thinking
on the relationship between the people and their leaders and government. Initially,
the United States was governed by the limited Articles of Confederation created in
response to the strong, oppressive British government. The national government was
so weak that people soon replaced it with a new constitution. This document created
a federal government that was stronger than the one under the Articles, but still with
some limits on its powers with detailed rights for the people.
3. With the end of Washington’s eight years in office, it was obvious that two political
parties had emerged. A key difference between the parties was how to balance power
between the federal and state governments.
The Federalists, strong in the New England states, argued for a stronger federal
government. The Democratic-Republicans, strong in the southern states, argued for
stronger state governments.
As new migrants arrived, citizens continued to migrate westward in search of
land and economic opportunities. This caused increased conflicts with the Native
Americans and other European nations that had claims on territories. At the same
time, they all helped to form the culture and identity of the new nation so that by
1800 a national identity could truly be recognized.
TOPIC 3.2 The Seven Years’ War, p. 86

1. Starting late in the 17th century, a series of wars broke out involving Great Britain, France,
and Spain worldwide in an effort to dominate the colonial trade. In the fourth and final
war, the fighting began in the colonies as Britain and France recognized the importance of
their colonies and shipped large numbers of troops to North America. This war was known
in Europe as the Seven Years’ War, and in North America it is often called the French and
Indian War.
Britain’s victory in the war gave them supremacy in North America and changed the way the
British and the colonists viewed each other. The British came away from the war with a low
opinion of the colonial military and felt that some of the colonies had refused to contribute
either troops or money to the war. The colonists were proud of their record and confident in
their defenses. They were not impressed with British troops or their leadership. With such
different views the relations between the colonies and Britain remained questionable.

Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 C 4.B Unit 3: B 88–90
2 B 5.B Unit 3: B 89–90
3 C 5.B Unit 3: B 90
1 (a) See below. 4.A Unit 3: B 87–89
1 (b) See below. 4.A Unit 3: B 88
1. (a) From the war, the British had a low opinion of the colonial military and the
colonies that had refused to contribute to the war effort. The British government
shifted its policies to be forceful and take control of North America. The British
wanted the colonists to pay for troops to guard the frontier.
1. (b) The colonists were proud of their military performance and developed confi-
dence that they could provide for their own defense. They were not impressed
with British troops or their leadership.
1. (c) The changing views contributed to a range of actions:
• Pontiac’s Rebellion, with the American Indians angered by the growing west-
ward movement of colonists. They destroyed forts and settlements from New
York to Virginia before British troops put down the uprising.
• The Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonists from settling west of the
Appalachian Mountains.
• New regulations by Parliament such as the Sugar Act, Quartering Act, and the
Stamp Act, many of which raised new revenues. From the colonists’ point of
view, each act represented a threat to their liberties and practice of representa-
tive government.
TOPIC 3.3 Taxation Without Representation, p. 92

1. The chief reason for colonial discontent during this period was a major change in Britain’s
colonial policy. Britain began to assert its power in the colonies and to collect taxes and
enforce trade laws much more aggressively than in the past. Before, Britain had exercised little
direct control over the colonies and generally allowed its navigation laws regulating colonial
trade to go unenforced. This earlier policy of salutary neglect was abandoned as the British
adopted forceful policies to control their North America.
The wars had been costly and now Britain was maintaining a large military force to guard its
American frontiers. To pay for troops to guard the frontier without increasing taxes at home,
the king and his government wanted the colonies to bear more of the costs.

Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 A 2.A, 4.A Unit 3: C 95, 98
2 C 3.A Unit 3: C 93, 98
1 (a) See below. 2.A, 3.C, 6.D Unit 3: C 95–96
1 (b) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 3: C 93, 96
1 (c) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 3: C 92–94
1. (a) Bailyn saw the colonists reacting to the threats from Britain against their liberty
while Wood viewed the Americans acting for independence based on a combi-
nation of their long-held spirit of freedom and intellectually enlightened ideas.
1. (b) Support for Bailyn’s interpretation can be found in a multitude of events. The
Proclamation of 1763, Sugar Act, Quartering Act, and the Stamp Act were all
British measures to restrict the colonists. The Townshend Acts and Intolerable
Acts continued the efforts to limit the liberty of the colonists and impose con-
trols on them.
1. (c) Support for Wood’s interpretation can be found in a number of areas. The
basis for the Americans’ view were the feelings of freedom and self-sufficiency
demonstrated in such actions as their success in the French and Indian War,
various petitions and boycotts, and the calling of Continental Congresses. Build-
ing on the feelings of liberty was the influence of the Enlightenment, specifi-
cally writers such as Locke and Rousseau, on the founding fathers, particularly
Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams. This provided the intellectual framework for the
independence movement.
TOPIC 3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution, p. 100
Race and Justice: Philosophy and Slavery

Historical Development: KC-3.1.II.B, KC-3.2.I.C
Thinking Skill: 5.B
Review the principles of the social contract and the legitimacy of government as proposed
by Locke and Rousseau. Ask students:
• How did abolitionists use these principles to argue against slavery?
• How did other colonists use these same principles to defend slavery?
Historical Perspectives: Support an Argument, pp. 101–102

In the early years, the traditional view was that a revolution based on the ideas of the
Enlightenment had fundamentally altered society. At the start of the 20th century, progressive
historians believed that the end of British dominance had radically changed American society.
A new nation was formed with a republican government based on federalism and equality
and the rights of the individual. The revolution was social as well as political.

During the second half of the 20th century, a different interpretation argued that American
society had been more democratic and changed long before the war with Britain. Historians
suggest that the changes that are viewed as revolutionary, representative government,
expansion of the right to vote, and written constitutions, had all developed earlier, during the
colonial period. What was revolutionary was an American philosophy based on liberty and
democracy that would guide the nation.

