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Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY
SIXTH EDITION
Daniel L. Schacter
Harvard University
Daniel T. Gilbert
Harvard University
Matthew K. Nock
Harvard University
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2022936699
1 2 3 4 5 6 27 26 25 24 23 22
Worth Publishers
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Dedication
We dedicate this sixth edition to Daniel Wegner — collaborator,
colleague, and dear friend. His name has left our cover, but his brilliant
ideas and beautiful words remain in our pages. And in our hearts.
About the Authors
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
Contents
1 The Evolution of Psychological Science
Psychology’s Philosophical Roots
Dualism and Materialism
Realism and Idealism
Empiricism and Nativism
Other Voices | How Should We Judge Historical
Figures?
The Late 1800s: Toward a Science of the Mind
Structuralism: What Is the Mind Like?
Functionalism: What Is the Mind For?
The Early 1900s: Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism
Psychoanalysis: The Mind Does Not Know Itself
Behaviorism: The Mind Does Not Matter
The Early 1900s: Resistance to Behaviorism
Gestalt Psychology and Developmental Psychology
Social Psychology
The Real World | Beneath the Ocean of Memory
The Late 1900s: The Cognitive Revolution
Cognitive Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology
After the Revolution
The Early 2000s: New Frontiers
Neuroscience
Cultural Psychology
A World of Difference | To Have or Have Not
Becoming a Psychologist
Who Becomes a Psychologist?
How Do People Become Psychologists?
2 Methods in Psychology
Empiricism: How to Know Stuff
The Scientific Method
The Art of Looking
A World of Difference | Are Heroes and Sheroes
Divided by Zeroes?
Methods of Observation: Discovering What People Do
Measurement
Description
Methods of Explanation: Discovering Why People Do
What They Do
Correlation
Causation
Hot Science | Hate Posts and Hate Crimes: Not Just a
Correlation
The Real World | The Surprisingly High Likelihood of
Unlikely Coincidences
Drawing Conclusions
Other Voices | Psychology Is Not in Crisis
Thinking Critically about Evidence
We See What We Expect and Want to See
We Don’t Consider What We Don’t See
The Skeptical Stance
The Ethics of Science: Doing What’s Right
Respecting People
Respecting Animals
Respecting Truth
3 Neuroscience and Behavior
Neurons: The Origin of Behavior
Components of the Neuron
Neurons Specialized by Function
Other Voices | Neuromyths
Neurons Specialized by Location
The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons: Information
Processing
Electric Signaling: Conducting Information Inside a
Neuron
Chemical Signaling: Transmission Between Neurons
The Organization of the Nervous System
Divisions of the Nervous System
Components of the Central Nervous System
The Real World | The Power of Thought: Brain–
Computer Interfaces
Structure of the Brain
The Hindbrain
The Midbrain
The Forebrain
The Real World | What the Brain Likes: The Instagram
Effect
Brain Plasticity
A World of Difference | Alzheimer’s Disease and the
Hippocampus: Sex Differences
Genes, Epigenetics, and the Environment
What Are Genes?
A Role for Epigenetics
The Role of Environmental Factors
Investigating the Brain
Studying the Damaged Brain
Studying the Brain’s Electrical Activity
Using Brain Imaging to Study Structure and to Watch
the Brain in Action
Hot Science | Big Brain, Smart Brain?
4 Sensation and Perception
Sensation and Perception Are Distinct Activities
Sensory Energy and Transduction
The Illusion of Perception
Sensory Adaptation
Psychophysics
Measuring Thresholds
Signal Detection
The Real World | Multitasking
Visual Pathways: Connections Between the Eye and the
Brain
Sensing Light
Perceiving Color
The Visual Brain
Visual Perception: Recognizing What We See
Binding Individual Features into a Whole
Recognizing Objects by Sight
Perceiving Depth and Size
Perceiving Motion and Change
A World of Difference | The Experience of Synesthesia
Hearing: More Than Meets the Ear
Sensing Sound
Perceiving Sound Sources
Hearing Loss
Hot Science | Big Technology in Little Ears
The Body Senses: More Than Skin Deep
Sensing Touch
Sensing Pain
Perceiving Pain
Body Position, Movement, and Balance
The Chemical Senses: Adding Flavor
Sense of Smell
Perceiving Smell
Sense of Taste
Perceiving Flavor
Other Voices | A World without Smell and Taste
5 Consciousness
The Mysteries of Consciousness
The Problem of Other Minds
The Mind–Body Problem
The Nature of Consciousness
Four Basic Properties
Levels of Consciousness
Conscious Contents
The Unconscious Mind
Freudian Unconscious
A Modern View of the Cognitive Unconscious
The Unconscious Mind: Smart or Not So Smart?
