Dokumen - Pub Laboratory Manual For Anatomy and Physiology 6th Edition 6 978 1119304142 (151 200)

EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 141
1 2
(a) Clavicle, inferior view
SUPERIOR
Acromion
Acromion
Coracoid Supraspinous
process fossa
Spine Glenoid
Glenoid cavity
cavity
Subscapular fossa
Infraspinous
fossa
Lateral
(axillary) border
Medial (vertebral)
LATERAL border LATERAL
MEDIAL
SUPERIOR SUPERIOR
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3 11
4
9 12
5 Superior 13
angle
10
7
6
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LATERAL MEDIAL
Inferior angle
(b) Scapula, anterior view (c) Scapula, posterior view

(a) Clavicle • coracoid (COR-a-coid) process (c) Scapula, posterior view
• acromial (a-CROHM-ee-al) end • glenoid (GLEN-oid) cavity or fossa • acromion or acromial process
• sternal end • lateral (axillary) border • glenoid cavity
• medial (vertebral) border • infraspinous (in-fra-SPINE-us) fossa
(b) Scapula, anterior view
• subscapular (sub-SCAP-u-lar) fossa • spine of scapula
• acromion (a-CROW-mee-yon) or
• supraspinous (su-pra-SPINE-ous) fossa
acromial process
1 _________________________________ 6 _________________________________ 11 _________________________________
2 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________ 12 _________________________________
3 _________________________________ 8 _________________________________ 13 _________________________________
4 _________________________________ 9 _________________________________
5 _________________________________ 10 _________________________________
FIGURE 10.2 The right pectoral girdle.

142 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
B. The Upper Limb 3. Radius (Lateral Bone of Forearm)

• head—flat, disc-shaped proximal end
The upper limb consists of the humerus, ulna, radius, • radial tuberosity—rough, anterior projection on
carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. Of the 30 bones in medial side just distal to the head
each upper limb, 1 is in the arm, 2 in the forearm, and the • styloid process—slender, pointed projection;
other 27 are in the hand (includes wrist). distal end
1. Humerus (Arm Bone) 4. Shoulder and Elbow Joints

• head—rounded, proximal end The shoulder joint that connects the upper limb to the
• anatomical neck—constriction immediately distal pectoral girdle is formed by the head of the humerus
to head (humeri = shoulder), articulating with the glenoid cavity
• greater tubercle (tuber = swelling)—lateral projec- of the scapula. The elbow joint is formed by the articula-
tion distal to anatomical neck tion of the coronoid process and olecranon process of the
• lesser tubercle—smaller, anterior projection distal to ulna into the coronoid and olecranon fossae of the humerus
anatomical neck and by the trochlea of the humerus with the trochlear notch
• intertubercular sulcus—groove between the two of the ulna. At the elbow joint, the head of the radius articu-
tubercles lates with the capitulum of the humerus and with the radial
• surgical neck—constriction distal to the tubercles; notch of the ulna at the proximal radioulnar joint.
fractured more frequently than anatomical neck
• deltoid tuberosity—raised area on lateral side
between the proximal and distal ends of humerus
Before Going to Lab
• trochlea (trochlea = pulley)—spool-shaped medial
condyle on distal end 1 Label the parts of the humerus in Figure 10.3(a) and (b)
• capitulum (caput = head)—rounded, knob-like and the ulna and radius in Figure 10.4(a) and (b).
condyle lateral to trochlea
• medial epicondyle (epi- = upon)—rough projection
proximal and lateral to trochlea
• lateral epicondyle—rough projection proximal and LAB ACTIVITY 2 The Arm and Forearm
lateral to capitulum; smaller than medial epicondyle
• radial fossa—anterior depression on distal end that 1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figures 10.3
receives the radial head when forearm flexed and 10.4 on disarticulated bones, articulated skeleton, or
• coronoid fossa (corona = crown)—shallow anterior use the search text box to locate these structures in Real
depression on distal end; receives coronoid process Anatomy (Skeletal).
of ulna when forearm flexed 2 Palpate the following bone parts on your own body:
• olecranon fossa (olekranon = tip of the elbow)— medial and lateral epicondyle of the humerus, olecranon
largest depression on posterior, distal end; receives of the ulna, and styloid processes of the radius and ulna.
olecranon process of ulna when forearm flexed 3 Distinguish between the right and left humerus.
• The trochlea and the capitulum are on the anterior
2. Ulna (Medial Bone of Forearm) surface of the distal end of the humerus.
• The olecranon fossa is on the posterior surface of the
• olecranon—large, curved, lip-like projection on distal end of the humerus.
posterior side of proximal end • The head is medially located on the proximal end of
• coronoid process—smaller, curved, lip-like the humerus. ■
projection on anterior side of proximal end; distal to
olecranon
• trochlear notch—deep, curved area between
olecranon and coronoid process where trochlea of
humerus articulates with ulna
• styloid process (stylos = pole; -oid = like)—slender,
pointed projection on distal end
• radial notch—depression on proximal end where
head of radius articulates with ulna
Anatomical neck
Lesser
tubercle
Greater
Greater Head tubercle
tubercle Anatomical
Surgical
Intertubercular neck neck
sulcus (groove)
Scapula
Humerus
Deltoid
tuberosity
(a) Anterior view Body

(shaft)
• anatomical neck Radial
• capitulum (ca-PIT-u-lum) fossa
• coronoid (COR-a-noid) fossa Lateral Olecranon fossa
Coronoid fossa
• deltoid tuberosity epicondyle Lateral
(tu-ber-OS-ity) Capitulum Medial epicondyle epicondyle
Trochlea
• greater tubercle Head Olecranon
Coronoid process
(TU-ber-cul)
Radius Radius
• head
Ulna
• intertubercular (in-ter-tu-BER-
cue-lar) sulcus
• lateral epicondyle Anterior view Posterior view
(epi-CON-dile)
• lesser tubercle
• medial epicondyle
• trochlea
1 ____________________________
2 ____________________________ SUPERIOR SUPERIOR
3 ____________________________ 6
1
2 7
4 ____________________________
3
5 ____________________________ Surgical neck
6 ____________________________
7 ____________________________
8 ____________________________ 8
9 ____________________________
10 ____________________________
11 ____________________________
(b) Posterior view

• lateral epicondyle
• olecranon (o-LEH-cra-non)
fossa
12
Radial fossa
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12 ____________________________ 9 14
4 10 13
5 11
13 ____________________________
LATERAL MEDIAL LATERAL
14 ____________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
FIGURE 10.3 Right humerus.

Olecranon
Trochlear notch
Humerus
Coronoid process
Radial notch Olecranon
fossa
Ulnar tuberosity Capitulum Coronoid fossa Olecranon
Trochlea
Head of radius Coronoid process Head of
radius
Neck of radius Ulnar tuberosity Neck of
Radial tuberosity
radius
Radius
Radius
Ulna
Interosseous
membrane
Head of ulna
Styloid
process
Styloid process of ulna Styloid
of radius Carpals process
of radius
Lateral Medial Lateral
Anterior view Posterior view

(a) Anterior view
• coronoid process
• head of radius
• olecranon (process) SUPERIOR SUPERIOR
• radial notch
• radial tuberosity
4
• styloid (STY-loid) process 5
of radius
6
• styloid process of ulna 1
• trochlear notch (semilunar)
7
2
1 ____________________________
2 ____________________________
3 ____________________________
4 ____________________________
9 10
5 ____________________________
6 ____________________________
7 ____________________________
8 ____________________________
(b) Posterior view LATERAL MEDIAL LATERAL

• radius
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• ulna 8
3
9 ____________________________
10 ____________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
FIGURE 10.4 Right ulna and radius.

5. Carpus (Wrist) to the little finger. The thumb has 2 phalanges, proximal and
distal. Digits II through V each have proximal, middle, and
The carpus is composed of 8 short bones of the wrist, the distal phalanges ( phalanx = closely knit row).
carpal bones, which are lined up to form a proximal and a
distal row of bones. Two of the carpal bones articulate with
the radius, but there is no articulation of the carpal bones
with the ulna. Before Going to Lab
1 Label the bones of the hand in Figure 10.5. For each
6. Metacarpus (Palm of Hand) phalanx, include the Roman numeral.
The metacarpus is composed of 5 metacarpal bones that
make up the palm of the hand. They are numbered as
Roman numerals I to V from the metacarpal of the thumb
LAB ACTIVITY 3 The Hand
(lateral side) to the little finger. The metacarpals articu-
late with the carpals proximally and with the phalanges 1 Identify the bones of the hand in Figure 10.5 on an
distally. articulated hand, articulated skeleton, or use the search
text box to locate these structures in Real Anatomy
7. Phalanges (Fingers) (Skeletal).
The phalanges (phalanx, sing.) make up the fingers or digits. 2 Identify and palpate the bones in Figure 10.5 on
The fingers are also numbered I to V from the thumb ( pollex) yourself. ■
Radius Ulna Ulna Radius

Capitate Lunate
Scaphoid Triquetrum
Trapezium Pisiform
Hamate Carpals
Trapezoid I
I
II III IV V Metacarpals V IV III II
Proximal
Middle Phalanges
Distal
Lateral Lateral
Medial
Palm anterior Palm posterior
I II III IV V
2
• carpals
• distal phalanx (FAY-lanx) V
• metacarpals (meta-CAR-puls)
3 • middle phalanx V
• proximal phalanx V
4
1 _____________________________
5
2 _____________________________
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3 _____________________________
LATERAL MEDIAL
4 _____________________________
Anterior view 5 _____________________________
FIGURE 10.5 Right hand and wrist.