1. Many Americans, particularly colonial leaders, recognized a long practice of loyalty to the
king and Great Britain. But with differences between them growing they looked to better
understand the relationship.
The era of the Enlightenment had arrived and strongly influenced the young colonial leaders
including Washington and Jefferson. They learned to believe that God had established natural
laws in creating the universe and trusted to human reason to solve the many problems of
life and society. Based on the thinking of Locke and Rousseau, the founders adopted the
new ideas of liberty and equality through a “social contract” between the people and the
government. The writings of Thomas Paine would help to clarify these ideas for all Americans.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 B 2.B Unit 3: D 93–94, 102
2 A 4.B Unit 3: C, D 93–94, 102
3 C 4.B, 5.B Unit 3: C, D 101–102
1 (a) See below. 3.A Unit 3: D 103
1 (b) See below. 4.A Unit 3: D 92–96, 102
1 (c) See below. 4.A, 6.B Unit 3: F 118–121, 124–128
1. (a) Abigail Adams believes that power is something that, by nature, man becomes
dangerous with, regardless if it is held by one man or a group. She also expresses
a major concern about liberties and how the new government can protect them.
Adams additionally speaks of prejudices which are common among men, in her
view, and a cause for anxiety over the new government.
1. (b) Any of the events or actions by the colonists and/or the British government
during the period from the 1760s through 1776 can assist in explaining the
views Abigail Adams expressed in the excerpt. Events starting with the Procla-
mation of 1763 and going to the Declaration of Independence shaped Adams’s
views.
1. (c) Events or actions such as the concerns with the Articles of Confederation and
the debates over a new Constitution and its ratification can be used to challenge
or support the point of view expressed by Abigail Adams.

TOPIC 3.5 The American Revolution, p. 104
1. From its start in 1775 to the peace treaty in 1783, the Revolutionary War was a long and
bitter struggle. As Americans fought, they developed a new national identity, and the former
colonies became the United States of America. The American Patriots, those active in the
struggle against Britain, were less than half the population but with strong leadership
they persevered and endured many hardships. The turning point of the war came with
the victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1778, which persuaded France to join the war against
their long-time enemy, Britain. Strongly supported by French naval and military forces,
Washington’s army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General
Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 D 5.B Unit 3: E 107–108
2 B 4.B Unit 3: E 107–108
1 (a) See below. 4.B Unit 3: E 107
1 (b) See below. 4.B Unit 3: E 108
1 (c) See below. 4.B Unit 3: E 108
1. (a) With the largest segment of the colonial population supporting them, the Patriots
had a number of specific strengths in the American Revolution during the period
1774 to 1783. Many colonists had a strong commitment to independence, so they
provided a solid core of people resilient enough to undergo hardships. The Patriots
gained the support of France and other European nations who also declared war on
Great Britain. The Patriots’ determination outlasted the British public’s support of
the war, resulting in a change in the British government leading to peace.
1. (b) France openly allied itself with the Americans after their victory at Saratoga in
1778. The alliance proved decisive because it widened the war and forced the
British to divert military resources away from America.
1. (c) Native Americans tried to stay out of the war. Eventually, attacks by colonists
prompted many to support the British, who promised to limit colonial settle-
ments in the West.

TOPIC 3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals, p. 111
Race and Justice: How People Experienced the Revolutionary War

Historical Development: KC-3.2.I.C, KC-3.2.I.D, KC-3.1.II.E
Thinking Skill: 2.B
Divide the class into four groups and ask each group to focus on the lives of one category
of people during the Revolutionary War period:
• African Americans
• Native Americans
• White women
• White small farmers
Within their group, students should discuss the war’s political, social, and economic
impact on that category. Then have a speaker for each group share their views with the
whole class.
Historical Perspectives: Support an Argument, p. 113

For some, the best way to understand the radical nature of the American Revolution is to study
it in the context of other revolutions. Historian Crane Britton compared the American, French,
and Russian revolutions and observed that each revolution passed through similar stages and
became increasingly radical from one year to the next. Yet other historians feel that Americans
did not revolt against old institutions but moved forward a democratic movement for
independence that had been evolving for years. Variations on these two views focus on specific
aspects of revolutions such as the degree of opposition they faced or the military actions to
control the countryside or cities. Since the American Revolution pre-dated the other modern
revolutions it is compared to, its influence on them is a continued topic of study.

1. The American Revolution and its ideas impacted American society before, during, and
after the war. It affected society in a wide range of ways. It established a new government,
first under the Articles and then under a Constitution. It debated and attempted to clarify the
rights of its citizens. At the same time, there were people who saw little change as a result of
the revolution. All women, slaves, and Native Americans still had little or no rights. It would
be many years before all could share in the revolutionary ideals.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 B 3.B Unit 3: F 93–95
2 A 2.A, 3.B, 4.B Unit 3: F 101
3 C 2.B, 5.B Unit 3: F 107–108
1 (a) See below. 3.C, 6.D Unit 3: F 106, 111–112
1 (b) See below. 6.B Unit 3: F 112
1 (c) See below. 6.B Unit 3: F 111–112