Sleep and Dreaming: Good Night, Mind
Sleep
Dreams
A World of Difference | Dreaming Blind
Drugs and Consciousness: Artificial Inspiration
Drug Use and Addiction
The Real World | Drugs and the Regulation of
Consciousness
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
Hot Science | Why Is There an Opioid Epidemic and
What Can We Do About It?
Other Voices | A Judge’s Plea for Pot
Hypnosis: Open to Suggestion
Induction and Susceptibility
Hypnotic Effects
6 Memory
What Is Memory?
Encoding: Transforming Perceptions Into Memories
Semantic Encoding
Visual Imagery Encoding
Organizational Encoding
Encoding of Survival-Related Information
Storage: Maintaining Memories Over Time
Sensory Storage
Short-Term Storage and Working Memory
Long-Term Storage
The Hippocampus as Index: Linking Pieces Into One
Memory
Memories, Neurons, and Synapses
Hot Science | Can Sleep Enhance Learning? Yes!
Retrieval: Bringing Memories to Mind
Retrieval Cues: Reinstating the Past
Consequences of Retrieval
Separating the Components of Retrieval
Forms of Long-Term Memory: More Than One Kind
Implicit Memory
Explicit Memory: Semantic and Episodic
A World of Difference | Do We All Reexperience Our
Personal Pasts?
Collaborative Memory: Social Influences on
Remembering
The Real World | Is GPS Hurting Our Memories?
Memory Failures: The Seven “Sins” of Memory
1. Transience
2. Absentmindedness
3. Blocking
4. Memory Misattribution
Other Voices | Memories Inside Out
5. Suggestibility
6. Bias
7. Persistence
Are the Seven “Sins” Vices or Virtues?
Hot Science | Memory Misattribution: When Accurate
Inferences Produce Mistaken Recollections
7 Learning
What Is Learning?
Classical Conditioning: One Thing Leads to Another
The Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Emotional Responses: The Case of Little
Albert
A Deeper Understanding of Classical Conditioning
The Real World | Understanding Drug Overdoses
Operant Conditioning: Reinforcements from the
Environment
The Development of Operant Conditioning: The Law of
Effect
B. F. Skinner: The Role of Reinforcement and
Punishment
The Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
A Deeper Understanding of Operant Conditioning
Hot Science | Dopamine and Reward Learning: From
Parkinson’s Disease to Gambling
Observational Learning: Look at Me
Observational Learning in Humans
Observational Learning in Animals
Neural Elements of Observational Learning
Implicit Learning: Under the Radar
Cognitive Approaches to Implicit Learning
Implicit and Explicit Learning Use Distinct Neural
Pathways
A World of Difference | Cultural Influences on Implicit
Learning
Learning in the Classroom
Techniques for Learning
Testing Aids Attention
Control of Learning
Other Voices | The Dangers of Learning Loss
8 Emotion and Motivation
The Nature of Emotion
The Emotional Mind
The Emotional Body
The Emotional Brain
Other Voices | Glad to be Mad?
Emotional Communication
Communicative Expression
A World of Difference | Say Cheese
Hot Science | The Unhappy Audience Illusion
Deceptive Expression
Lying
The Nature of Motivation
A Little History
The Hedonic Principle
The Motivated Body
Hunger: The Need to Eat
The Real World | Get It While You Can
Sexual Desire: The Need to Mate
The Motivated Mind
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic
Conscious Versus Unconscious
9 Language and Thought
Language and Communication: From Rules to Meaning
The Complex Structure of Human Language
Language Development
Theories of Language Development
The Real World | Exploring the 30-Million-Word Gap
Language and the Brain
Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area of the Brain
Involvement of the Right Cerebral Hemisphere
Bilingualism and the Brain
Can Other Species Learn Human Language?
A World of Difference | Language without Sight: A
Role for Visual Cortex
Language and Thought: How Are They Related?
Language and Color Processing: Differing Results
Was Whorf “Half Right”?
Concepts and Categories: How We Think
Psychological Theories of Concepts and Categories
Concepts, Categories, and the Brain
Decision Making: Rational and Otherwise
The Rational Ideal
The Irrational Reality
Why Do We Make Decision-Making Errors?
Decision Making and the Brain
Hot Science | Aligning Perceived and Actual Risk
During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Problem Solving: Working It Out
Means–Ends Analysis
Analogical Problem Solving
Creativity and Insight
Reasoning: Truth and Validity
Belief Bias
The Illusion of Truth
The Illusion of Explanatory Depth
Other Voices | Using Social Media to Counter the
Spread of Misinformation on Social Media
10 Intelligence
How Can Intelligence Be Measured?