C. Bones and Selected Bone • false pelvis—portion of pelvis superior to pelvic

brim; wide area extending to top of iliac crest
Markings of the Pelvic Girdle • true pelvis—portion of pelvis inferior to pelvic
brim; surrounds the pelvic cavity
The pelvic girdle ( pelvis = basin) is composed of 2 hip • pelvic inlet—superior opening of true pelvis;
(coxal) bones called the ossa coxae (os- = bone; cox- = bordered by pelvic brim
hip) that attach the lower limb to the axial skeleton. Each • pelvic outlet—inferior opening of true pelvis;
os coxa is formed by the fusion of 3 separate bones: the bordered by the coccyx, ischial spines, and ischial
ilium (ilia = flank), ischium (ischion = hip joint), and tuberosities
pubis ( pub- = grown up or adult) bones. These 3 bones
are identifiable as separate bones in children. There are definite anatomical differences between the
male and female pelves (pl.). The bones of the male are
1. Os Coxa typically heavier and rougher, with larger bone markings
than the female. The male pelvis is more vertical and nar-
ilium—largest and most superior of the three components rower, has a pelvic inlet that is heart-shaped, and has a 90°
of os coxa or less pubic arch angle. The female pelvis generally has
• iliac crest—superior border of ilium more space in the true pelvis for childbirth and is tilted
• anterior superior iliac spine—anterior end of iliac backward. The pelvic inlet is round or oval, the angle of
crest the pubic arch is generally greater than 90°, and the angle
• anterior inferior iliac spine—inferior to the anterior of the sciatic notch is wider.
superior iliac spine The pelvic girdle articulates with the axial skeleton at
• posterior superior iliac spine—posterior end of the sacroiliac joints (sacro- = sacrum; iliac = ilium).
iliac crest The sacroiliac joints are located where the articulated ossa
• posterior inferior iliac spine—inferior to the posterior coxae unite posteriorly with the sacrum.
superior iliac spine
• greater sciatic notch—large, posterior notch
• iliac fossa—depression on anterior surface Before Going to Lab
ischium—inferior, posterior portion of os coxa 1 Label the bones and bone markings of an os coxa in
• ischial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on Figure 10.6.
inferior surface; hurts after sitting on hard surface for 2 Label the bones and bone markings of the pelvis in
prolonged period Figure 10.7.
• ischial spine—posterior projection between greater
and lesser sciatic notches
• lesser sciatic notch—smaller indentation between
LAB ACTIVITY 4 Os Coxa and Pelvis
ischial spine and ischial tuberosity
1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figures 10.6 and
pubis—anterior inferior portion of os coxa
10.7 on a disarticulated os coxa, an articulated pelvis, or
• pubic symphysis (symphysis = growing together)—
use the search text box to locate these structures in Real
joint where the two pubic bones join anteriorly
Anatomy (Skeletal).
bone markings formed by ilium, ischium, and pubis 2 Distinguish between the right and left os coxa.
• acetabulum (acetabulum = little saucer)—deep • The iliac crest is on the superior part of the os coxa.
indentation, or cup, for head of the femur; formed by • The ischium is the inferior and posterior part of the
fusion of ilium, pubis, and ischium os coxa.
• obturator foramen—largest foramen in the skeleton; • The pubic bone is on the anterior and medial part of
formed by fusion of pubis and ischium the os coxa.
• The acetabulum is on the lateral part of the os coxa.
2. Pelvis 3 Palpate the iliac crest, the anterior superior iliac spine,
and the pubic symphysis on your own body.
• pelvic brim—divides the false pelvis from the
true pelvis; begins at the sacral promontory and 4 Locate these markings on an articulated pelvis or skeleton.
extends laterally and inferiorly to end at the pubic 5 Identify the differences between male and female pelves
symphysis on models or articulated skeletons. ■
Iliac crest
Anterior superior
Ilium iliac spine
Posterior Anterior inferior

superior iliac spine
iliac spine
Posterior Acetabulum
inferior
iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Ischial spine Pubis

Lesser sciatic notch Obturator foramen
• acetabulum (asa-TAB-u-lum)
Ischial tuberosity
• anterior inferior iliac spine
• anterior superior iliac spine
Ischium • greater sciatic (sigh-A-tic) notch
• iliac crest
• ilium (IL-lee-um)
• ischial (ISH-ee-ul) spine
• ischial tuberosity (tu-ber-OS-ity)
SUPERIOR
• ischium (ISH-ee-um)
• lesser sciatic notch
• obturator (OB-tur-a-tur) foramen
10 • posterior inferior iliac spine
• posterior superior iliac spine
POSTERIOR
• pubis (PYU-bis)
(Bone)
1
1 ______________________________
11 2 ______________________________
2 3 ______________________________
4 ______________________________
3 12
5 ______________________________
4
6 ______________________________
(Bone)
5
13 7 ______________________________
6
8 ______________________________
7
9 ______________________________
10 ______________________________
8 14 11 ______________________________
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(Bone)
9
12 ______________________________
13 ______________________________
Lateral view
14 ______________________________
FIGURE 10.6 Right os coxa.

Ilium Iliac crest

Iliac fossa
False Anterior superior

pelvis iliac spine
Sacrum
Pelvic brim
Ischial spine
Coccyx
Acetabulum
True pelvis Obturator foramen
Ischium Pubic symphysis
Pubis Pubic arch
ANTERIOR
Male pelvis
10
1 6
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11
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(Bone) 12
2
9 13
3
14
7
4
8 (Bone) 15
5
(Bone)
ANTERIOR ANTERIOR
(a) Superior view of female pelvis (b) Superior view of male pelvis
(a) Female pelvis • pelvic brim (b) Male pelvis • sacroiliac (say-crow-ILL-ee-
• false pelvis • pubic symphysis (PYU-bic • coccyx (COCK-six) ac) joint
• iliac crest SYM-fah-sis) • false pelvis • sacrum (SAY-crum)
• ilium • pubis • ischial spine • true pelvis
• ischial spine • true pelvis • pubis
1 _______________________ 5 _______________________ 9 _______________________ 13 _______________________
2 _______________________ 6 _______________________ 10 _______________________ 14 _______________________
3 _______________________ 7 _______________________ 11 _______________________ 15 _______________________
4 _______________________ 8 _______________________ 12 _______________________
FIGURE 10.7 Pelvis.

D. Bones and Selected Bone • medial malleolus—medial process on distal end,

forms medial bump of ankle
Markings of the Lower Limb
The lower limb consists of bones of the femur, patella, 4. Fibula (Leg Bone)
tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and the phalanges. Of The slender fibula is the lateral leg bone that is important
the 30 bones in each lower limb, 4 are in the thigh and leg, for muscle attachment but not for bearing weight. The
and the other 26 are in the foot (including ankle). lateral malleolus is distal and articulates with the talus
laterally.
1. Femur (Thigh Bone)
• head—proximal end
The femur is the largest and strongest bone in the human • lateral malleolus—distal end, forms lateral bump of
skeleton. This bone is bowed anteriorly in a slight curve. ankle
• head—large, rounded, knob-like proximal end
• neck—narrower, constriction distal to head 5. Hip and Knee Joints
• greater trochanter (trochanter = runner)—large The hip or coxal joint is formed by the acetabulum articu-
and roughened superior projection; lateral to neck lating with the head of the femur to form a ball-and-socket
• lesser trochanter—smaller, posterior-medial joint. There is a strong ligament that connects these two
prominence distal to greater trochanter structures deep inside the joint itself.
• medial condyle—rounded, medial process on The knee joint is formed by the articulation of the
posterior surface of distal end medial and lateral condyles of the femur with the medial
• lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on and lateral condyles of the tibia. The patella articulates with
lateral side the condyles of the femur. The fibula does not form part of
• intercondylar fossa—deep fossa between medial the knee joint; however, the head of the fibula articulates
and lateral condyles with the tibia but not the femur.
• medial epicondyle—bump-like projection superior
to medial condyle
Before Going to Lab
• lateral epicondyle—bump-like projection superior
to lateral condyle; a little smaller 1 Label the bones and bone markings of the femur in
• gluteal tuberosity—posterior surface of body of Figure 10.8(a) and (b) and the patella, tibia, and fibula
femur; roughened projection distal to lesser in Figure 10.9(a) and (b).
trochanter
• linea aspera—vertical ridge on posterior surface
LAB ACTIVITY 5 The Thigh and Leg
2. Patella (Kneecap) 1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figures 10.8
and 10.9 on disarticulated bones, an articulated skeleton,
This small, triangular bone has an anterior surface that is
or use the search text box to locate these structures in Real
smoother than the posterior surface. Shallow, irregular-
Anatomy (Skeletal).
shaped articular facets are on the posterior surface and
articulate with the condyles of the femur. 2 Distinguish between the right and left femur.
• The head is on the proximal end and faces medially.
• The medial and lateral condyles are on the anterior
3. Tibia (Leg Bone) surface of the distal end of the femur (the medial
The tibia is the weight-bearing bone of the 2 leg bones and condyle is larger).
is medially located. 3 Distinguish between the right and left tibia.
• The tibial tuberosity is anterior and superior to the
• medial condyle—flattened, expanded medial projec- anterior crest.
tion on proximal end • The medial malleolus is on the medial surface of the
• lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on distal end of the tibia.
lateral surface 4 Palpate these bone markings on your own body: greater
• tibial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on trochanter, medial and lateral epicondyles, patella, head
anterior surface, distal to condyles of the fibula, tibial tuberosity, anterior crest (shin) of the
• anterior border (crest)—slender ridge on anterior tibia, medial malleolus of the tibia, and lateral malleolus
surface; shin of the fibula. ■
Head
Fovea capitis Os coxa

Greater
Greater trochanter
trochanter Head
Neck Greater
Neck trochanter
Intertrochanteric
line crest Gluteal
tuberosity
Lesser trochanter
Lesser trochanter Femur
Linea aspera
Body
(shaft)
Lateral
Lateral Medial epicondyle epicondyle
epicondyle
Intercondylar
Lateral Medial condyle fossa
condyle Lateral
Patella condyle
Fibula
Tibia Fibula
SUPERIOR
• greater trochanter (tro-CAN-ter) 1

• head of femur 2
• lateral condyle (CON-dile)
3
• lateral epicondyle (epi-CON-dile)
• lesser trochanter
4
• linea aspera (LIN-ee-uh ASP-er-uh)
• medial condyle
Gluteal tuberosity
• neck
7
(a) Anterior view
1 ____________________________________
2 ____________________________________
3 ____________________________________
4 ____________________________________
5 ____________________________________
6 ____________________________________
8
(b) Posterior view
5 Intercondylar fossa
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7 ____________________________________ 6 9
8 ____________________________________ MEDIAL
9 ____________________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
FIGURE 10.8 Right femur.

Femur
Intercondylar
eminence
Patella
Lateral
Lateral
Medial condyle condyle
condyle
Head Tibial tuberosity Head
Fibula Tibia
Interosseous
Fibula
membrane
Anterior border
(crest)
Medial malleolus
Lateral Lateral
Talus
malleolus Calcaneus malleolus
SUPERIOR
Intercondylar
eminence
1 5
6
• fibula (FIB-u-la) 2
• head of fibula
• lateral condyle
• lateral malleolus (mal-LAY-e-lus)
• medial condyle Anterior
• medial malleolus border
• tibia (Bone) 3
• tibial tuberosity
7
1 _________________________________ (Bone)
2 _________________________________
3 _________________________________
4 _________________________________
5 _________________________________
8
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6 _________________________________ 4
7 _________________________________ MEDIAL
8 _________________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
FIGURE 10.9 Right tibia, fibula, and patella.