1. (a) There is a distinction between the two historians over the idea of equality. Wood
speaks of the “egalitarian” nature of the new nation while Raphael points out
that all were not equal. Raphael distinguishes between those who seized power
and those who were not able to share in it.
1. (b) Support for Wood’s interpretation can be found in the changes to the structure
of government and society. Specific evidence is found in the development of new
state constitutions which did away with aristocratic titles, provided a listing of
basic rights and freedoms, and expanded voting rights.
1. (c) Support for Raphael’s interpretation can be found in a number of areas. In some
instances, the estates of former loyalists were confiscated, subdivided, and sold.
Shay’s Rebellion demonstrated the feelings of farmers that the new government
was unfairly taxing them. Many of the new state constitutions still did not treat
all equally, particularly women and non-Whites. The continued existence of
slavery made it clear that the revolutionary principle that “all men are created
equal” did not apply to all.
TOPIC 3.7 The Articles of Confederation, p. 117

1. With the Revolutionary War, the Congress that declared independence had to create a
new government for the new nation. Having rebelled due to a tyrannical British government,
they felt the need to form a weak central government under the Articles of Confederation.
Concurrently, the 13 colonies had to change into independently governed states, each with its
own laws for government, or a constitution.
These new laws, constitutions, and governments came about through long deliberations between
those who wanted law and order, and those concerned with protecting individual rights and
preventing future tyrannies. The state constitutions would vary but had similar features including
a declaration of rights, separation of government powers, and voting requirements. When it
became evident that the Articles of Confederation could not support a central government, a
national constitution was written providing for a stronger federal government and adopting
many of the characteristics of the state constitutions.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 D 2.C, 4.B Unit 3: H 121
2 C 2.C, 4.A Unit 3: H 121
3 D 2.C, 4.A Unit 3: H 122, 126
1 (a) See below. 2.A, 3.C, 6.D Unit 3: H 121, 118–119
1 (b) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 3: H 121
1 (c) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 3: H 120

1. (a) The two writers take opposite views of the Articles of Confederation. Van Cleve
sees the government paralyzed under the Articles, with small groups able to
stop any changes in the government. Freedman has a different interpretation
seeing the nation prospering under the Articles. He sees an effective exercise of
national power taking place during this period and the evolution of institutions
extending beyond the text of the articles. Congress and the state judiciaries
viewed the Articles broadly and expansively in response to the practical needs
of the country. The institutions created by Congress exercised wide powers that
furthered national unity with the agreement of the states.
1. (b) George William Van Cleve’s criticisms of the Articles and the need for a new
government can be demonstrated by studying the problems under the Articles.
These problems included: non-payment of war debts as the government lacked
the power to tax, lack of respect and challenges from European nations such as
Britain and Spain, domestic unrest such as Shay’s Rebellion, dissatisfaction over
taxes, and a lack of a stable currency among many issues.
1. (c) Freedman’s interpretation of the success of the Articles can be supported by the
winning of the Revolutionary War under its leadership, the Land Ordinance of
1785, establishing a policy for surveying and selling the western lands, and the
Northwest Ordinance that set the rules for creating new states. All pointed to an
effective government.
TOPIC 3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates Over Ratification, p. 123
1. From the start, in the discussions of a new federal government through ratification of the
Constitution there were two distinct approaches. One, which became known as the Federalist
view, called for a strong federal government which could resist pressures from foreign nations,
provide a stable currency and financing for government operations, and resolve disputes
between the individual states. The second view, sometimes known as the Anti-Federalists,
called for strict limits on the federal government and strong protections for individual rights.
States were to have strong rights and the central government was to be controlled so as to
avoid abuses such as those demonstrated by the king and the British government.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 D 2.A, 4.B Unit 3: I 126–127
2 A 2.A, 5.B Unit 3: I 128
3 C 2.A, 4.B Unit 3: I 129
1 (a) See below. 3.A Unit 3: I 126
1 (b) See below. 3.B Unit 3: I 126–126
1 (c) See below. 4.A Unit 3: I 126

1. (a) Slavery was accepted when the Convention provided for a Three-Fifths Com-
promise, which counted each enslaved individual as three-fifths of a person in
determining a state’s level of taxation and representation. It was also decided to
guarantee that slaves could be imported until 1808, when Congress could vote to
abolish importation of slaves while leaving the institution of slavery to continue.
1. (b) Criticisms were many, with the office of the presidency concerning those who
feared a lifetime rule such as found with a monarch, while others feared that
with democracy came the danger of a mob constantly changing and disrupting
the government. The system of representation was challenged by both those
who believed that all states should be equal and those in large states who want-
ed all of their larger populations empowered. The compromise on slavery was
questioned by those who saw no justification for slavery and by others who
wanted no limits on the right to buy enslaved people.
1. (c) Responses will vary as the Anti-Federalists believed that a stronger central gov-
ernment would destroy the work of the Revolution, limit democracy, and restrict
states’ rights. They also argued that the proposed Constitution contained no bill
of rights to protect individual freedoms and that the proposed Constitution gave
the central government more power than the British ever had.
TOPIC 3.9 The Constitution, p. 130

See Teacher Resource page 184 for a reproducible handout, “What Does the Constitution Mean?”
Disputes over the meaning and intent of its writers have been part of the discussions about
the Constitution from its earliest days. In the early years, the states’ rights question had
continued the division between the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists, but with the Civil
War this issue was largely settled. At this point many judged the framers, Hamilton and other
Federalist writers of the Constitution, as brilliant thinkers.
In the early 20th century, reacting to the excesses of big business, certain historians
identified economic factors and class conflict as the primary force behind the Constitutional
Convention. This view argued that, in writing the Constitution, the Framers were chiefly
motivated by their own economic interests in preserving their wealth and property. Later
this economic view was altered as historians placed greater stress on the philosophical and
intellectual backgrounds of the delegates at the convention and showed how they shared 18th-
century views on liberty, government, and society.
1. Under the new Constitution, the nation continued to follow the key legislation passed under
the Articles of Confederation. This included the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest
Ordinance of 1787 that established the process for admitting new states. The idea of a legislature
was continued but changed with two houses and increased powers. Additional changes included
a chief executive, the President, and a Bill of Rights. While the structure of the government was
greatly changed, the ideals and beliefs that brought about independence continued.

Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 C 2.A, 4.A Unit 3: J 135
2 B 2.A, 4.A Unit 3: J 123–125
3 C 2.A, 4.A Unit 3: J 132
1 (a) See below. 2.A, 3.C, 6.D Unit 3: J 133–135
1 (b) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 3: J 121, 125, 127
1 (c) See below. 2.A, 6.B Unit 3: J 125–128
1. (a) The two historians had very different views on the principal influences on the
making of the Constitution. Beard saw economic interests as the driving force
behind the Constitution, while Hofstadter believed that the Revolution was the
pivotal point that motivated both the interests and ideas that went into the writ-
ing of the Constitution.
1. (b) Support for Beard’s interpretation can be found in a number of areas. Prob-
lems with the government under the Articles of Confederation, particularly its
economic weakness including trade, tariffs, and taxes, motivated many to call
for change. The majority of the delegates writing the Constitution were wealthy
as compared to the average citizen. The ratification battle over the Constitution
was waged between the Federalists, mainly from the large coastal cities, and the
Anti-Federalists, small farmers from the west.
1. (c) Support for Hofstadter’s interpretation can be found in that most of those
involved in writing the Constitution had played active roles in the Revolution.
George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Benjamin
Franklin were among the many delegates who had been deeply involved in the
revolutionary struggle. The delegates, in writing the Constitution and the Bill
of Rights were ever mindful of why they had fought for the Revolution. Pro-
tections from the perceived abuses of Britain and its king were incorporated in
their work, including, to name a few, a presidential term limit, no quartering of
troops, and a system of checks and balances to control government power.
TOPIC 3.10 Shaping a New Republic, p. 135

See Teacher Resource page 185 for a reproducible handout, “What Caused Political Parties?”
Most historians have emphasized how political parties were rooted in one or more conflicts in
the United States over democracy and elitism, between capitalists and agrarians, or between
the personalities of Hamilton and Jefferson. Other historians, particularly Richard Hofstadter,
have focused on the similarities between the parties as both responded to the same political
realities.

1. Conflict is evident in the period from 1754 to 1800 as the colonies declared independence,
fought a Revolutionary War, developed a Constitution, and formed a working government.
All of this was followed by an array of challenges, both foreign and domestic, into the start of
the 19th century. Foreign relations saw turmoil triggered by the French Revolution leading
to the XYZ affair and Citizen Genet. Efforts to calm European relations lead to treaties with
Britain, the Jay Treaty, and Spain, the Pinckney Treaty. Domestic difficulties included the
Whiskey Rebellion, westward expansion, and conflict with American Indians. The growth of
political parties and their increasing levels of differences were an additional example of the
conflict during this period as demonstrated by the Alien and Sedition Acts.
Item Learning Text
Answer Skill
1 B 3.D Unit 3: L, M 143
2 B 5.A Unit 3: L, M 143
3 C 4.A Unit 3: K, L 137
1 (a) See below. 5.A Unit 3: K, L 139–143
1 (b) See below. 5.A Unit 3: K, L 141, 143–144
1 (c) See below. 5.A Unit 3: K, L 143–144
1. (a) The Citizen Genêt controversy had Genêt, the French minister to the United
States, objecting to Washington’s policy on neutrality. Genêt broke all the normal
rules of diplomacy by appealing directly to the American people to support the
French cause. Pressure was brought on France to remove the official. A more
difficult problem was the British searching and seizing American ships and
impressing seamen. President Washington sent John Jay to Britain to solve the
problem. Jay’s treaty with the British had their agreement to evacuate posts on
the U.S. western frontier but no mention of British seizures. Another situation
that threatened war was the XYZ Affair. It started with reports that U.S. ships
were being seized by the French. President Adams sent a delegation to negotiate
a settlement. French ministers, known only as X, Y, and Z, requested bribes to
enter into negotiations. Infuriated, many Americans clamored for war against
France. “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute” became the slogan of
the hour. President Adams resisted the popular sentiment for war and sent new
ministers to Paris.
1. (b) One positive result of the American foreign policy came from the Proclamation
of Neutrality that kept the young nation out of a European war. Other positive
results came from the Jay Treaty which removed British posts on the western
frontier and the Pinckney Treaty with Spain which opened the lower Mississippi
River to trade and settled the Florida border. Negative aspects of the American
foreign policy included the Jay Treaty which was supposed to deal with the loss
of American property and impressment of seamen, yet it did not. The British
continued their searching and seizing of American ships and impressing sea-
men. The unpopular treaty angered American supporters of France, but it did
maintain Washington’s policy of neutrality. Similarly, the XYZ Affair did not
end with the halting of the French violation of American shipping rights.
1. (c) Challenges to the policy of avoiding war varied, specifically related to the XYZ
Affair. One faction of the Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, hoped
that by going to war the United States could gain French and Spanish lands
in North America. There were also two overriding factors during this period.
One was the French Revolution and the continued conflict between France and
Britain. Many Americans, particularly Federalists, wanted to thank France for
its support and sided with them. Those on the western frontier had an issue with
the actions of Britain and Spain agitating American Indians and threatening
western settlements from their frontier outposts.
TOPIC 3.11 Developing an American Identity, p. 145
Race and Justice: Role of Religion

Historical Development: KC-3.2.III.ii
Thinking Skill: 3.B
Point out to students that the experiences of African Americans have varied greatly
and that few generalizations applied to all enslaved people. However, historian Gayraud
Wilmore believed that African Americans are “incorrigibly a religious people.” Ask
students to do research to find evidence that supports, modifies, or refutes this claim:
• What African religious traditions did enslaved people bring to the Americas?
• Many enslaved Africans came from West Africa, where Islam was common.
How often did African Americans maintain a connection with Islam?
• Did African Americans who practiced Christianity hold beliefs or follow prac-
tices that distinguished them from white Christians in America?
Encourage students to share their findings in a class presentation.