The Intelligence Test
The Real World | Racism and Intelligence Testing
Intelligence Matters
A World of Difference | Equality in Smartland
What Is Intelligence?
A Hierarchy of Abilities
The Middle-Level Abilities
Intelligence Across Cultures
Where Does Intelligence Come From?
Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Gene–Environment Interactions
Hot Science | Brains Wide Open
Who Is Most Intelligent?
Individual Differences in Intelligence
Group Differences in Intelligence
Other Voices | The Pros and Cons of Cognitive
Enhancement
Improving Intelligence
11 Development
Prenatality: A Womb with a View
Prenatal Development
Prenatal Environment
Infancy and Childhood: Perceiving, Doing, and Thinking
Perceptual Development
Motor Development
Cognitive Development
A World of Difference | That’s the Dumbest Thing I
Never Heard!
Other Voices | Shut the Lights Off, Say No More
Infancy and Childhood: Bonding and Helping
Social Development
Moral Development
Adolescence: Minding the Gap
The Protraction of Adolescence
Emerging Sexuality
From Parents to Peers
The Real World | Coming to Terms with Ourselves
Adulthood: Change We Can’t Believe In
Changing Abilities
Changing Goals
Hot Science | There’s No Time Like the Present
Changing Roles
12 Personality
Personality: What It Is and How It Is Measured
Describing and Explaining Personality
Measuring Personality
The Trait Approach: Identifying Patterns of Behavior
Traits as Behavioral Dispositions and Motives
The Search for Core Traits
Traits as Biological Building Blocks
Other Voices | How Accurate Are Personality Tests?
Gender Differences: Biology or Culture?
A World of Difference | Do People of Different Genders
Have Different Personality Traits?
Hot Science | Personality on the Surface
The Psychodynamic Approach: Forces That Lie Beneath
Awareness
The Structure of the Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego
The Humanistic–Existential Approach: Personality as
Choice
Human Needs and Self-Actualization
Personality as Existence
The Social–Cognitive Approach: Personalities in
Situations
Consistency of Personality Across Situations
Personal Constructs: The Key to the Perceiver’s
Personality
Personal Goals and Expectancies Lead to a
Characteristic Style of Behavior
The Real World | Does Your Personality Change
Depending on Who You’re With?
The Self: Personality in the Mirror
Self-Concept
Self-Esteem
13 Social Psychology
Interpersonal Behavior
Aggression
Other Voices | Why Does America Torture Children?
Cooperation
Hot Science | Partners in Crime
Altruism
The Real World | Where Are All the Altruists?
Interpersonal Attraction
Selectivity
Attraction
Relationships
Interpersonal Perception
Stereotyping: The Problem with Category-Based
Inferences
Attribution: The Problem with Target-Based Inferences
A World of Difference | What’s It Like to Be You?
Interpersonal Influence
The Hedonic Motive
The Approval Motive
The Accuracy Motive
14 Stress and Health
Sources of Stress: What Gets to You
Stressful Events
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quick! Take a look and see if ye can sight a sail. [Kanaka shins quickly up
the bole of the coco palm to the top and looks out on all sides of him. The
others rise painfully to their feet and gaze up at him with awakened hope.]
Jimmy—[Suddenly, in a glad voice.] I see um—see sail, Captain.
Cates—[Waving his arms frenziedly.] Sail—ho!
Jimmy—Look plenty like trade schooner, Captain. She no change course
she fetch plenty close by here. She make full sail, she got plenty fella wind
out there, she come quick.
Horne—[Clapping Cates on the back.] Headin’ straight for us, Cates,
d’you hear?
Bartlett—How far d’ye reckon she be?
Jimmy—She’s five, six fella mile, Captain.
Bartlett—Come down. [The Islander slides down. Bartlett exclaims
exultantly.] Didn’t I tell ye? In the nick o’ time. When she makes in close
we’ll go down to the reef and yell and wave at her. They’ll see! The luck’s
with us today! [His eyes fall on the treasure and he starts.] But now—
what’s to do with this chest—the gold?
Horne—[Quickly.] You ain’t going to tell them on the schooner about
it?
Cates—They’d claim to share with us.
Horne—More like they’d steal it and knife us in the bargain. I know the
kind on them schooners.
Bartlett—[Scornfully.] D’ye think I’m cracked? No, we’ll bury it here.
Cates—[Regretfully.] Leave it behind for anyone to find?