6. Tarsus (Ankle) (hallux) to the little toe. The great toe is made of 2 phalan-
ges (proximal and distal), and digits II to V have 3 bones
The tarsus is composed of 7 tarsal bones of the foot, with each—proximal, middle, and distal phalanges.
2 of them being larger than the rest. The largest tarsal bone
is the calcaneus (calcaneum = heel), also known as the
heel bone. The other large tarsal bone is the talus (talus =
ankle), which articulates with the medial malleolus of the Before Going to Lab
tibia and lateral malleolus of the fibula. 1 Label Figure 10.10(a) and (b). For each phalanx, include
the Roman numeral.
7. Metatarsus
The metatarsus is composed of 5 metatarsal bones (meta- =
after or next) that are analogous to the metacarpals in the LAB ACTIVITY 6 The Foot
hand. They are numbered the same way, I to V, from the
great toe to the little toe. 1 Identify the bones of the foot in Figure 10.10 on an
articulated foot or use the search text box to locate these
structures in Real Anatomy (Skeletal).
8. Phalanges (Toes)
2 Palpate these parts on your own body: lateral malleolus,
The phalanges (toes or digits) are similar to the phalanges calcaneus, and talus. ■
in the hand. The toes are numbered I to V from the great toe
POSTERIOR
Calcaneus MEDIAL
LATERAL
1
Tarsals Talus
2
Navicular
Cuboid 6
Lateral cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Metatarsals Medial cuneiform
Head
V IV III II I
Proximal 7
Phalanges Middle
Distal
3
8
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4
(a) Superior view • phalanges
5
• calcaneus (cal-CANE-ee-us) • proximal phalanx II
• distal phalanx II (FAY-lanx) • talus (TA-lus)
• middle phalanx II • tarsals (TAR-suls)
ANTERIOR
• metatarsals (meta-TAR-suls)
(a) Superior view
1 _______________________ 5 _______________________
2 _______________________ 6 _______________________
3 _______________________ 7 _______________________
4 _______________________ 8 _______________________
FIGURE 10.10 Bones of the right foot.

(b) Lateral view • metatarsals

• calcaneus • phalanges 10
• lateral malleolus of fibula • talus 11
• tibia • tarsals
9 12
9 _______________________ 13 _______________________
10 _______________________ 14 _______________________
11 _______________________ 15 _______________________
12 _______________________
13 14 15
(b) Lateral view
FIGURE 10.10 Bones of the right foot, continued.
• Calculate the diameter of the femur using the follow-

LAB ACTIVITY 7 Assembly of a Complete ing equation.
Disarticulated Skeleton Circumference (cm)
Diameter (cm) =
1 Obtain a disarticulated skeleton from your instructor. 3.14
2 With your lab partners, assemble the skeleton. Record your value in Table 10.2.
3 Have your instructor check it to see that you have • Males have a diameter greater than 4.5 cm (45 mm)
assembled it properly. ■ and females have a diameter less than 4.3 cm
(43 mm).1 Record gender in Table 10.2.
2 Estimating height:
• Measure the longest possible length of the femur in
LAB ACTIVITY 8 Determining Gender cm. Record your values in Table 10.2.
and Height Using • Use the appropriate equation for each bone (male or
female) to estimate height in cm.2 Record your value
Femur Measurements
in Table 10.2.
1 Determining gender: The diameter of the head of a
Male: Height (cm) =
femur is a very accurate way of determining gender.
(1.88 × length of femur in cm) + 81.306
• Use a femur from a disarticulated or articulated
Female: Height (cm) =
skeleton.
(1.945 × length of femur in cm) + 72.844
• Use a tape measure to measure in cm the circumfer-
ence of the head of the femur. Record your value in • To convert height in cm to height in inches,
Table 10.2. divide height in cm by 2.54. Record your value in
Table 10.2. ■
TA B L E 1 0 . 2 Determining Gender and Height from a Femur

E S T I M AT I N G G E N D E R E S T I M AT I N G H E I G H T
Femur circumference (cm) Femur length (cm)
Femur diameter (cm) Height (cm)
Gender Height (in)
1
Institute for Algorithmic Medicine. The Medical Algorithms Project. Chapter 38: Forensic Medicine; Determination of Gender from Physical Remains;
Determination of Gender of Measurement of the Femur. www.medal.org (accessed September 27, 2007).
2
Institute for Algorithmic Medicine. The Medical Algorithms Project. Chapter 38: Forensic Medicine; Estimation of Body Height from Physical Remains;
Pearson’s Formulas for Estimating Adult Body Height from Length of Long Bones. www.medal.org (accessed September 27, 2007).
• Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height

LAB ACTIVITY 9 Estimating Your Height in inches.3 Record your value in Table 10.3.
from Bone Length
Males: Height (in) =
1 Estimate your height from length of radius: (length of humerus in inches × 2.9) + 27.8
• With the hand in anatomical position, palpate the Females: Height (in) =
lateral epicondyle of your humerus and then move (length of humerus in inches × 2.8) + 28.1
your hand just a little distally to the head of the
radius. Slowly pronate and supinate your forearm 3 Measure your height in inches and record the value in
to feel the rotation of the disc-shaped head of the Table 10.3.
radius. To find the styloid process of the radius, 4 Compare the calculated and measured values. ■
palpate the lateral side of your wrist.
• Measure the length of the radius in inches from the
head to the styloid process. Record the value in TA B L E 1 0 . 3 Estimating
Table 10.3. Your Height from Bone Length
• Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height RADIUS
in inches.3 Record the value in Table 10.3.
Males: Height (in) = Length of radius (in)
(length of radius in inches × 3.3) + 34 Calculated height (in)
Females: Height (in) =
(length of radius in inches × 3.3) + 32 Measured height (in)
2 Estimate your height from length of humerus:

HUMERUS
• Palpate the head of your humerus as you rotate your
arm in the shoulder socket. Then locate the medial Length of humerus (in)
epicondyle by palpating this “bump” just above the
elbow hinge. Calculated height (in)
• Measure the length of the humerus in inches from
the head of the humerus to the medial epicondyle. Measured height (in)
3
Scientific American Frontiers, “Science Safari Teaching Guide: The
First People,” Scientific American Frontiers Archives (Fall 1990 to Spring
2000). www.pbs.org/safarchive/4_class/45_pguides/pguide_702/4572_
firstpeople.html (accessed September 27, 2007).
Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________
Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder)

10
Fill in the blank with the correct term.
______________________ 1. The acromion (process) articulates with what bone?
______________________ 2. Is the clavicle anterior or posterior compared to the scapula?
______________________ 3. The clavicle articulates medially with which bone?
______________________ 4. The humerus articulates with what bone marking of the scapula?
______________________ 5. Is the subscapular fossa located anterior or posterior to the supraspinatus and infraspinatus
fossae?
______________________ 6. Name the two bones that make up the pectoral girdle.
B. Upper Limb
______________________ 1. What part of the radius articulates with the humerus?
______________________ 2. What part of the ulna fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus?
______________________ 3. The coronoid process articulates with what depression on the distal end of the humerus?
______________________ 4. Is the ulna medial or lateral compared with the radius?
______________________ 5. What are the bones called that make up the fingers?
______________________ 6. What are the bones called that make up the palm of the hand?
______________________ 7. What is the name of the lateral condyle on the humerus?
______________________ 8. What is the name of the medial condyle on the humerus?
______________________ 9. What is the name of the slender, pointed projection on the distal end of the radius?
______________________ 10. What is the name of the slender, pointed projection on the distal end of the ulna?
155
C. Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis

______________________ 1. When you put your hands on your hips, which bone marking of each os coxa are you
touching?
______________________ 2. With your hands on your hips, you can feel a point of the pelvis protruding out anteriorly
just above your thigh. Name this bone marking.
______________________ 3. Name the 2 bones that form the pelvic girdle.
______________________ 4. What prominent bone marking on each os coxa do you sit on?
______________________ 5. Name the bones of the ossa coxae that articulate anteriorly.
______________________ 6. The female pelvis has smoother bone markings than the male. True or False?
______________________ 7. Name the anterior joint between pubic bones.
______________________ 8. Deep indentation formed by fusion of ilium, ischium, and pubis.
______________________ 9. Largest foramen in the skeleton.
______________________ 10. The pelvic outlet is larger in females. True or False?
D. Lower Limb
______________________ 1. Is the fibula medial or lateral to the tibia?
______________________ 2. What is the correct term for the process at the distal end of the tibia that forms the medial
bump of the ankle?
______________________ 3. What is the heaviest and strongest bone of the leg (not thigh)?
______________________ 4. Name the thigh bone.
______________________ 5. The fibula is a weight-bearing bone. True or False?
______________________ 6. Name the tarsal bone that articulates with the tibia.
______________________ 7. Name the heel bone.
______________________ 8. Name the bones of the foot that are analagous to the metacarpals.
______________________ 9. Bone marking that is commonly called the shin.
______________________ 10. Bone that is commonly called the kneecap.
______________________ 11. Processes on the femur and tibia that form the knee joint.
______________________ 12. Name of the bone marking of the femur that articulates with the pelvic girdle.
______________________ 13. Does the fibula form part of the knee joint?
______________________ 14. Name the phalanges in the great toe.
______________________ 15. The number of metatarsal bones.

E. Bones and Bone Markings

of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
Identify the bones and bone markings in Figure 10.11.
10 (bone)
1. ___________________________________
1
11
2 12 2. ___________________________________
3
4
3. ___________________________________
4. ___________________________________
13 5. ___________________________________
6. ___________________________________
7. ___________________________________
8. ___________________________________
9. ___________________________________
(bone) 5 10. ___________________________________
11. ___________________________________
12. ___________________________________
14
6
13. ___________________________________
15
7 16
14. ___________________________________
15. ___________________________________
16. ___________________________________
17. ___________________________________
18. ___________________________________
17 (bone) 19. ___________________________________
20. ___________________________________
(bone) 8
9
18 (group of bones)
19 (group of bones)
20 (group of bones)
Anterior view
FIGURE 10.11
F. Bones and Bone Markings

of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
Identify the bones and bone markings in Figure 10.12.
1
1. ___________________________________
(bone) 2
2. ___________________________________
3 3. ___________________________________
4
5 13 (bone) 4. ___________________________________
14 (bone)
5. ___________________________________
6. ___________________________________
7. ___________________________________
8. ___________________________________
(bone) 6
9. ___________________________________
10. ___________________________________
11. ___________________________________
12. ___________________________________
13. ___________________________________
7 15 (bone)
8 14. ___________________________________
9 16
17 15. ___________________________________
10
16. ___________________________________
17. ___________________________________
(bone) 11 18. ___________________________________
18 19. ___________________________________
20. ___________________________________
21. ___________________________________
19
22. ___________________________________
12
20 (group of bones)
21 (group of bones)
22 (group of bones)
Anterior view
FIGURE 10.12 Pelvic girdle and lower limb.

