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CTET
(CENTRAL TEACHER ELIGIBILITY TEST)
Child Development
and
Pedagogy
Paper I and Paper II
CTET
(CENTRAL TEACHER ELIGIBILITY TEST)
Child Development
and
Pedagogy
Paper I and Paper II
Second Edition
Sandeep Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Education
University of Delhi
Editor—Acquisitions: Sharel Simon
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Editor—Production: Vipin Kumar
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Contents
Prefacexi Family, Socialisation and Education 22

About the Author xii Social Class, Socialisation and Education 23
Acknowledgmentsxiii Peer Group, Socialisation and Education 23
About the Examination xiv Gender, Socialisation and Education 24
Trend Analysis (2014–2019) xv State, Socialisation and Education 24
Supporting the Learner’s Personal and Social
Chapter 01: Concept of Development 1 Development
Introduction1 through the Process of Socialisation 25
Stages of Development 2 Objective Questions 26
Types of Development 3 Previous Years’ Questions 28
Development and Learning 4
Principles of Development 5 Chapter 03: Cognitive and Moral
Heredity and Environment 7 Development30
Principle of Heredity 7 Introduction 30
Role of Heredity and Environment in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 31
Development Cognitive Development 31
(A Few Case Studies) 8 Fundamentals of Learning and Cognitive
Laws of Heredity 9 Development 32
Importance of Heredity and Environment for Important Concept or Tendencies of the
Education 9 Thinking Process 32
Objective Questions 10 Four Stages of Cognitive Development 32
Previous Years’ Questions 12 Socio-Cultural Theory of Learning and
Development (Vygotsky) 37
Chapter 02: Socialisation 15 The Zone of Proximal Development 37
Introduction15 Language Development 38
Cooley Concept of ‘Looking Glass Self’ 16 Difference Between Piaget and Vygotsky 39
“I” and “Me” by Mead 17 Educational Implications of
Theory of Mind 17 Vygotsky’s Theory 40
Types of Socialisation 17 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 40
Institution or Agents of Socialisation 18 Moral Development in Children 40
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory What is Moral Behaviour? 41
of Individual and Social Development 18 Education for Moral Development
Socialisation and Education 21 (Role of School) 42
School as Social System 21 An Example of Kohlberg’s Theory 43
viii Contents
Critiquing Kohlberg’s Perspective of Chapter 06: Development of Language

Moral Development 46 and Thought 91
Objective Questions 49 Introduction 91
Previous Years’ Questions 51 Language Relativist Hypothesis 92
Thought Determines Language 93
Chapter 04: Progressive Education 58 Problems with Piaget’s Theory 93
Introduction 58 The Interdependence of
Jean–Jacques Rousseau 59 Language and Thought 94
John Dewey 61 Language and Thought Are Independent 94
Education and Dewey 61 Language Acquisition 95
Dewey and Curriculum and Pedagogy 62 Pre-linguistic Stage 95
Sri Aurobindo 63 One-word Stage 96
Rabindranath Tagore 65 Development of Grammar 96
Mahatma Gandhi 67 Theories of Language Acquisition 98
Objective Questions 70 Environmental Theories of
Previous Years’ Questions 72 Language Acquisition 98
Nativist Theories of Language Acquisition 99
Social Interactionist Theories of
Chapter 05: Concept and Theories of
Language Acquisition 99
Intelligence74
Stage-wise Development of Language 100
Introduction 74
Early Childhood 100
The Ability to Adapt, Learn for Daily
Later Childhood 100
Life Events and Problem Solving 76
Adolescence Stage 101
The Capacity to Learn from Experiences 77
Objective Questions 102
Creativity and Interpersonal
Previous Years’ Questions 104
Skills Are Included in Intelligence 77
Intelligence Involves Ability of Judgment,
Comprehension and Reasoning 77 Chapter 07: Gender as Social
Intelligence Involves Ability to Understand Construct106
People, Objects and Introduction 106
Symbols Like Language 77 Conceptualising Gender 107
Theories of Intelligence 77 Sexual Division of Labour 107
Factor-oriented Theories 78 Family 108
Process-oriented Theory 78 Marriage 109
Two-factor Theory (Spearman) 78 Becoming Man or Woman 110
Group Factor Theory (Thurston) 78 Gender Stereotypes 110
Multi-factor Theory (Guilford) 79 Stereotypes of Man and Woman 111
Theory of Multiple Intelligence (Gardner) 82 Problems with Gender Stereotypes 112
Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence Gender Stereotypes and Media 112
(Triarchic Theory of Intelligence) 83 Gender in Education 112
Measurement of Intelligence 84 Gender Stereotypes in Curriculum 113
Classification of Intelligence Tests 84 Gender Stereotype in Pedagogy 113
Uses of Intelligence Test 86 Education as Further Extension of Gendered
Objective Questions 87 Society or for Gender Equality 113
Previous Years’ Questions 89 Objective Questions 115
Contents ix
Chapter 08: Children with Chapter 09: Assessment and