Bartlett—We’ll bury it deep, where hell itself won’t find it—and we’ll
make a map o’ this island. [He takes a sheet of paper and a stub of pencil
from his pocket—pointing to the foot of the tree.] Dig a hole here—you,
Horne and Jimmy—and dig it deep. [The two head down and commence to
hollow out the sand with their hands. Bartlett draws on the paper.]
There’s the lagoon—and the reef—and here’s this tree—the only one on the
island—’twould be hard to miss. [To Cates, who is peering over his
shoulder.] And here where the tree is, d’ye see, Cates, I’ll make a cross
where the gold is hid.
Horne—[Over his shoulder, without ceasing his work.] How d’ye know
the lay o’ this island—to find it again?
Bartlett—By the last reckonin’ o’ the Triton’s. It’s writ on a page I
tore from the log-book. And from there we headed due north in the boat,
unless the compass lied—four days—a hundred and fifty miles, I reckon.
[Exultantly.] Oh, all hell’d not stop me from findin’ this place again when I
know the gold’s here. Let us once get home and I’ll fit out a small schooner
the four of us can sail, and we’ll come back here to dig it up. It won’t be
long, I swear to ye!
Horne—[Straightening up.] This deep enough, sir?
Bartlett—It looks to be.
Jimmy—[Who has straightened up and is looking off left—suddenly
points excitedly.] He look, Captain! Cook fella, he look here! Boy he look,
too! They look plenty too much, Captain! [All four stand staring off at
Butler and the boy, whose presence on the island they have forgotten in
their mad excitement.]
Cates—[In stupid dismay.] They’ll know where it’s hid, sir!
Horne—They’ll tell ’em on the schooner!
Cates—[Wildly.] We’ve got to do for ’em, Captain! Gimme your knife,
Jimmy—your knife—— [He stumbles toward the Islander, who pushes him
aside brusquely, looking questioningly toward the Captain.]
Bartlett—[Who has been standing motionless, as if stunned by this
forgotten complication—slowly.] There they be watchin’ us, the sneakin’
dogs! Sit down, an’ they won’t see. [They all squat in the sand.] I was
forgettin’ they was here. [Striking his knee with clenched fist.] We’ve got to
do somethin’ damn quick! That schooner’ll be up soon where they kin sight
her—and they’ll wave and yell then—and she’ll see ’em!
Horne—And good-bye to the gold for us!
Jimmy—[Eagerly.] You say fella word, Captain, me kill um quick. They
no make plenty cry for schooner! They keep damn still plenty too much!
Bartlett—[Looking at the Islander with mad cunning but replying only
to Horne.] Aye, it’s good-bye to the gold, Horne. That scum of a cook—
he’s made a mock o’ us—sayin’ it wasn’t gold when he knew it was—he’ll
tell ’em—he’ll get joy o’ tellin’ ’em!
Horne—And that scrub of a boy—he’s no better. He’ll be in with him
neck and crop.
Cates—[Hoarsely.] Knife ’em—and be done with it—I say!
Bartlett—Or, if they don’t tell the schooner’s skipper it’ll only be
because they’re plannin’ to come back themselves—before we kin—and
dig it up. That cook—there’s somethin’ queer in his mind—somethin’ he
was hidin’—pretendin’ not to believe. What d’ye think, Horne?
Horne—I think—time’s gettin’ short—and talkin’ won’t do no good.
[Insinuatingly.] They’d do for us soon enough if they was able.
Bartlett—Aye, murder was plain in his eyes when he looked at me.
Horne—[Lowering his voice to a whisper.] Tell Jimmy—Captain
Bartlett—is what I say!
Bartlett—It’s agin the law, Silas Horne!
Horne—The law don’t reach to this island.
Bartlett—[Monotonously.] It’s against the law a captain’s sworn to
keep wherever he sails. They ain’t refused duty—nor mutinied.
Horne—Who’ll know they ain’t? They’re trying to steal what’s yours—
that’s worse’n mutiny. [As a final persuasion.] And Jimmy’s a nigger—and
under no laws. And he’s stronger’n you are. You couldn’t stop ’im.
Bartlett—Aye—I couldn’t prevent——
Jimmy—[Eagerly.] I fix um, Captain, they no tell! [Bartlett doesn’t
answer, but stares at the treasure. Horne makes violent motions to Jimmy to
go. The Islander stares at his master’s face. Then, seeming to read the direct
command there, he grunts with satisfaction, and pulling his knife from it’s
sheath, he goes stealthily off left. Cates raises himself on his haunches to
watch the Islander’s movements. Horne and Bartlett sit still in a strained
immobility, their eyes on the chest.]