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section
______________________________
EXERC ISE
Using Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Upper Limb
10
Identify the bones and bone markings of the upper limb as shown in Figure 10.13(a), (b), and (c).
1 2 3 4
© Robert Destefano/Alamy
Science Source
5 6 7 8 9
5 _______________________ (bone)
1 _______________________ (bone
Science Source
marking) 6 _______________________ (bone)
2 _______________________ (bone 7 _______________________ (bone)
marking)
8 _______________________ (bone 10 11
3 _______________________ (bone marking)
marking)
10 _____________________ (bone
9 _______________________ (bone marking)
4 _______________________ (bone) marking)
FIGURE 10.13a Radiograph 11 _____________________ (bone)
FIGURE 10.13b Radiograph of
of the shoulder joint, posterior the elbow joint. 12 _____________________
view.
Draw a band on the specific bone
where the wedding ring is worn.
13 _____________________
Name the bone the ring is on.
FIGURE 10.13c Radiograph of

the left hand.
159
B. Lower Limb
17
Kevin Dodge/Masterfile
18
19
14 15 16
14 ____________________________________ (bone marking)
15 ____________________________________ (bone marking)
16 ____________________________________ (bone marking)
20
Science Source
FIGURE 10.14a Surface anatomy of the upper limb

and pectoral girdle.
17 ____________________________________ (bone marking)
18 ____________________________________ (bone)
19 ____________________________________ (bone marking)
20 ____________________________________ (bone marking)
FIGURE 10.14b Surface anatomy of the hip and

lower limb.
EXERCISE 11 JOINTS AND SYNOVIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS 161
E X E R C I S E
Joints and Synovial

Joint Movements 11
O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S
1 Describe the 3 major structural categories • articulated skeleton or Real Anatomy (Skeletal)
of joints and give examples of each • Dissection: whole and longitudinally cut fresh,
2 Distinguish between the 3 major functional frozen, or glycerinated mammalian synovial joint,
categories of joints and give an example of each dissection equipment, disposable gloves, safety
3 Describe the basic structure of a typical synovial glasses
joint • model or chart of a knee joint or Real Anatomy
4 Describe the structure of the knee joint (Arthrology)
5 List 6 different types of synovial joints and give

an example of each
6 Describe the types of movements of synovial
joints and demonstrate them
A joint or articulation (articulare = to divide

into joints) connects a bone with another bone,
cartilage, or tooth. Joints are commonly classi-
fied according to their structure and function.
Fibrous joints have dense fibrous connective tis-
sue with strong collagen fibers that hold the joints firmly
together with no synovial cavity. This type of joint permits
little to no movement. Examples are the skull joints, teeth
sockets, and the distal joint between the tibia and fibula.
Cartilaginous joints have either hyaline cartilage or
fibrocartilage connecting the bones with no synovial cavity.
A. Structural and Functional Usually, there is a small degree of movement with this type
Classification of Joints of joint. Examples are the intervertebral joints, the pubic
symphysis, and the joint between the manubrium and body
The structural classification of joints depends on the type of the sternum. Synovial joints (syn- = together; ovum =
of connective tissue forming the joint and on whether or egg) have a small synovial cavity (space) between the two
not there is a space or synovial cavity between the bones. bones that permits a greater amount of movement than
161
162 EXERCISE 11 JOINTS AND SYNOVIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS
fibrous or cartilaginous joints. The term synovial comes the fibrous joints, such as sutures and teeth sockets, are
from the synovial fluid present in the synovial cavity that immovable joints. However, the fibrous tibiofibular joint
resembles the albumin of an uncooked egg, only more vis- is a slightly movable joint. Most of the cartilaginous joints
cous. Dense fibrous connective tissue on the exterior of the are slightly movable joints, such as the intervertebral discs
joint holds the bones together. The majority of the joints and the pubic symphysis. The cartilaginous epiphyseal
in the human body are synovial joints—for example, the plates of long bones, however, are immovable joints. All
shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints. synovial joints are diarthroses.
The functional classification of joints is made on the
basis of the amount of movement the joint allows. Immov-
able joints or synarthroses (syn- = union; arthro- = joint) Before Going to Lab
include the sutures between the skull bones and the teeth
sockets. Intervertebral joints, the tibiofibular joint, (the joint 1 Label the structural and functional category of each
between the manubrium and the body of the sternum), and joint in Figure 11.1 (two answers for each joint).
the pubic symphysis are examples of slightly movable
joints or amphiarthroses (amphi- = on both sides). Most
of the joints in the body, about 90%, are freely movable
joints, or diarthroses (di- = apart; away from). LAB ACTIVITY 1 Structural Classification
As you can see from the description of structural and of Joints
functional joints, there are similarities in the amount of
movement and certain types of structural joints. Most of 1 Identify the joints in Figure 11.1 on an articulated
skeleton.
2 Point out these joints and palpate the ones you can on
your own body. ■
1 8
• amphiarthrosis (amphi-ar-THROW-sis)
• cartilaginous (car-tih-LA-jih-nous) joint
• diarthrosis (die-ar-THROW-sis)
• fibrous joint
2 • synarthrosis (syn-ar-THROW-sis)
• synovial (sih-NO-vee-ul) joint
9 1 ___________________________________________
3
2 ___________________________________________
4
3 ___________________________________________
4 ___________________________________________
5 ___________________________________________
10
6 ___________________________________________
7 ___________________________________________
8 ___________________________________________
5 11 9 ___________________________________________
10 ___________________________________________
(a) Anterior view (b) Tooth in alveolus 11 ___________________________________________
FIGURE 11.1 Structural classification of joints.

B. Basic Structure Frontal

of Synovial Joints plane
Although synovial joints vary in structure, they have several

common features as seen in Figure 11.2(a).
Periosteum
• synovial cavity—small space between the two Articular (joint)

capsule:
articulating bones Fibrous
Articulating
• articular cartilage—hyaline cartilage covering the bone membrane
ends of the bones in the synovial cavity Synovial
• articular capsule—structure that encloses the membrane
synovial joint and synovial cavity; has two layers:
the fibrous membrane and synovial membrane
• fibrous membrane—outer dense fibrous connective Articular
cartilage
tissue layer of the articular capsule that is continuous
with the periosteum of the bone; also forms ligaments
when fibrous bundles are parallel
• synovial membrane—inner layer of the articular Articulating
capsule; composed of areolar connective tissue bone
containing elastic fibers and adipocytes Synovial (joint)
• synovial fluid—secreted by the synovial membrane; cavity (contains
synovial fluid)
lubricates the articular cartilages to reduce friction
(a) Frontal section
Before Going to Lab

1 Label the simple synovial joint in Figure 11.2b.
• articular (ar-TIH-ku-lar) bone

• articular capsule 1
• articular cartilage
• fibrous membrane Periosteum
• synovial cavity (contains synovial fluid)
2 5
• synovial membrane
4
3 6
1 _____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________
Mark Nielsen
3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________ (b) Frontal section
FIGURE 11.2 Typical synovial joint.

5 _____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________
• lateral (fibular) collateral ligament—extracapsular

SAFETY NOTE: If you are using fresh or frozen joints, wear
ligament; adds strength to joint laterally
protective gloves. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and
• anterior cruciate ligament (cruci- = cross) or
water after the dissection.
ACL—intracapsular ligament; attaches the femur
and tibia anteriorly
• posterior cruciate ligament or PCL—intracapsular
LAB ACTIVITY 2 Typical Synovial Joint ligament; stabilizes joint posteriorly
and Dissection • patellar ligament—extension of tendon from
quadriceps muscle; connects patella to tibial
1 Dissect a whole synovial joint following the dissection
tuberosity and stabilizes the joint anteriorly
instructions.
• infrapatellar fat pad (infra- = beneath)—cushion
• After placing your synovial joint in a dissecting tray,
between patellar ligament and synovial capsule
observe the external white articular capsule that
• bursa—reduces friction; 13 bursae in knee
holds the bones together. Note that the articular
capsule is continuous with the periosteum of the bone.
• Using a scalpel, cut open the joint capsule. Feel the
slippery synovial fluid between your fingers. Before Going to Lab
• Try to detect the difference between the outer
1 Label the parts of the knee joint in Figure 11.3(a).
fibrous membrane layer and the inner synovial
membrane layer of the articular capsule.
• Note the synovial cavity or space between the
articular bones.
• Observe the ends of the joint bones for the articular LAB ACTIVITY 3 The Knee Joint
cartilage. Cut out a small piece of hyaline cartilage 1 Identify knee joint structures in Figures 11.3(a)–(c) on a
to observe its thickness. model or chart of the knee or use the search text box in
2 Clean up as directed by your instructor. ■ Real Anatomy (Arthrology) to find these structures.
2 In Figure 11.3(d), locate the suprapatella bursa, pre-
patellar bursa, infrapatellar bursa, and infrapatellar fat
pad. ■
C. The Knee Joint
The knee joint is specifically studied here because it has the
distinction of being the most complex and highly stressed • articular cartilage of femur
joint, as well as being the location of many joint injuries. • anterior cruciate (KRU-she-ate) ligament
The knee joint is classified as a hinge joint, but when flexed • lateral (fibular) collateral ligament
it also demonstrates gliding and rotation movements. • lateral meniscus (meh-NIS-cus)
• medial (tibial) collateral ligament
In addition to the common joint features, the knee joint
• medial meniscus
also has the following accessory structures. • posterior cruciate ligament
Accessory structures of knee joint: 1 _____________________________________________________

• medial meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions
knee joint 2 _____________________________________________________
• lateral meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions 3 _____________________________________________________
knee joint
• medial (tibial) collateral ligament—extracapsular 4 _____________________________________________________
ligament; adds strength to joint medially
5 _____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________
7 _____________________________________________________
Femur
4
1 Articular
5 cartilage Anterior
2
cruciate
3 6 ligament (ACL)
Posterior
Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

cruciate
7 ligament (PCL) Fibular
collateral
Transverse Tibial ligament
ligament of collateral
the knee ligament Lateral
meniscus
Medial
meniscus Posterior ligament
of head of fibula
Oblique
Fibula popliteal
ligament (cut)
Tibia Fibula
Tibia
MEDIAL LATERAL
LATERAL MEDIAL
(a) Anterior deep view (b) Posterior deep view
Tendon of
quadriceps
Femur femoris Femur
muscle
Suprapatellar
Synovial Sagittal bursa
membrane plane Patella

Patella Articular
Articular cartilage
cartilage Prepatellar
Articular bursa
Lateral
capsule (cut) Infrapatellar
meniscus
fat pad
Fibular Patellar Patellar
collateral ligament ligament
ligament
Infrapatellar
bursa
Medial meniscus
Fibula Periosteum Tibia

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
(c) Lateral deep view (d) Sagittal section
FIGURE 11.3 Knee joint.