Special Needs 119 Evaluation 138
Introduction 119 Introduction 138
Gifted Children 120 Evaluation 139
Intellectually Bright Children 121 Why We Evaluate 139
How to Evaluate 140
How to Identify Intellectually
Assessments 141
Bright Children 121
Portfolio 142
Teaching–Learning Strategies for
Assessment of Learning 143
Intellectually Bright Children 122
Assessment for Learning 143
Creative Children 123 Assessment as Learning 144
Characteristics of Creative Children 123 School-based Assessment (SBA) 145
How to Identify These Children 123 Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation 146
How to Teach Creative Learners 123 Scholastic and Co-scholastic 148
Talented Children 124 Effective Technique of Evaluation 148
Observation 149
Characteristics of Talented Children 124
Rating Scale 149
How to Identify Talented Children 124
Cumulative Records 150
How to Teach Talented Children 125 Interview 150
Academically Dysfunctional Children 125 Sociometry 150
Slow Learners 125 Anecdotal Record 150
How to Identify Slow Learners 126 Objective Questions 152
Teaching–Learning Process of Previous Years’ Questions 154
Slow Learners 126
Underachiever Children 127 Chapter 10: How Children
Identification of the Underachiever 127 Think and Learn 156
Teaching–Learning Process of the Introduction 156
Underachiever127 Teaching 156
Children with Learning Disability 128 Fundamentals of Teaching 157
Dyslexia129 Principles of Teaching 157
Dysgraphia129 Learning 157
Characteristics of Learning 157
Dyscalculia129
Concept of Teaching–Learning 158
Dyspraxia129
Why Teaching is Related with Learning 159
Aphasia/Dysphasia129 How Children Think and Learn 159
Teaching–Learning Process of Active Participation (Learners as Active
Children with Learning Disability 130 Constructors of Knowledge) 160
Socially and Culturally Disadvantaged Learning as a Social Activity 160
Children 130 Useful and Meaningful Learning 161
Characteristics of Socially and Culturally Developing a Bridge between Existing
Backward Children 130 Knowledge with New Knowledge 162
Teaching–learning Process of Socially and Help Learners to Develop their
Culturally Backward Children 131 Own Strategies to Solve Problems 162
Provide Space of Criticality and Reflection 163
Help in Reconstruction 163
x Contents
Help Learner to Adapt and Understand Chapter 13: Emotional Development