1. With the founding of the new nation, a true American identity and culture would take at
least a generation, if not more, to became clearly established and recognized. The culture and
society would naturally assume aspects from the many peoples who had migrated here, with
the British having the greatest impact as personified by its language. The inspiration of the
“Founding Fathers,” the leaders who brought independence, would be permanent and debated
to this day. Some immediate cultural changes included outlawing aristocratic titles and the
separation of Church and State. Politically, two political parties developed based largely on
regional differences and different views of the roles, functions, and powers of the Federal
government. As the country and its wealth grew, so would its capacity to develop a distinctive
culture in all areas.
Item Learning Text

Answer Skill
1 A 3.D Unit 3: L, M 143, 147
2 C 5.A Unit 3: L, M 143, 147
1 (a) See below. 5.B Unit 3: M 148
1 (b) See below. 5.B Unit 3: M 147–148
1 (c) See below. 4.A Unit 3: M 132–133, 148

1. (a) The specific historical differences between the cultural life in the independent
United States and that of life in the American colonies under British rule include
the abolishing of aristocratic titles and the separation of church and state.
1. (b) The specific historical similarities between the cultural life in the independent
United States and that of life in the American colonies under British rule include
English as the primary language, the principles of representative government,
and the continuation of the Anglican church although it was no longer directly
tax-supported.
1. (c) The legal changes that reflected the social changes in the new United States in
the period from 1754 to 1800 include the adoption of a Bill of Rights to guar-
antee individual rights, thus limiting government power, as well as an elected
president, a chief executive, and not a hereditary King. The separation of church
and state with the end of tax for religion mirrors the new society’s approach to
freedom of religion and taxation.
TOPIC 3.12 Movement in the Early Republic, p. 149
1. Basic to any understanding of migration to and within the United States is the recognition
that this movement included many who involuntarily migrated. It is within the involuntary
migration that we see the continual rivalries and clashes. The American Indians saw clashes
with settlers who often ignored laws and treaties intended to maintain peace. The government
usually acted against the Native Americans when disputes turned violent. Often their major
recourse was to migrate westward away from the encroaching settlers. Slavery obviously
presented another group forced to migrate, resulting in continual clashes as those enslaved
engaged in various forms of resistance.
Learning Text
Item Number Answer Skill
Objective Pages
1 B 5.A Unit 3: N 132–133
2 D 4.A Unit 3: N 118–119, 151
3 C 4.B Unit 3: N 151
1 (a) See below. 2.B, 4.A Unit 3: O 106, 153–154
1 (b) See below. 3.D, 4.A Unit 3: O 112
1 (c) See below. 3.D, 4.A Unit 3: O 112, 151

1. (a) Banneker believed that Jefferson was contradicting his own words in the Decla-
ration of Independence when he allowed slavery to continue.
1. (b) Benjamin Franklin (who opposed slavery) stressed the need for unity and com-
promise at the Constitutional Convention. John Adams would support Ban-
neker as he strongly opposed slavery and fought against it his entire life. George
Washington was in the same situation as Jefferson in that he owned enslaved
people his entire life, yet Washington did free them in his will, suggesting con-
cerns over the nature of slavery.
1. (c) Jefferson would have recognized the validity of much of Banneker’s argument, but
he would have advised that it was not the right time or conditions to end it. He
would also submit that hopefully slavery would end naturally as the nation grew.
TOPIC 3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3, p. 155

Questions About Continuity and Change, p. 155
1. People wanted and made changes to reflect their revolutionary ideas. A Bill of Rights
was written, aristocratic titles were outlawed, Church and State separated, and voting
rights for White, male property owners ensured. For women, they still saw their legal
rights limited while they maintained an influence in family life, on the farm, and in
society. There appeared a new role for women, what has become known as Republican
Motherhood. British culture still had a role as reflected in the continued presence of
the Anglican Church, or Church of England, political parties, and the expanded ideas
of representative government.
2. An independence movement based on a recognition of a man’s rights in relationship

to one’s government naturally inspired changes on all levels of government to ensure
these rights. Even as the Revolutionary War was being fought, the former individual
colonies, the states, were writing their constitutions with bills of rights to protect
individual citizens. After the successful war for independence, the desires for a
stronger national government were tempered by the recognition of the importance
of a bill of rights to protect individuals. Yet, when we look at the listing of rights, both
by states and nationally, we see that the voting rights were limited to White, property-
owning males. These voting rights followed the traditions of the day and show that
then, as today, individual rights are defined by the people and their times.
Think as a Historian: Developoments and Processes, p. 156
1. Identify: This section describes the development of political parties during George
Washington’s terms in office. Explain: Students should identify the two parties (the
Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists).They should also explain the differing
beliefs of each party, such as: “The Democratic-Republicans thought that state
governments should be strong. In contrast, the Federalists believed that the federal
government should be stronger than the states’ governments.”
2. Identify: Students may identify King William’s War, Queen Anne’s War, or King
George’s War. Explain: Students should list the combatants of the war they selected
and explain what the combatants were fighting over. Students may also include the
dates of the war.
3. Identify: This section describes the concept of representation. Explain: Students

should define “representation” as historians use it. Students may also give an example
of representation, such as voting in parliamentary or local elections.
4. Identify: Students may identify the process of passing and protesting new taxes.
Explain: Students should explain what each law required and describe public reaction
to the law. Students may also include the date each law passed.
5. Identify: Students may identify any of these concepts: Deism, rationalism, or the social
contract. Explain: Students should define the term as it relates to this era of history
and described the changes it brought about.