D. Types of Movement Before Going to Lab

at Synovial Joints 1 Label the movements illustrated in Figures 11.4–11.8.
Skeletal muscle contraction causes bone movement at

synovial joints. Professionals in kinesiology and physical LAB ACTIVITY 4 Types of Movement
therapy use particular terms to describe the movements of at Synovial Joints
these joints. Many movements are grouped to demonstrate
opposite movements. The four main categories of synovial 1 Demonstrate each movement in Figures 11.4–11.8 with
joint movements are gliding, angular, rotation, and special a partner(s).
movements (Table 11.1). 2 Use an articulated skeleton to demonstrate each move-
ment. During pronation, observe the radius crossing
over the ulna.
3 Pronate forearm to feel the radius crossing over the
ulna. ■
TA B L E 1 1 . 1 Types of Movement at Synovial Joints

MOVEMENT DESCRIPTION
A. GLIDING Nearly flat bone surfaces slide or glide over each other.
B. ANGULAR
Flexion (flex- = to bend) Decrease in the angle between bones of a joint; usually occurs on a
sagittal plane.
Extension (exten- = to stretch out) Increase in the angle between bones of a joint; restore to anatomical
position.
Hyperextension (hyper- = excessive) Excessive extension movement beyond normal anatomical position.
Abduction (ab- = away; duct- = to lead) Move appendage away from the midline.
Adduction (ad- = toward) Move appendage toward midline.
Circumduction (circ- = circle) Move a distal part of an appendage in a circle.
C. ROTATION (rota- = revolve) Turn on a pivot with a circle.
D. SPECIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS

Elevation Upward movement raising body part vertically.
Depression Downward movement lowering body part vertically.
Protraction (pro- = in front of; Move a body part forward or anterior on a horizontal plane.
trahere = to draw)
Retraction (retractare = to draw back) Move a body part backward or posterior.
Supination (supine = lying on the back) Turn palm of the hand to face forward, or, if arm is outstretched,
turn palm upward.
Pronation (pronate = lying face downward) Turn palm of the hand to face backward, or, if arm is outstretched,
turn palm downward.
Inversion Turn the sole of the foot inward.
Eversion Turn the sole of the foot outward.
Dorsiflexion Point your toes upward; stand on your heels.
Plantar flexion Point your toes downward; raise your heels.
3
1 7
4 6
8
John Wilson White
John Wilson White
John Wilson White

5
(a) Atlanto-occipital and cervical (b) Shoulder joint (c) Elbow joint
intervertebral joints
9
14 16
12
10
13
John Wilson White
John Wilson White
John Wilson White

15
11
(d) Wrist joint (e) Hip joint (f) Knee joint
• extension
• flexion
• hyperextension
(a) (b) (c)
1 _________________________________ 4 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________
2 _________________________________ 5 _________________________________ 8 _________________________________
3 _________________________________ 6 _________________________________
(d) (e) (f)
9 _________________________________ 12 _________________________________ 15 _________________________________
10 _________________________________ 13 _________________________________ 16 _________________________________
11 _________________________________ 14 _________________________________
FIGURE 11.4 Angular joint movements of flexion, extension, and hyperextension.

Lateral Medial
John Wilson White
John Wilson White

2
John Wilson White
3 4 5
(a) Shoulder joint (b) Hip joint (c) Right wrist joint
John Wilson White

6
John Wilson White
John Wilson White
9 10
7
(f) Metacarpophalangeal joints of the fingers
(d) Shoulder joint (e) Hip joint (not the thumb)
• abduction (ab-DUK-shun)
• adduction (ad-DUK-shun)
• circumduction (sir-cum-DUC-shun)
(a) (b) (c)
1 _________________________________ 3 _________________________________ 4 _________________________________
2 _________________________________ 5 _________________________________
(d) (e) (f)
6 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________ 9 _________________________________
8 _________________________________ 10 _________________________________
FIGURE 11.5 Angular joint movements of abduction, adduction, and circumduction.

• lateral rotation
1 • medial rotation
• rotation
1 __________________________________________
2 __________________________________________
3 __________________________________________
John Wilson White
John Wilson White

2 3
(a) Atlanto-axial joint (b) Shoulder joint
FIGURE 11.6 Joint movements of rotation.

John Wilson White
John Wilson White
John Wilson White
John Wilson White

3
4
1 2
(a) Temporomandibular joint (b) (c) Temporomandibular joint (d)
Palm Palm • depression 1 __________________________________

posterior anterior • elevation
• pronation (pro-NAY-shun) 2 __________________________________
• protraction (pro-TRAC-shun)
• retraction (re-TRAC-shun) 3 __________________________________
John Wilson White
• supination (soup-in-NAY-shun)
4 __________________________________
5 __________________________________
5 6 6 __________________________________
(e) Radioulnar joint
FIGURE 11.7 Special joint movements.
1 2 3
John Wilson White
John Wilson White
John Wilson White
(a) Intertarsal joint (b) (c) Ankle joint
• dorsiflexion 1 __________________________________ 3 __________________________________

• eversion
• inversion 2 __________________________________ 4 __________________________________
• plantar flexion
FIGURE 11.8 Special joint movements of the foot.

TA B L E 1 1 . 2 Types of Synovial Joints

NAME OF JOINT A R T I C U L A R S U R FA C E D E S C R I P T I O N MOVEMENT
Planar (gliding) Flat or slightly curved plane Gliding motion back and forth and/or side to side
Hinge Convex bone surface articulates with a Flexion and extension
concave bone surface
Pivot Rounded or pointed projection articulates Rotation
with ring formed by bone and ligament
Condyloid Oval convex projection articulates Flexion and extension, abduction and adduction,
with oval concave depression circumduction
Saddle Saddle-shaped depression articulates with Same as condyloid joint, except more exaggerated
projection that fits into the saddle
Ball-and-socket Ball-shaped head articulates with cup-shaped Freely movable joint; flexion and extension;
socket abduction and adduction; circumduction;
rotation
E. Six Types • Pivot joint—feel the proximal part of your forearm

until you locate the head of the radius. Rotate the
of Synovial Joints radioulnar joint as you palpate this rotation movement.
• Condyloid joint—feel the joint between the 2nd
There are 6 types of synovial joints based on the structure metacarpal and the 2nd proximal phalanx. Extend
of the articulating bone surfaces at the joints (Table 11.2). and flex, abduct and adduct, and circumduct this
The joint structure determines the movement of the joint. joint.
• Saddle joint—the thumb joint is the only saddle
joint in the body. Feel the movement of trapezium
LAB ACTIVITY 5 Palpation of Synovial bone (carpal bone) with the 1st metacarpal as you
Joint Movements move this joint on two different axes.
• Ball-and-socket joint—feel your shoulder joint as
1 Palpate the following synovial joints on your body and you move your arm in different motions. Make a full
use an articulated skeleton to observe the structure of circle with your shoulder joint.
the joint.
• Planar joint (gliding)—flex your arm up and feel 2 Identify the joints listed above on an articulated skele-
the gliding movement at the acromioclavicular joint. ton and note the shape of the articulating surfaces. Refer
• Hinge joint—flex and extend your elbow and your to Table 11.2.
knee as you feel this joint type. Note how this joint 3 Identify the bones involved in these joints with your lab
type only moves by flexion and extension. group. ■
A. Structural and Functional Classification of Joints

11
Fill in the blank with the most appropriate term: cartilaginous, fibrous, synovial, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis, or
synarthrosis.
______________________ 1. Functional category that has the greatest amount of movement.
______________________ 2. Functional category that has the least amount of movement.
______________________ 3. Functional category that is slightly movable.
______________________ 4. Structural category that has an articular (joint) capsule.
______________________ 5. Structural category that has cartilage joining the ends of the articulating bones.
______________________ 6. Structural category with a joint cavity.
______________________ 7. Structural category that is tightly held together by fibrous connective tissue.
B. Basic Structure of Synovial Joints

Fill in the blank with the correct answer.
______________________ 1. Name the type of cartilage that covers the articular ends of bones.
______________________ 2. Name the fluid that lubricates, reduces friction, and gives nutrition to a joint.
______________________ 3. Name the tissue at the end of a bone that reduces friction in a joint.
______________________ 4. Identify the sac-like structure in a synovial joint that is sometimes present to reduce friction.
______________________ 5. Identify the structure that secretes synovial fluid.
171
C. Types of Synovial Joints

There are six different types of synovial joints. Fill in the blank with the correct type.
______________________ 1. The type of synovial joint between the atlas and axis.
______________________ 2. The type of synovial joint between the humerus head and the glenoid cavity at
the shoulder (between scapula and humerus).
______________________ 3. The type of synovial joint at the knee.
______________________ 4. The type of synovial joint between the scapula and clavicle.
______________________ 5. The type of synovial joint between the trapezium (carpal bone) and the 1st metacarpal.
______________________ 6. The type of synovial joint between the metacarpal and proximal phalanx.
D. Movement at Synovial Joints

Fill in the blank with the correct term for the type of movement of the synovial joint.
______________________ 1. Moves appendage toward the midline
______________________ 2. Increases the angle of a joint
______________________ 3. Downward movement, lowering the body part vertically
______________________ 4. Palm of hand faces forward or upward
______________________ 5. Pointing toes downward; raising the heel, on your tiptoes
______________________ 6. Decreases the angle of a joint
______________________ 7. Moves an appendage away from the midline
______________________ 8. Turns on a pivot with a circular motion
______________________ 9. Movement that raises mandible
______________________ 10. Move body part forward along horizontal plane
______________________ 11. Turn sole of foot inward