Rather than Memorise 164 and Individual
Transfer of Learning 165 Differences206
Allow Learners to Practice 165 Introduction206
Acknowledging Individual Differences 166 Emotional Development 207
Objective Questions 168 Development of Emotions at
Previous Years’ Questions 170 Different Stages of
Development 207
Chapter 11: Learning and Factors Influencing Emotional
Motivation178 Development 209
Introduction 178 Causes of Emotional Stress in Learners 210
Approaches to Motivation 180 Role of Teacher in Emotional Development 210
Behaviouristic Approach 180 How Emotions Affect Learning 211
How to Handle Problems of Emotional
Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 182
Development 211
Cognitive Approach to Motivation 184
Individual Differences 212
Socio-cultural Approach to Motivation 185
Differences at the Social Level 213
Factors Influencing Motivation 186
Differences at the Gender level 213
Techniques to Motivate Learners 187 Language Differences in the Classroom 214
Objective Questions 189 Difference at the Level of
Previous Years’ Questions 191 Culture and Religion 215
Importance of the Study of Individual
Chapter 12: Alternative Conceptions 193 Differences in Education 215
Introduction 193 Objective Questions 217
Concepts – Definition 193 Previous Years’ Questions 219
Knowledge Acquisition and Concept Model Test Paper-I 221
Development 194
Model Test Paper-II 224
Origin of Alternative Conception 194
Theories of Alternative Concepts 196 Model Test Paper-III 227
Social Negotiation as Learning Method 198 Appendix230
Learning through Alternative Conceptions 200 Bibliography242
Popular Views on Conceptual Change 202
Previous Years’ Question 205
Preface
Central Teacher Eligibility Test (CTET) is a compulsory eligibility test to be eligible for appointment as
a teacher from Class I to VIII.
This series is our initiative to provide a complete solution for Paper I, which is intended for the aspiring
teachers aiming for Primary segment, i.e., Class I–V, and Paper II, intended for the aspiring teachers aim-
ing for Middle grades, i.e., Class VI–VIII. The books in the series are:
• CTET Paper I (Child Development and Pedagogy, English, Hindi, Mathematics,
Environmental Studies)
• Mathematics and Science Paper II
• Child Development and Pedagogy, 2 ed. Paper I and II
• Social Sciences, 2 ed., Paper II
• Bal Vikas evam Siksha Shashtra, Paper I and Paper II (Hindi)
About the Book

Child Development and Pedagogy, which is now in its second edition, is a comprehensive book that
addresses the questions and queries pertaining to child development. The book discusses the aspects of
Educational Psychology along with the evolution of appropriate pedagogy to help students take produc-
tive strides on the learning curve.
The book elucidates theories of cognitive and moral development of a child along with the theories of
intelligence. A chapter is dedicated to the children with special needs, which forms an imperative part of
teacher evaluation today.
Four theories or approaches to learning—the behaviouristic approach to learning, social learning the-
ory, the humanistic approach to learning and the Gestalt approach to learning have been briefly dis-
cussed in the Appendix added at the back of the book.
Salient Features
• Updated as per the latest pattern of CTET syllabus
• Solved Previous Years’ Questions (2014–2019) tagged unit-wise and further chapter-wise.
• Model test papers and chapter-end exercises are provided for practice
• The book is designed to enable learners to understand and develop a comprehensive perspective
about child development and pedagogy in the theoretical as well as practical dimension.
We hope that the book proves beneficial to help students score well in their examinations.
Sandeep Kumar
About the Author
Sandeep Kumar is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Education, University of Delhi. He special-
ises in the fields of human rights education, educational psychology and social science education. Earlier,
he served the state council of educational research and training (SCERT) at district institutes of education
and training (DIET) as subject expert of teaching of social science. He was also an assistant professor at a
college affiliated to Indraprastha University, Delhi.
Kumar received his M Phil degree in education for his work on ‘Research Methodology with Psychology
for Instruction’ from the University of Delhi and later, was awarded a PhD by the same university for his
study of school education from a human rights perspective. He has contributed many articles in different
journals of education and edited several books on the subject. He has also authored three books, of which
two—How to Teach Social Science Differently and How Emotionally Intelligent are Teacher Educators—
were published internationally, while his third book, Human Rights and Pedagogy, was published within
the country to wide acclaim. He has also guided researchers at the master’s level in education.
In constant touch with the developments in his chosen field, Kumar has presented several seminar
papers at conferences of national and international repute. He has also worked on different projects in
the field of education such as the UK–India Educationala and Research initiative (UKIERI), development
of resource book for teaching of Social Sciences, development of content to understand the issues, prob-
lems and challenges of marginalised groups and development of handbook for continuous professional
development of teachers, to name a few.
Acknowledgements
We are never alone in doing any work. Numerous parameters have to synchronise and fall in place,
directly or indirectly, for an event to happen. This generalisation is true for this book as well, since I was
never alone in my work on its script. Many people have contributed their mite to make this book success-
ful and I would like to acknowledge them here.
First and foremost, I am thankful to my daughter Lavanya and son Samarth, who compromised a lot
when I was working late to complete this work. My wife Ritu and my parents always motivated me to
take up new things in life and provided their full support. I am obliged to them that they are there in my
life.
I am also thankful to Rohit Waidhan and Utkarsh, whose motivational smile and confidence gave me
a lot of encouragement. Besides, I am also grateful to the fact that I was able to read prolifically on per-
tinent topics, which gave me a broader perspective on the subject and helped me to complete this work.
Sandeep Kumar
About the Examination
CTET EXAM PATTERN–PAPER 1 (PRIMARY STAGE)