6. Identify: Students should identify the concept of Republican Motherhood. Explain:
Students should not only define the term but should also explain how it changed
people’s view of women at the time.
7. Identify: Students should identify the process of ratifying the U.S. Constitution.
Explain: Students should describe the compromises the different participants made,
including the idea of the Bill of Rights.

Write as a Historian, p. 157
Students should identify key terms, the framework, and the time period.
Key Terms and Framework

Key Terms Evaluate, economic, primary cause
Framework Geographic Area: the 13 colonies and the early United States
Time Period: 1763–1787
Reasoning Process Causation
Questions for Deeper Analysis

• What economic issues faced the colonies and the country before 1787?
• What were possible responses to the problems faced by the colonies and new country?
• Why did people disagree over the best response to economic problems?
• What non-economic factors prompted people to want to write a new constitution in 1787?
Free-Response Questions pp. 158–162
Item Thematic Learning Text

Answer Skill
Number Focus Objective Pages
1 See below. 6.A, B, C, D PCE, WXT, WOR Unit 3: C, D 88, 92–96
2 See below. 6.A, B, C, D NAT, PCE, WXT Unit 3: H, I, J 121, 124–127
3 See below. 6.A, B, C, D PCE, WOR Unit 3: E 100–101,
104–105, 92–96
4 See below. 6.A, B, C, D NAT, PCE Unit 3: F, H, 121, 124–128,
I, J 131–134
5 See below. 6.A, B, C, D NAT, SOC, WOR Unit 3: F, E 107
6 See below. 6.A, B, C, D NAT, SOC Unit 3: H, I 107, 112, 126
Document-Based Question
1 See below. 6.A, 6.B, 6.C, NAT, PCE Unit 3: A, B, 93–95, 100–101
6.D C, D