______________________________
EXERC ISE
A. Synovial Joints
11
Identify the synovial joint structures of the synovial joint in Figure 11.9(a), (b), and (c).
SUPERIOR
LATERAL MEDIAL
Frontal
plane Acromion
of scapula Supraspinatus 1 ________________________
muscle
1 2 ________________________
(space) 2 Scapula
3 ________________________
Subscapularis
muscle
Mark Nielsen
3
INFERIOR
(a) Right shoulder joint, frontal section
SUPERIOR
Articular (joint)
5
capsule
Trochlea
Subcutaneous
of humerus 4 ________________________
Sagittal
plane bursa
Articular 5 ________________________
4 capsule
Ulna Head of
Mark Nielsen
radius
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
INFERIOR
(b) Right elbow joint, frontal section
FIGURE 11.9 Synovial joints.
173
Frontal
plane
9 (bone)
(bone marking) 6
Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen 10 (bone marking)

(space) 7
Acetabular labrum
Ligament of the head
of the femur
(bone marking) 8
Articular capsule
Subcutaneous fat
LATERAL MEDIAL
(c) Frontal section
6 __________________________________ 9 _________________________________
7 __________________________________ 10 _________________________________
8 __________________________________
FIGURE 11.9 Synovial joints, continued.
B. Synovial Joint Movements

Identify the joint movements involved in walking that are described in the sentences below. Use the following terms
dorsiflex, plantar flex, flex, and extend to describe the movement of the right leg.
First you flex the thigh, (11) the leg at the knee, and (12) the foot. Then you (13) the leg at the knee, (14) the thigh, and
(15) the foot.
11. __________________________________
12. __________________________________
13. __________________________________
14. __________________________________
15. __________________________________
E X E R C I S E 1 2 S K E L E TA L M U S C L E S T R U C T U R E 175
E X E R C I S E
Skeletal Muscle
Structure 12
1 Describe the structure of skeletal tissue and • compound microscope and lens paper
skeletal muscle fibers • prepared microscope slides of skeletal muscle tissue
2 Identify the connective tissue structures in and neuromuscular junction
skeletal muscle • model of 3-D skeletal muscle fiber(s)
3 Describe the structure of the sarcomere
4 Describe the structure of the neuromuscular
junction
S keletal muscles are organs composed of

skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissue. These
organs also contain nerves and blood vessels.
The skeletal muscle fibers within skeletal muscles contract
(shorten) and cause movement of our skeleton or skin. The
Individual skeletal muscle fibers are surrounded by
a layer of areolar connective tissue called endomysium
(endo- = within; mys = muscle). Skeletal muscle fibers
are grouped into bundles called fascicles that are
surrounded by a layer of dense regular connective tissue
signal for contraction is carried by neurons that innervate called perimysium (peri- = around). A muscle is formed
each skeletal muscle fiber. We consciously control contrac- from a number of fascicles that are surrounded by a dense
tion of skeletal muscles, so the contraction is called voluntary. regular connective tissue layer called epimysium (epi- =
on; upon). Tendons, connective tissues that attach the
muscle to bone, are formed from endomysium, perimy-
A. Skeletal Muscle Tissue sium, and epimysium that extend beyond each skeletal
muscle fiber.
and Connective Tissue The connective tissues surrounding skeletal muscle
Coverings fibers separate and electrically insulate these cells. There-
fore, electrical impulses that initiate contraction in one
Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are striated and multinucle- skeletal muscle fiber are not spread to another fiber. Recall
ated. The striations are light and dark stripes along the that two or more tissues working together form an organ.
muscle cell. A skeletal muscle fiber is actually many Because skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissues form
embryonic cells that have fused together to form one large a skeletal muscle, each skeletal muscle can be considered
cell with multiple nuclei. an organ.
175
176 E X E R C I S E 1 2 S K E L E TA L M U S C L E S T R U C T U R E
• Using the low-power objective, locate a cross-section

Before Going to Lab through the muscle showing a fascicle. Identify
1 Label Figures 12.1(a) and (b) and 12.2(a) and (b). the perimysium surrounding the fascicle and an
2 Observe the structures within a muscle fiber in endomysium surrounding a skeletal muscle fiber.
Figure 12.2(c). • Locate a section of skeletal muscle fiber in
longitudinal section.
• Using the high-power objective, identify nuclei and
striations. ■
LAB ACTIVITY 1 Skeletal Muscle Tissue
and Connective Tissue
Coverings
1 Examine a prepared microscope slide of skeletal muscle.
Periosteum
Tendon (a) Skeletal muscle components

• endomysium (endo-MY-zee-um)
• epimysium (epi-MY-zee-um)
• fascicle (FAS-i-kul)
Bone • muscle fiber
• myofibril
1
• perimysium (peri-MY-zee-um)
2
1 __________________________________________
3
Skeletal 2 __________________________________________
4 muscle
3 __________________________________________
5
(a) Skeletal Muscle 4 __________________________________________
6
Components
5 __________________________________________
6 __________________________________________
(b) Fascicle components

• endomysium
• filament
7 • muscle fiber
Fascicle Somatic motor • myofibril
neuron
• perimysium
Blood capillary
• sarcolemma
8
Nucleus
7 __________________________________________
9
Striations 8 __________________________________________
Sarcoplasm 9 __________________________________________
Transverse sections
10
10 __________________________________________
11
11 __________________________________________
12
(b) Fascicle Components 12 __________________________________________
FIGURE 12.1 Skeletal muscle.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

400×, H&E, human 400×, H&E, human
(a) Cross-section of a fascicle (b) Longitudinal section of muscle fibers
• endomysium • nucleus
• fascicle • striation (stry-AY-tion)
• perimysium • width of skeletal muscle fiber
• skeletal muscle fiber in cross-section
5 _____________________________________________________
1 _____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________
7 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________
Mitochondria
Myofibrils
MedImage/Science Source
Nucleus
Endomysium
TEM
(c) Cross-section of one muscle fiber at higher
magnification
FIGURE 12.2 Sectional views of a fascicle and skeletal muscle fibers.

B. Skeletal Muscle Fibers and contractile unit of a muscle myofibril. Sarcomeres are
composed of an orderly arrangement of thin and thick fila-
Skeletal muscle tissue contains elongated cells called ments and shorten when the muscle fiber is stimulated to
muscle fibers. Muscle fibers have specialized features im- contract.
portant to their function. The plasma membrane, called the Thin filaments contain actin, tropomyosin, and tropo-
sarcolemma (sarco = flesh; lemma = sheath) in muscle nin molecules. Actin molecules make up the majority of
fibers, can conduct an electrical signal called an action the thin filament and contain a binding site for the myosin
potential. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is endoplasmic molecules of the thick filament. A strand of tropomyosin
reticulum that is specialized to store calcium ions. Muscle molecules is nestled between the actin molecules. Several
cells contain thick and thin filaments or myofilaments troponin molecules bind at precise intervals along the
(myo = muscle) that contain different contractile proteins. tropomyosin strand.
Movement of the myofilaments causes muscle shortening Thick filaments are composed of myosin molecules.
or contraction. A myosin molecule resembles two golf clubs twisted
The sarcolemma has tube-like invaginations called together. The tails of many myosin molecules form the
T tubules (transverse tubules) that transmit the action thick filament, whereas the heads project toward the thin
potential deep inside the fiber to widened areas of the filaments. When the myosin-binding sites on the actin
sarcoplasmic reticulum called terminal cisternae. The molecules are uncovered, myosin heads attach and pull
arrangement of two terminal cisternae with a T tubule the thin filaments past the thick filaments. The temporary
between them is called a triad. An action potential travel- attachment between a myosin head and an actin molecule
ing down the T tubules causes calcium to be released from is called a crossbridge.
the terminal cisternae into the cytoplasm of the muscle fiber.
Thick and thin filaments, which are bundled into Before Going to Lab
myofibrils, occupy 80% of the volume of the fiber. Each
1 Label the skeletal muscle fiber in Figure 12.3.
myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres, the smallest structural
(a) Skeletal muscle fiber (b) Thick and thin filaments (c) Contractile proteins
• myofibril (myo-FY-bril) • sarcomere • actin
• sarcolemma (sar-co-LEM-ma) • thick filament • myosin (MY-oh-sin) heads
• sarcoplasmic reticulum • thin filament • myosin tails
(sar-co-PLAZ-mic re-TIC-u-lum) • tropomyosin (tro-poh-MY-o-sin)
• terminal cisternae (cis-TER-nee) • troponin
of sarcoplasmic reticulum
• triad
• T tubule
1 _________________________________
7 _________________________________ 10 _________________________________
2 _________________________________
8 _________________________________ 11 _________________________________
3 _________________________________
9 _________________________________ 12 _________________________________
4 _________________________________
13 _________________________________
5 _________________________________
14 _________________________________
6 _________________________________
FIGURE 12.3 Skeletal muscle fiber.

Mitochondrion
2
6 5 4
(a) Muscle fiber
Z disc 8 9 M line
(b) Thick and thin filaments
10 11 12 13 14
Myosin tail Myosin heads
(c) Contractile proteins
FIGURE 12.3 Skeletal muscle fiber, continued.

C. The Sarcomere Before Going to Lab
The regular arrangement of thin and thick filaments in the 1 Label the electron micrograph of the sarcomere in
sarcomeres gives the myofibrils and the skeletal muscle Figure 12.5.
fibers light and dark bands (Figure 12.4). Lighter color
bands with a dark stripe down the middle are the I bands.
Courtesy Denah Appelt and Clara Franzini-Armstrong

The I bands contain only thin filaments, and the stripes are
Z discs which secure the thin filaments. A bands are dark- 1 2
colored bands that extend the length of the thick filaments.
In the A band of relaxed muscle, thin filaments overlap the
thick filaments except in the middle of the A band, the H
zone, which appears lighter. The M line is found in the
middle of the H zone and secures the thick filaments.
Muscle fibers shorten because myosin heads on the
thick filaments attach to the thin filaments and pull the
thin filaments past the thick filaments toward the M 3
line. This action increases the overlap of thin and thick 4 5 4
filaments (Figure 12.4). As these filaments slide past each
Sarcomere TEM 21,600×
other in each sarcomere within each myofibril, the ends of
the muscle fiber are brought closer together, the I bands
decrease in length, and the H zone (lighter area) disap- • A band
pears. The increase in overlap of thin and thick filaments • H zone
can be readily observed in sarcomeres of skeletal muscle. • I band
• M line
• Z disc
A band A band 1 _____________________________________________________
I band H zone I band H zone I band 2 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________
Z disc M line Z disc M line Z disc
FIGURE 12.5 Transmission electron micrograph
Sarcomere Sarcomere
illustrating sarcomere structure.
FIGURE 12.4 Sarcomere structure.
3 Does the I band length change when a muscle contracts?