S. No Sections No. of Questions Marks
1. Language I (compulsory) 30 30
2. Language II (compulsory) 30 30
3. Child Development and Pedagogy 30 30
4. Environmental Studies 30 30
5. Mathematics 30 30
Total 150 150
nn
Paper I will contain questions from five sections - Language I, Language II, Child Development and
Pedagogy, Environmental Studies and Mathematics.
nn
Candidates will be asked 30 questions from each section which means a total of 150 questions will be
asked in the paper I of CTET exam.
nn
Each question asked in the exam will carry one mark each.
nn
Candidates will be given 2 hours 30 minutes to complete the exam.
nn
No marks will be deducted for any wrong response given by the candidates.
CTET EXAM PATTERN–PAPER 2 (ELEMENTARY STAGE)

S. No Sections No. of Questions Marks
1. Language I (compulsory) 30 30
2. Language II (compulsory) 30 30
3. Child Development and Pedagogy 30 30
4. Mathematics and Science (for Mathematics and Science teacher only) 60 60
5. Social Studies/Social Science (for Social Studies/Social Science teacher only) 60 60
Total 150 150
nn
Paper II contains questions from five sections–Language I, Language II, Child Development and
Pedagogy, Social Studies/Social Science (for Social Studies/Social Science teacher only) and Mathematics
and Science (for Mathematics and Science teacher only).
nn
Candidates will be asked 30 questions of 1 mark each from Language I and II, and from Child
Development and Pedagogy, whereas 60 questions will be asked from Social Studies/Social Science
and Mathematics and Science.
nn
Candidates will be given 2 hours 30 minutes to complete the exam.
nn
No marks will be deducted for any wrong response given by the candidates.
Trend Analysis (2014–2019)
CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND PEDAGOGY (PAPER 1)

S.No Topics 2014 2015 2016 2018 2019
1 Concept of Development 2 4 2 1 2
2 Socialization 1 2 4 – 1
3 Cognitive and Moral Development 4 5 6 7 8
4 Progressive Education 3 – – 2 1
5 Concept and Theories of Intelligence 3 1 1 2 1
6 Development of Language and Thought 1 2 2 – –
7 Gender as a Social Construct 2 1 1 2 2
8 Children with Special Needs 3 2 3 5 3
9 Assessment and Evaluation 3 1 1 2 1
10 How Children Think and Learn 4 10 5 7 8
11 Learning and Motivation 3 1 3 1 2
12 Alternative Conceptions 1 – – – –
13 Emotional Development – 1 2 1 1
Total 30 30 30 30 30
CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND PEDAGOGY (PAPER 2)

S.No Topics 2014 2015 2016 2018 2019
1 Concept of Development – 2 3 1 2
2 Socialization 1 3 2 2 1
3 Cognitive and Moral Development 3 6 3 4 9
4 Progressive Education 4 – – – 1
5 Concept and Theories of Intelligence 3 1 1 4 1
6 Development of Language and Thought – – 2 3 –
7 Gender as a Social Construct 1 1 1 1 2
8 Children with Special Needs 7 3 3 5 5
9 Assessment and Evaluation 3 4 2 2 1
10 How Children Think and Learn 4 9 12 7 7
11 Learning and Motivation 2 1 – – 1
12 Alternative Conceptions – – – – –
13 Emotional Development 2 – 1 1 –
Total 30 30 30 30 30
*Please note that CTET examination was not conducted in 2017.