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paint it again.” Later Greville wrote: “Emma’s picture shall be sent by
the first ship. I wish Romney yet to mend the dog.” The picture is
said to have been lost at sea, on its way back from Naples, but at
Greville’s sale in 1810, the Bacchante—in that case a replica of the
lost canvas—was catalogued as “Diana, original of the well-known
engraved picture,” and bought by Mr. Chamberlayne for 130
guineas.—Mrs. Jordan in the character of “The Country Girl”
(Plate VII.). It was as Peggy in Garrick’s comedy “The Country Girl,”
adapted from Wycherly’s “Country Wife,” that Dorothy Jordan first
appeared at Drury Lane in 1785, and immediately bewitched the
public with the natural, irresistible joyousness of her acting and the
lovable charm of her personality. In the following year she gave
Romney thirteen sittings for this picture. At the first he could not
satisfy himself as to the best pose for her. After many tries she
pretended to be tired of the business, and, jumping up from her
chair, in the hoydenish manner and tone of Peggy, she said, “Well,
I’m a-going.” “Stay!” cried Romney; “that’s just what I want.” And at
once he began to sketch her for this picture. It was bought in 1791
for 70 guineas by the Duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV.,
and thereby, of course, hangs the well-known tale of a twenty years’
love, ten children, and unhappy separation. The print, first published
as The Romp at 5s., may now fetch, if fine in colour, like Major
Coates’s copy, as much as £200.— Hobbinol and Ganderetta
(Plate VIII.). William Somerville’s “Hobbinol” was a mock-heroic
poem on rural games, which Mr. Gosse describes as “ridiculous.”—
Countess of Oxford (Plate IX.). This is in the National Gallery; but
Hoppner exhibited an earlier portrait in 1797. Jane Scott, daughter of
a Hampshire vicar, married, in her twentieth year, the fifth Earl of
Oxford, whom Byron described as “equally contemptible in mind and
body”; but then, she and the poet were lovers when she was forty
and he about twenty-five. “The autumn of a beauty like hers is
preferable to the spring in others,” he said in after years. “I never felt
a stronger passion, which,” he did not forget to add, “she returned
with equal ardour.” It was on Lady Oxford’s notepaper that Byron
wrote his final letter to Lady Caroline Lamb, and this in the very year
in which, it now appears, he revived his boyish passion for Mary
Chaworth.—Viscountess Andover (Plate X.). Eldest daughter of
William Coke, of Holkham, the famous agriculturist, so long M.P. for
Norfolk, and later Earl of Leicester.
St. James’s Park (Plate XIV.). M. Grosley, a Frenchman, describes
this scene in his “Tour of London,” 1772: “Agreeably to this rural
simplicity, most of these cows are driven about noon and evening to
the gate which leads from the park to the quarter of Whitehall. Tied
to posts at the extremity of the grass plots, they swill passengers
with their milk, which, being drawn from their udders upon the spot,
is served, with all the cleanliness peculiar to the English, in little
mugs at the rate of a penny a mug.”—A Tea Garden (Plate XV.).
Bagnigge House had been the country residence of Nell Gwyn, and
in 1757 the then tenant accidentally discovered a chalybeate spring
in his grounds, which two years later he turned to profit. Bagnigge
Wells then developed a tea garden, with arbours, ponds with
fountains and gold-fish, a bun-house, music, and a reputation for the
amorous rendezvous. The place was very popular, and much
favoured, especially on Sundays, by the would-be fashionable wives
of well-to-do city-folk. In the character of “Madam Fussock” Colman
took this off in his prologue to Garrick’s Drury Lane farce, “Bon Ton;
or High Life above Stairs,” 1776.—The Lass of Livingstone (Plate
XVI.). A popular old Scotch song, words by Allan Ramsay. There is
also an older version, “The Bonnie Lass o’ Liviston,” associated with
an actual person who kept a public-house in the parish of
Livingstone.
Lady Cockerell as a Gipsy Woman (Plate XIX.). One of the
beautiful daughters of Sir John and Lady Rushout, whose miniatures
are, perhaps, Plimer’s masterpieces.—Lady Duncannon (Plate
XX.). One of the “Portraits of Four Ladies of Quality,” exhibited by
Downman at the Royal Academy in 1788. There are also colour-
prints of Viscountess Duncannon after Lavinia, Countess Spencer
and Cosway, and, with her more famous sister, Georgiana, Duchess
of Devonshire, after Angelica Kauffman; while they both figure, with
other fashionable beauties, in J. K. Sherwin’s picture “The Finding of
Moses,” also in Rowlandson’s “Vauxhall,” and two prints in which the
same artist celebrated their triumphant share in the Westminster
election of 1784, when it was said that “two such lovely portraits had
never before appeared on a canvass.” The Countess of
Bessborough, as she became, was the mother of Lady Caroline
Lamb. Her distinguished grandson, Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane,
kindly lent the print reproduced here.
Rinaldo and Armida (Plate XXII.). The enchantment of Rinaldo, the
Christian Knight, by Armida, the beautiful Oriental sorceress, in
Tasso’s “Gerusalemme Liberata.” Love and Beauty: Marchioness
of Townshend (Plate XXIV.). One of the three beautiful daughters
of Sir William Montgomery immortalised by Reynolds on the large
canvas now in the National Gallery, called “The Graces decorating a
terminal figure of Hymen.” She married the distinguished general
who finished the battle of Quebec when Wolfe had fallen.
Two Bunches a Penny, Primroses (Plate XXV.). Knives,
Scissors and Razors to Grind (Plate XXVI.). Numbers 1 and 6 of
the Cries of London. The other plates are: 2, Milk below, Maids. 3,
Sweet China Oranges. 4, Do you want any Matches? 5, New
Mackerel. 7, Fresh Gathered Peas. 8, Duke Cherries. 9,
Strawberries. 10, Old Chairs to Mend. 11, A new Love-song. 12,
Hotspice Gingerbread, two plates. 13, Turnips and Carrots. There
are still in existence two or three paintings of similar character by
Wheatley—one depicting a man selling copper kettles—which would
suggest, besides the belated publication of the thirteenth plate, that it
was originally intended to issue a larger number of the “Cries” than
those we know, had the public encouragement warranted it. The
colour-printing of the earliest impressions was superlatively fine, and
in the original pink board-wrappers these are, of course, extremely
rare, and would realize to-day as much as a thousand pounds.
Mrs. Crewe (Plate XXVII.). The famous beauty, Fulke Greville’s
daughter. It was to her house in Lower Grosvenor Street that the
triumphant “true blues”—the Prince of Wales among them—crowded
in the evening to toast Fox’s victory at Westminster. Reynolds has
perpetuated Mrs. Crewe’s rare beauty on three canvasses, and
Sheridan in dedicating to her “The School for Scandal” did reverence
to her mind as well as her features. Fox poetised in her praise, and
Fanny Burney said “She is certainly the most completely a beauty of
any woman I ever saw! She uglifies everything near her.”—The
Dance (Plate XXVIII.). The tradition, lately repeated in book and
periodical, which gives the figures in this print as those of the
Gunning sisters, is obviously absurd. When Bunbury was an infant in
arms the beauty of the Gunnings first took the town by storm; next
year Maria became a countess, Elizabeth a duchess, and, when this
print was done the one had been dead twenty-two years, the other
already widowed and “double duchessed,” as Horace Walpole put it.
—Morning Employments (Plate XXIX.). The name on the
harpsichord should obviously be Jacobus Kirkman; there was no
Thomas. The instrument with the double keyboard is exactly like that
in my own possession, which Dr. Burney selected from Jacob
Kirkman’s shop in 1768. When a fashionable craze for the guitar was
sending the makers of harpsichords and spinets very near to
bankruptcy, Kirkman bought up all his own fine instruments, which
the ladies were practically “giving away” for guitars; then he
purchased a lot of cheap guitars and presented them to milliner’s
girls and street-singers, so that they were twanged everywhere and
became vulgar, the ladies bought harpsichords again, and he made
a large fortune.
Mademoiselle Parisot (Plate XXXVII.). A noted dancer in the
opera ballets at the King’s Theatre in the Haymarket. There is a
beautiful mezzotint of her, dated 1797, by J. R. Smith after A. W.
Devis. This is very rare, and in colours extremely so. Mdlle. Parisot
also figures as one of the three dancers in Gillray’s caricature
“Operatical Reform, or La Danse à l’Evêque,” published in 1798 to
ridicule the Bishop of Durham’s protest against the scanty attire of
the ballet-dancers.—Maria (Plate XXXVIII.). Maria of Moulines, in
Sterne’s “Sentimental Journey.”
MALCOLM C. SALAMAN.
Plate I.
“Jane, Countess of Harrington,
Lord Viscount Petersham and the
Hon. Lincoln Stanhope.”
Stipple-Engraving by F. Bartolozzi, R.A., after
Sir Joshua Reynolds, P.R.A.
(Published 1789. Size 8¾″ × 11⅛″.)
From the collection of Major E. F. Coates, M.P.
Plate II.
“Robinetta.”
Stipple-Engraving by John Jones, after Sir Joshua
Reynolds, P.R.A.
(Published 1787. Size 8⅞″ × 10½″.)
Plate III.
“Master Henry Hoare.”
Stipple-Engraving by C. Wilkin, after Sir Joshua
Reynolds, P.R.A.
(Published 1789. Size 7⅝″ × 9⅝″.)
Plate IV.
“The Duchess of Devonshire and Lady Georgiana Cavendish.”
Mezzotint-Engraving by Geo. Keating, after Sir Joshua
Reynolds, P.R.A.
(Published 1787. Size 15⅞″ × 12¼″.)
From the collection of Frederick Behrens, Esq.
Plate V.
“The Mask.”
Stipple-Engraving by L. Schiavonetti, after Sir Joshua
Reynolds, P.R.A.
(Published 1790. Size 9¼″ × 7⅜″.)
Plate VI.
“Bacchante” (Lady Hamilton).
Stipple-Engraving by C. Knight, after George Romney.
(Published 1797. Size 10½″ × 12⅝″.)
Plate VII.
“Mrs. Jordan in the character of
‘The Country Girl’” (“The Romp”).
Stipple-Engraving by John Ogborne, after George Romney.
(Published 1788. Size 9⅝″ × 12⅛″.)
Plate VIII.
“Hobbinol and Ganderetta.”
Stipple-Engraving by P. W. Tomkins, after
Thos. Gainsborough, R.A.
(Published 1790. Size 14⅛″ × 18¼″.)
From the collection of Basil Dighton, Esq.
Plate IX.
“Countess of Oxford.”
Mezzotint-Engraving by S. W. Reynolds, after J. Hoppner, R.A.
(Published 1799. Size 8-1/ ″ × 10⅛″.)
Plate X.
“Viscountess Andover.”
Stipple-Engraving by C. Wilkin, after J. Hoppner, R.A.
(Published 1797. Size 6⅝″ × 8⅛″.)
Plate XI.
“The Squire’s Door.”
Stipple-Engraving by B. Duterreau, after George Morland.
(Published 1790. Size 12-/4″ × 15⅛″.)
Plate XII.
“The Farmer’s Door.”
Stipple-Engraving by B. Duterreau, after George Morland.
(Published 1790. Size 12¾″ × 15⅛″.)
Plate XIII.
“A Visit to the Boarding School.”
Mezzotint-Engraving by W. Ward, A.R.A., after George Morland.
(Published 1789. Size 21¾″ × 17⅜″.)
Plate XIV.
“St. James’s Park.”
Stipple-Engraving by F. D. Soiron, after George Morland.
(Published 1790. Size 19¾″ × 16″.)
Plate XV.
“A Tea Garden.”
Stipple-Engraving by F. D. Soiron, after George Morland.
(Published 1790. Size 19¾″ × 16″.)
Plate XVI.
“The Lass of Livingstone.”
Stipple-Engraving by T. Gaugain, after George Morland.
(Published 1785. Size 11¾″ × 9¾″.)