LAB ACTIVITY 2 The Sarcomere
Explain.
1 Using Figure 12.6, answer Discussion Questions with
your lab group.
4 Does the H zone length change when a muscle contracts?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Explain.
Sarcomere Structure
1 Do the lengths of the thin or thick filaments change when
a muscle contracts? Explain.
5 Is the sarcomere in Figure 12.5 fully contracted?
Explain.
2 Does the A band length change when a muscle contracts?

Explain. ■
2 Sarcomeres
H zone I band A band
Courtesy Hiroyouki Sasaki, Yale E. goldman and Courtesy Hiroyouki Sasaki, Yale E. Goldman
Thick filament
Z disc Thin filament Z disc M line Z disc TEM 21,600×
(a) Relaxed muscle
TEM 21,600×
(b) Partially contracted muscle
and Clara Franzini-Armstrong
TEM 21,600×
(c) Maximally contracted muscle
FIGURE 12.6 Sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.

D. The Neuromuscular directly across from the synaptic end bulb. If enough
acetylcholine binds, an action potential is generated,
Junction stimulating the skeletal muscle fiber to contract.
Each skeletal muscle fiber is stimulated to contract by a Before Going to Lab

motor neuron. A motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle
fibers it innervates are a motor unit. Within the muscle, 1 Label the neuromuscular junction in Figure 12.7.
the axon of a motor neuron divides into many branches or 2 Label the photomicrograph in Figure 12.8.
axon terminals, each of which forms a neuromuscular
junction with a skeletal muscle fiber. At the neuromuscular
junction, each axon terminal divides into synaptic end LAB ACTIVITY 3 Neuromuscular Junction
bulbs. Within the synaptic end bulbs are synaptic vesicles
1 Examine a prepared microscope slide of the neuro-
filled with acetylcholine (neurotransmitter molecules).
muscular junction and identify the structures listed in
When a nerve impulse reaches the synaptic end bulb,
Figure 12.8. ■
acetylcholine is released and diffuses across the synaptic
cleft (the space between the synaptic end bulb and the
sarcolemma). Acetylcholine molecules bind to receptors
Nerve Spinal cord
in the motor end plate, the region of the sarcolemma
Motor Motor
unit 2 unit 1
Motor Motor neuron

neuron axon cell body
1
2
Muscle fibers
(a) Muscle
1 2 3
3
4 (Space)
(b)
• axon terminal 1 ________________________
• motor end plate
• receptors 2 ________________________
• synaptic cleft 365×
• synaptic end bulb 3 ________________________
• synaptic vesicle with • skeletal muscle fibers 1 ________________________
4 ________________________
acetylcholine • axon terminal with
5 ________________________ synaptic end bulbs 2 ________________________
• motor neuron axon
6 ________________________ 3 ________________________
FIGURE 12.7 Structure of the neuromuscular FIGURE 12.8 Section of skeletal muscle showing
junction. axon terminals and synaptic bulbs.
A. Skeletal Muscle Structure

12
Number the following nestled, cylindrical structures in order from largest (1) to smallest (5).
____ myofibril ____ muscle fiber
____ fascicle ____ muscle
____ filaments
B. Skeletal Muscle Structural Terms

Identify the structure that matches the description.
______________________ 1. Connective tissue covering surrounding a fascicle
______________________ 2. Finger-like invaginations of plasma membrane; extend into interior of fiber and surround
myofibrils
______________________ 3. Plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fiber
______________________ 4. Connective tissue covering surrounding the muscle
______________________ 5. Smallest contractile unit within individual muscle fibers
______________________ 6. Stores calcium within muscle fiber
______________________ 7. Connective tissue covering surrounding individual muscle fibers
______________________ 8. Two terminal cisternae and a T tubule
______________________ 9. Rod-like structures within skeletal muscle fiber that contain thin and thick filaments
organized into sarcomeres
183
C. Sarcomere Structure and

the Sliding Filament Mechanism of Contraction
Write the name of the sarcomere structure defined. A structure may be used more than once, and a definition may apply to
more than one structure.
______________________ 1. Length does not change when sarcomere shortens.
______________________ 2. This area is the length of thick filaments.
______________________ 3. Center point of attachment for thick filaments.
______________________ 4. Length decreases when sarcomere shortens.
______________________ 5. This area contains only thin filaments.
______________________ 6. Point of attachment for thin filaments.
______________________ 7. This area contains only thick filaments.
______________________ 8. This area contains overlapping thin and thick filaments.
______________________ 9. The area from Z disc to Z disc.
______________________ 10. This area disappears in a fully contracted muscle.
D. The Neuromuscular Junction

Write the name of the structure(s) described.
______________________ 1. Found in synaptic end bulbs of axon terminal; contains neurotransmitter molecules
______________________ 2. Area of sarcolemma across from synaptic end bulbs of axon terminal; contains
neurotransmitter receptors
______________________ 3. Space between synaptic end bulbs of axon terminal and sarcolemma
______________________ 4. Divides into synaptic end bulbs at neuromuscular junction
______________________ 5. Parts of axon terminal that form neuromuscular junction

______________________________
EXERC ISE
12
1. With age, the collagen-containing connective tissue coverings of skeletal muscles increase and the number of muscle
fibers decreases. Is meat from an older or a younger animal more tender? Explain.
2. Weight training increases muscle fiber size by increasing the number of myofibrils. Explain.
3. The diaphragm is a muscle that controls inspiration. Is control of the diaphragm voluntary, involuntary, or both?
Explain.
Using your textbook or another reference, for each condition below indicate which part of the neuromuscular junction is
affected: the motor end plate or the axon terminal.
______________________ 4. Myasthenia gravis
______________________ 5. Curare poisoning
______________________ 6. Botulinum toxin poisoning
Put a check mark next to the muscles that are skeletal muscles. Hint: Consider location and whether muscle contraction is
voluntary or involuntary.
______________________ 7. Arrector pili
______________________ 8. Tongue
______________________ 9. Muscle in gallbladder
______________________ 10. Muscles that control movement of the eyeball
185
11–13. In Figure 12.9, rank the TEMs from 1 (least) to 3 (greatest) according to number of cross-bridges formed.
Courtesy Hiroyouki Sasaki, Yale E. goldman and Courtesy Hiroyouki Sasaki, Yale E. Goldman and
TEM 21,600×
11.
TEM 21,600×
12.
Clara Franzini-Armstrong
TEM 21,600×
13.
FIGURE 12.9 Skeletal muscle contraction.
E X E R C I S E 1 3 C O N T R A C T I O N O F S K E L E TA L M U S C L E 187
E X E R C I S E
Contraction
of Skeletal Muscle 13
1 Describe the role of ATP in skeletal muscle • Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
contraction Fibers: ATP-glycerinated muscle kit from
2 Compare the three muscle fiber types and their biological supply house and the following items
influence on contraction per group: 1 Petri dish, 3 test tubes, marker,
2 teasing needles or straight pins, watchmaker
3 Identify and describe the three phases of a twitch
forceps, sharp scissors, 3 microscope slides,
contraction
1 millimeter ruler, and 3 plastic transfer pipettes.
4 Describe how skeletal muscles achieve a smooth, Dissecting microscope, compound microscope,
sustained contraction and coverslips are optional.
5 Describe how skeletal muscles vary the force of • Control of Muscle Tension: rulers and ankle
contraction weights (students may bring them from home).
6 Compare isotonic and isometric contractions • PowerPhys Experiments:
7 Define threshold stimulus, maximal stimulus, • Twitch Contractions and Summation
motor unit recruitment, wave summation,
unfused tetanus, fused tetanus, and fatigue, and
• Recruitment and Isometric and Isotonic
Contractions
explain how to observe them
• • Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiments:
• Recruitment and Fatigue
• Isometric and Isotonic Contractions
• Record Frog Gastrocnemius Muscle
Contractions: frogs, needle probes, dissecting
equipment, Ringer’s solution in squeeze bottle,
femur clamp, recorder, stimulator, force
transducer.
M
uscle cells have the ability to convert the A. Contraction
chemical energy of ATP into mechanical energy
of contraction. All muscles (skeletal, cardiac, of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
and smooth), in turn, exert force and produce movement.
The following activities focus on skeletal muscles at the Three main events occur in contraction of a skeletal muscle
molecular and cellular level of contraction. fiber—electrical excitation of a muscle fiber, excitation-
contraction coupling, and muscle fiber contraction due to
the sliding filament mechanism.
187
188 E X E R C I S E 1 3 C O N T R A C T I O N O F S K E L E TA L M U S C L E
• Electrical excitation of a muscle fiber. Skeletal into and out of the muscle fiber. Glycerination also dis-
muscle fibers (cells) can be stimulated either by a motor rupts the troponin-tropomyosin complex so that calcium
neuron in the body or by a voltage stimulator in the is not needed to bind to troponin and pull tropomyosin to
lab. Stimulation given by either method results in a unblock the myosin-binding sites on the actin molecules.
depolarization of the sarcolemma. If the depolariza- Although calcium is not needed for contraction of glycer-
tion reaches threshold, an action potential (electrical inated muscle fibers, other ions are needed to ensure the
signal) is initiated. proper functioning of enzymes. In this activity, you will
• Excitation-contraction coupling. The action poten- observe contraction in glycerinated skeletal muscle fibers.
tial is transmitted along the sarcolemma and down
the T tubules (transverse tubules). This action causes
calcium ions to be released from the terminal cis-
ternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcium ions LAB ACTIVITY 1 Experiment: Role
couple electrical excitation to muscle fiber contrac- of ATP in Contraction
tion by binding to troponin, which is attached to the of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
actin filament and tropomyosin. Troponin changes
shape and pulls tropomyosin away from the myosin- 1 Prediction: With your lab group, predict which solu-
binding sites on the actin filament. tion will cause muscle fiber shortening by selecting one
• Muscle fiber contraction. A muscle fiber contracts of the choices below.
(shortens) when thin filaments (actin) slide past the • 0.25% ATP in distilled water
thick filaments (myosin). Each contraction cycle • 0.25% ATP, 0.05 M KCl, and 0.001 M MgCl2 in
shortens each muscle fiber about 1% of its resting distilled water
length. The 4 steps of the contraction cycle are: • 0.05 M KCl and 0.001 M MgCl2 in distilled water,
1. ATP hydrolysis. Myosin heads contain an ATP no ATP
binding site and an ATPase. When ATP binds 2 Materials: Obtain materials for Role of ATP in Con-
to the ATP-binding site, the ATPase hydrolyzes traction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers.
ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate. 3 Data Collection: Measure muscle length of glycerin-
Hydrolysis of ATP energizes the myosin head. ated skeletal muscle fibers before and after exposure to
2. Attachment of myosin to actin to form the different solutions.
cross-bridges. Energized myosin heads bind to • Decide who will mix the solutions; prepare the
the unblocked myosin-binding site on actin and muscle strands; apply the solutions to the muscle
the inorganic phosphate is released from the strands; and time, measure, and record.
myosin head. • Label test tubes and microscope slides 1, 2, and 3.
3. Power stroke. The release of the inorganic phos- • Place the following in the appropriate test tube:
phate starts the power stroke, which is the rotation Test tube 1 (0.25% ATP in distilled water)—
of the myosin head that pulls the thin filament 5 drops from dropper bottle labeled 0.25% ATP
toward the center of the sarcomere. During the in distilled water
power stroke, ADP is released from the myosin Test tube 2 (0.25% ATP in salt solution)—
head, but the myosin head remains attached. 5 drops from dropper bottle labeled 0.25% ATP,
4. Detachment of myosin from actin. Another 0.05 M KCl, and 0.001 M MgCl2 in distilled water
ATP molecule binds to the myosin ATP-binding Test tube 3 (salt solution, no ATP)—5 drops
pocket, releasing the myosin head from actin, from dropper bottle labeled 0.05 M KCl and
and the contraction cycle begins again. 0.001 M MgCl2 in distilled water
The contraction cycle continues as long as intracellular • Obtain a Petri dish containing a 2-cm-long piece of
calcium levels remain high. As the intracellular calcium glycerinated skeletal muscle in a small amount of
levels drop, tropomyosin blocking of the myosin-binding glycerin from your instructor.
sites on actin returns, energized myosin is prevented from • Using teasing needles or straight pins, separate
binding, and the muscle fiber relaxes. the skeletal muscle (in the Petri dish) into at least
The amount of shortening that occurs when a muscle is 9 strands not more than 0.2 mm in diameter
stimulated to contract depends on how long the contraction (2–4 muscle fibers per strand).
cycle continues. With each contraction cycle, sarcomeres • Using forceps, place 3 (of the 9) thin strands of
shorten a little more until maximal contraction of a sarco- muscle fibers on a microscope slide. Arrange the
mere is reached. Muscle fibers can shorten up to 40% of strands so they are straight and parallel. Do not cover
their resting length. the strands with a cover slip. Note: The amount of
Exposure of skeletal muscle fibers to glycerin creates glycerol that is transferred with the strands should
holes in the sarcolemma allowing ions and ATP to diffuse be enough to keep them moist. Add a small drop of
E X E R C I S E 1 3 C O N T R A C T I O N O F S K E L E TA L M U S C L E 189
glycerol only if the strands are exposed to heat from • Switch to the high-dry objective lens. Identify the
the microscope lamp for a sustained period. light-colored I bands and the dark-colored A bands.
• Measure the length of each muscle strand with a • Compare the distance between the bands.
millimeter ruler and record the value in Table 13.1. • Repeat for each slide.
Measurements can be made using a dissecting 5 Clean up as directed by your instructor.
microscope, if desired.
6 Data Analysis:
• Using a clean transfer pipette, transfer all the
• Calculate the percentage of contraction by dividing
solution from test tube 1 to the microscope slide and
the length after exposure to the solution by the
measure the length of the strands after 40 seconds.
resting length.
Record the results in Table 13.1.
• Average the values for each solution and record in
• Repeat the above steps for the solutions in test tubes
Table 13.1.
2 and 3 using 3 new muscle strands, transfer pipettes,
and microscope slides for each solution. Record the 7 Complete the Experimental Report with your lab
results in Table 13.1. group.
• Optional—Save all 3 slides to observe striations. See
instructions below.
4 Observation of Striations in Skeletal Muscle Fibers
(optional):
• Place a coverslip over each microscope slide.
• Using a compound microscope, observe one micro-
scopic slide with the low-power objective lens and
note the striations on each strand.
TA B L E 1 3 . 1 Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