Cates—[In an excited whisper.] I see ’em! They’re sittin’ with their
backs this way! [A slight pause.] There’s Jimmy. He’s crawlin’ on his hands
behind ’em. They don’t notice—he’s right behind—almost atop o’ them. [A
pause. Cates gives a fiendish grunt.] Ugh! [Butler’s muffled cry comes
from the left.] Right in the middle of the back! The cook’s done! The boy’s
runnin’! [There is a succession of quick screams from the boy, the padding
of feet running toward them, the fall of a body, and the boy’s dying groan.]
Horne—[With satisfaction.] It’s done, sir!
Bartlett—[Slowly.] I spoke no word, remember that, Silas Horne!
Horne—[Cunningly.] Nor me neither, sir. Jimmy took it on himself. If
blame there is—and who’d blame him for it?—it’s on him.
Bartlett—[Gloomily.] I spoke no word! [Jimmy returns noiselessly
from the left.]
Jimmy—[Grinning with savage pride.] I fix um fella plenty, Captain.
They no tell. They no open mouth plenty too much!
Cates—[Maudlinly.] You’re a man, Jimmy—a man with guts to him—
even if you’re a—— [He babbles incoherently.]
Jimmy—[As the Captain does not look at him.] I go climb fella tree,
Captain? I make look for schooner?
Bartlett—[Rousing himself with an effort.] Yes—go up. [The Islander
climbs the tree.]
Horne—[Getting to his feet—eagerly.] Where away, Jimmy?
Jimmy—She come, Captain, she come plenty quick.
Horne—[Looking in the direction Jimmy indicates.] I kin see her tops’ls
from here, sir. Look!
Bartlett—[Getting to his feet—stares out to sea.] Aye! There she be—
and makin’ towards us fast. [In a flash his sombre preoccupation is gone,
and he is commander once more. He puts the anklet in his hand into his
coat pocket—harshly.] Come down out o’ that? They’s work to do. [Jimmy
clambers down.] Did ye leave—them—lyin’ in plain sight on the open
sand?
Jimmy—Yes. I no touch um, Captain.
Bartlett—Then ye’ll touch ’em now. Go, bury ’em, cover ’em up with
sand. And mind ye make a good job o’ it that none’ll see. Jump now!
Jimmy—[Obediently.] I go, Captain. [He hurries off left.]
Bartlett—Down to the reef with ye, Horne! [Giving the prostrate
Cates a kick.] Up out o’ that, Cates! Go with Horne, and when ye see the
schooner hull up, wave to ’em, and yell like mad, d’ye hear?
Horne—Aye, aye, sir!
Bartlett—I’ll stay here and bury the gold. It’s best to be quick about it!
They may turn a spyglass on us when they raise the island from deck! Off
with ye! [He gives Cates another kick.]
Cates—[Groaning.] I’m sick! [Incoherently.] Can’t—report for duty—
this watch. [With a shout.] Water!
Bartlett—[Contemptuously.] Ye dog! Give him a hand, Horne.
Horne—[Putting a hand under his shoulder.] Up, man! We’re to signal
the schooner. There’ll be water on board o’ her—barrels of it!
Cates—[Aroused, scrambles to his feet, violently shaking off Horne’s
hand.] Water aboard o’ her! [His staring eyes catch the schooner’s sails on
the horizon. He breaks into a staggering run and disappears down toward
the beach, right rear, waving his arms wildly and shouting.] Ahoy! Ahoy!
Water! [Horne walks out quickly after him.] [Left alone, Bartlett, after a
quick glance around, sinks on his knees beside the chest and shoves both
hands into it. From the chest comes a metallic clink as he fingers the pieces
in his hands gloatingly.] Ye’re safe now! There’s none to tell left livin’!
He’s dead—damn him!—that lied about ye. And ye’ll rest safe here till I
come back for ye! [In a dreaming tone, his eyes fixed before him in an
ecstatic vision.] No more whalin’ on the dirty seas! Rest to home! Gold!
I’ve been dreamin’ o’ it all my life! Aye—we’ll rest now, Sarah! Your father
be a rich man, Nat and Sue! [Shaking himself—savagely.] Ye fool! What
drivel be ye talkin’? Loosin’ your senses, be ye? Time ye was picked up!
Lucky! [He shoves down the lid and places the chest in the hole. He pushes
the sand in on top of it, whispering hoarsely.] Lay safe, d’ye hear. For I’ll
be back for ye! Aye—in spite of hell I’ll dig ye up again! [The voices of
Horne and Jimmy can be heard from the distance shouting as