1 Concept of Development
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the concept of development in children and identify its different stages
• Appreciate the types of development associated with different aspects of a child’s life
• Establish the relationship between development and learning
• Develop an insight on the various principles of development
• Explore the relationship between heredity and development
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘development’, in its most general psychological sense, refers to certain changes that occur in
human beings (or animals) between conception and death. However, the term is not associated to just
any changes, but to those that appear in orderly ways and are relatively permanent in nature. It is a
change where a person develops and changes from dependency to autonomy. Changes may also occur
because of illness, tiredness or other such related causes but these are temporary. We cannot consider
them as developmental changes.
Prenatal Period : Until birth Pre-Adolescence :

Girls (11 years to 13
Infancy : Birth to 2 weeks years)
Babyhood : 2 weeks to 2 years Boys (12 Years to 14
Childhood : 2 years to 10–12 years years)
Early childhood (2 years Adolescence : 13 years to 17 years
to 6 years) Later Adolescence : 17 years to 19–20 years
Later childhood (6 years Adulthood : 21 years to 40 years
to 12 years) Middle Age : 40 years to 60 years
Old Age : 60 onwards
2 Child Development and Pedagogy
Development is a process that includes growth, maturation and learning. Growth denotes change in
size, length, height and weight. In other words, it signifies a change in the quantitative aspect of a per-
son. Maturation, on the other hand, is highly related to heredity. We can also understand maturation as
accruing free from specific experiences. The learning process of development manifests as a change in
behaviour arising out of past experiences. Though this notion has been challenged, it is considered very
prominent in developmental psychology.
There are marked differences between growth and development. As has been mentioned above,
growth is related to change in the physical aspect of a person and perceived as a quantitative change.
Whereas, development stands for a series of changes leading to the orderly achievement of maturity
and is qualitative in nature. Growth can be defined as one part of development, whereas development is
associated with overall change in a person’s growth. Growth can be measured but development can only
be assessed. Growth will bring about development, but it is not a pre-condition for development. That is,
development can occur without growth.
Stages of Development
It is important to understand that every child is unique in terms of his/her development though there are
some common characteristics shared by all children with few differences. The table given above shows
the different stages of development and their associated functions, as seen in most children.
Among the different phases of life indicated in above table, three stages – early childhood, later child-
hood and adolescence – are critical for a child’s overall development and education and are described
here in detail.
Development in Early Childhood (2–6 Years)

This is a stage where children like to do work independently. They do not like anyone to intervene in their
work. Children show aggression, disobedience and antagonistic behaviour at this stage. They spend a lot
of time playing with toys.
At this stage, children are ready for school. Though not exposed to mainstream education, they start
going to preparatory classes such as pre-school and play school. Their social life improve, though they
often prefer to keep themselves busy in their own activities. They become self-centric and find it difficult
to understand others’ perspective.
Children are very curious at this stage; they love to experiment with the things they can lay
their hands upon, sometimes even breaking their toys or other objects in the process. Children
observe elders, cartoon characters and other people whom they interact with and try to imitate
their behaviour.
Development in Later Childhood (6–12 Years)

This stage is known by many names such as troublesome stage and elementary school stage. In this stage,
children tend to devote more time to their peer group than to their parents. They actively seek accept-
ance from peers. Very often, they fight with each other over petty things such as using each others’ toys,
dresses or books, while playing or watching their favourite TV programme.
This stage is very significant in the development process. As children start going to school, they
engage themselves with academic activities. They start making friends at this stage and a few of
these friendships may even continue in later stages. Whatever they learn and experience at this stage,
greatly influence their later life, academically and otherwise. They develop their creative potential
at this stage.
Chapter 1 Concept of Development 3
Development in Adolescence (13–19 Years)