TEST TUBE 2 TEST TUBE 3
TEST TUBE 1 0 . 2 5 % AT P 0 AT P
0 . 2 5 % AT P 0.05 M KCl 0.05 M KCl
D I S T I L L E D W AT E R 0.001 M MgCl2 0.001 M MgCl2
Muscle Strand 1
Length before solution
Length after solution
% Contraction
Muscle Strand 2
% Contraction
Muscle Strand 3
% Contraction
Average % contraction
190 E X E R C I S E 1 3 C O N T R A C T I O N O F S K E L E TA L M U S C L E
EXPERIMENTAL REPORT B. Influence

Role of ATP in Contraction
of Skeletal Muscle Fibers of Muscle Fiber Type
Results: on Skeletal Muscle
• Name the solution(s) that caused muscle strand Contraction
contraction.
There are 3 types of skeletal muscle fibers: slow oxidative
(SO), fast oxidative-glycolytic (FOG), and fast glycolytic
(FG). These muscle fiber types differ in diameter, myosin
• State the average percentage contraction for each solution. ATPase, and methods of ATP production.
1. Muscle Diameter and

Force of Contraction
Discussion: Fast glycolytic fibers have the largest diameter of the mus-
• Estimate the number of contraction cycles that occurred cle fiber types and develop more force than slow oxidative
in the contracted muscle fibers. fibers that have the smallest diameter of the three muscle
types. Muscle fibers with a larger diameter develop more
force because they have more myofibrils, and therefore,
more myosin heads that can attach to actin. The amount of
• Discuss whether the sarcomere length increased, force a muscle fiber develops is dependent on the number
decreased, or stayed the same in muscle fibers from of cross-bridges (myosin heads attached to actin) formed.
each solution.
2. Myosin ATPase and
Speed of Contraction
Fast glycolytic fibers and fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers
• Explain what limits the amount of shortening that is have a myosin ATPase that breaks down ATP faster than
observed in the skeletal muscle fibers. the myosin ATPase in slow oxidative fibers. The speed at
which the contraction cycle can occur is determined by
how fast myosin ATPase can break down ATP. The faster
the myosin ATPase, the greater the speed at which the
• Discuss why calcium was not needed to cause muscle contraction cycle can occur, and the faster the muscle can
contraction in glycerinated muscle fibers. contract.
3. Methods of ATP Generation

and Fatigability
• Discuss the role of KCl and MgCl2 in the experiment. Fibers with fast myosin ATPase need ATP to be produced
quickly to achieve a fast contraction cycle. Fast glycolytic
fibers produce the majority of ATP by glycolysis, while
slow oxidative fibers use aerobic cellular respiration to
Conclusion: produce ATP. Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers use both ATP
• State how adding ATP to the glycerinated muscle fibers production methods.
affected muscle fiber and sarcomere length. Glycolysis produces ATP quickly but cannot produce
large amounts of ATP over time. Therefore, muscle fibers
that primarily use glycolysis fatigue quickly. Glycolysis
requires large glycogen (glucose source) stores, and muscle
fibers that primarily use glycolysis to make ATP are paler
due to lower myoglobin content and less blood supply.
Aerobic cellular respiration produces ATP slowly but
can produce large amounts of ATP over time if there is a
sufficient blood supply and myoglobin (red pigment that
stores oxygen) stores. Therefore, muscle fibers that use
■ aerobic respiration take longer to fatigue. These muscle

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EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 141

(b) Scapula, anterior view (c) Scapula, posterior view

2 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________ 12 _________________________________

3 _________________________________ 8 _________________________________ 13 _________________________________

FIGURE 10.2 The right pectoral girdle.

B. The Upper Limb 3. Radius (Lateral Bone of Forearm)

1. Humerus (Arm Bone) 4. Shoulder and Elbow Joints

(a) Anterior view Body

2 ____________________________ SUPERIOR SUPERIOR

(b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.3 Right humerus.

Lateral Medial Lateral

Anterior view Posterior view

(b) Posterior view LATERAL MEDIAL LATERAL

10 ____________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.4 Right ulna and radius.

Radius Ulna Ulna Radius

Anterior view 5 _____________________________

FIGURE 10.5 Right hand and wrist.

C. Bones and Selected Bone • false pelvis—portion of pelvis superior to pelvic

Posterior Anterior inferior

Ischial spine Pubis

FIGURE 10.6 Right os coxa.

Ilium Iliac crest

False Anterior superior

1 _______________________ 5 _______________________ 9 _______________________ 13 _______________________

2 _______________________ 6 _______________________ 10 _______________________ 14 _______________________

3 _______________________ 7 _______________________ 11 _______________________ 15 _______________________

4 _______________________ 8 _______________________ 12 _______________________

FIGURE 10.7 Pelvis.

D. Bones and Selected Bone • medial malleolus—medial process on distal end,

Fovea capitis Os coxa

Anterior view Posterior view

• greater trochanter (tro-CAN-ter) 1

9 ____________________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.8 Right femur.

Anterior view Posterior view

8 _________________________________ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.9 Right tibia, fibula, and patella.

FIGURE 10.10 Bones of the right foot.

(b) Lateral view • metatarsals

FIGURE 10.10 Bones of the right foot, continued.

• Calculate the diameter of the femur using the follow-

TA B L E 1 0 . 2 Determining Gender and Height from a Femur

Femur circumference (cm) Femur length (cm)

Femur diameter (cm) Height (cm)

Gender Height (in)

• Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height

2 Estimate your height from length of humerus:

Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E

A. Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder)

______________________ 1. The acromion (process) articulates with what bone?

______________________ 2. Is the clavicle anterior or posterior compared to the scapula?

______________________ 3. The clavicle articulates medially with which bone?

______________________ 1. What part of the radius articulates with the humerus?

______________________ 4. Is the ulna medial or lateral compared with the radius?

______________________ 7. What is the name of the lateral condyle on the humerus?

______________________ 8. What is the name of the medial condyle on the humerus?

C. Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis

______________________ 3. Name the 2 bones that form the pelvic girdle.

______________________ 7. Name the anterior joint between pubic bones.

______________________ 8. Deep indentation formed by fusion of ilium, ischium, and pubis.

______________________ 9. Largest foramen in the skeleton.

2 _________________ 7 _ 12 _________________

3 _________________ 8 _ 13 _________________

1 ___________ 5 _ 9 _ 13 ___________

2 ___________ 6 _ 10 _ 14 ___________

3 ___________ 7 _ 11 _ 15 ___________

4 ___________ 8 _ 12 _____________

1 _________________ 4 _ 7 _________________

2 _________________ 5 _ 8 _________________

9 _________________ 12 _ 15 _________________

10 _________________ 13 _ 16 _________________

1 _________________ 3 _ 4 _________________

6 _________________ 7 _ 9 _________________