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Resource) 4th Edition John J. Newman

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UNIT 1—Period 1: 1491–1607

TOPIC 1.2 Native American Societies before European Contact 1

TOPIC 1.3 European Exploration in the Americans 2

TOPIC 1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest 3

TOPIC 1.6 Cultural Interactions in the Americas 6

TOPIC 1.7 Causation in Period 1 7

Unit 1—Period 1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

UNIT 2—Period 2: 1607–1754

TOPIC 2.2 European Colonization in North America 10

TOPIC 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies 11

TOPIC 2.4 Transatlantic Trade 13

TOPIC 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans 14

TOPIC 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies 14

TOPIC 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture 16

TOPIC 2.8 Comparisons in Period 2 18

Unit 2—Period 2 Review: 1607–1754 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

UNIT 3—Period 3: 1754–1800

TOPIC 3.2 The Seven Years’ War 21

TOPIC 3.3 Taxation Without Representation 22

TOPIC 3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution 23

TOPIC 3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals 26

TOPIC 3.7 The Articles of Confederation 27

TOPIC 3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates Over Ratification 28

TOPIC 3.9 The Constitution 29

TOPIC 3.10 Shaping a New Republic 30

TOPIC 3.11 Developing an American Identity 32

TOPIC 3.12 Movement in the Early Republic 33

Unit 3—Period 3 Review: 1754–1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

UNIT 4—Period 4: 1800–1848

TOPIC 4.3 Politics and Regional Interests 39

TOPIC 4.4 America on the World Stage 39

TOPIC 4.5 Market Revolution 41

TOPIC 4.6 Effects of the Market Revolution on Society and Culture 42

TOPIC 4.7 Expanding Democracy 44

TOPIC 4.8 Jackson and Federal Power 45

TOPIC 4.9 The Development of an American Culture 47

TOPIC 4.10 The Second Great Awakening 48

TOPIC 4.11 An Age of Reform 49

TOPIC 4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic 50

TOPIC 4.13 Southern Society in the Early Republic 51

TOPIC 4.14 Causation in Period 4 53

Unit 4—Period 4 Review: 1800–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

iv UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION ANSWER KEY ©Perfection Learning®

TOPIC 5.2 The Idea of Manifest Destiny 58

TOPIC 5.3 Manifest Destiny and the Mexican–American War 59

TOPIC 5.4 The Compromise of 1850 61

TOPIC 5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences 62

TOPIC 5.6 Failure of Compromise 64

TOPIC 5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession 65

TOPIC 5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War 66

TOPIC 5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War 67