This is the most critical stage of development in a person’s life. Children face many social, biological and
personal changes during this stage. These changes make adolescence a difficult period to manage. Some
people call this a ‘stage of stress and storm.’ This is a transitional stage where children learn new behav-
iours and strive to be socially accepted.
Adolescents are sometimes confused about their identity and are unable to make up their minds
on whether that they are grown-ups or if they are still children. One of the reasons for this is the
contradicting treatments they receive from their parents, who sometimes talk to them as adults while
at other times consider them as children and refrain from discussing with them issues of grave impor-
tance. This sets the adolescent thinking and he introspects about his identity and his role in society.
Adolescents also face adjustment problems. Until their late childhood, parents and teachers helped
them to solve their problems; but now, they have to do it on their own. This makes them apprehensive
about failure and the resultant anxiety hinders their development.
Adolescence is also a stage of unrealism. Adolescents have desires and aspirations which are beyond
their reach. These unrealistic desires become a cause of emotional instability. They have to take many
important decisions during this time regarding their career and education.
James Marcia (1999) talked about four types of identity in adolescence namely, identity achievement,
identity foreclosures, identity diffusion, and identity moratorium. Identity achievement occurs when a
person explores realistic options and then chooses one of them. It occurs when children, after class 10 for
example, are given a chance to choose their stream for future studies. However, when all decisions are
taken by elders or parents, identity foreclosure occurs. Identity diffusion happens when adolescents reach
no conclusion about what they want to do with their lives. They have no hope for the future and become
alienated. Identity moratorium signifies identity crises. It refers to choices getting delayed because of
one’s struggle with his or her identity. With numerous options open and professional counsellors to help,
these days it is no more referred to as identity crisis.
Types of Development
There are different forms of development associated with different aspects of life and they play a vital
role to make up a full personality. In other words, there are various aspects of life and various forms of
development. We will try to understand these developments under different headings, but, they collec-
tively contribute to the development of a child. We can understand these types of development as below:
Physical Development
This development is associated with development in one’s physical aspects such as height and weight. It
is associated with quantitative changes that occur in the body. Mostly physical development takes place
in cephalocaudal sequences, where development takes place form head to body.
Personal Development
All individuals are different and have their different ways of development. Under personal development,
we explore how individual personality changes.
Cognitive Development
The ability to think, reason and analyse is known as cognition and development of these abilities is
known as cognitive development.
Social Development
Family, school and community constitute the social context of children. Children have a specific role to
play in these institutions. These institutions also influence child development. How children develop the
social aspect of their personality is the core of social development. Emotional development can also be
understood as social development, as it develops with reference to social life.
Moral Development
We face many conflicts in everyday life and move ahead after resolving them. But, how do we resolve these
conflicts? How do we justify our actions and decisions? How far are our decisions moral or immoral? Resolving
these conflicts are studied under moral development.
DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

It is important to understand the relationship between development and learning. Various perspectives
exist in this regard. Some believe that learning leads to development whereas others contend that devel-
opment leads learning (Piaget).
What should be taught at a particular level is decided in accordance with children’s developmental
pattern. That is how we develop curriculum for a particular grade. Knowing and implementing suitable
practices while teaching the curriculum help learners to learn effortlessly. Knowledge of developmental
patterns also helps teachers and parents to understand their children’s level of learning.
Since developmental domains (cognitive, affective and psychomotor which can be understood as knowl-
edge, attitude or self and skills, respectively) are interlinked and change in one domain affects the other, the
learning process gets influenced by development. If a child has to face some developmental challenges, it
might influence his/her learning acquisition. For example, a child who starts walking will get more space to
explore the surrounding and hence, this exposure will play a significant role in his learning. He/she will be able
to create more relations between different social aspects and try to relate them with his/her past experiences.
Therefore, it is important for a teacher to make appropriate linkages between development and learning.
This way, learners will be able to make some meaning in the given context. These relations will also enhance
the scope to develop a better curriculum for the various groups of children as per their needs and abilities.
If we explore more, we can understand this relation in a different way, where learning facilitates
development and knowledge skills and other exposure facilitates development at various stages. It is
important to mention that as there are cultural differences in learning, development may also be influ-
enced by cultural conditioning.
Development proceeds in children at different rates and learning has a unique relationship with it.
Learning and development complement each other in two distinct categories. The relationship between
these two features is unique because, individual difference plays a great role for both learning and devel-
opment. Recognition of these differences surely facilitates overall education of a child.
All psychologists, without any debate, accept that early development is very crucial for further devel-
opment and learning. The kind of experience a child goes through in early stages has profound influence
on his or her later life. Irrespective of whether the experience is good or bad, childhood happenings influ-
ence both learning and development. For example, a child who is introvert in his/her play school, may
overcome this nature and become more confident at public forums when positive experiences are rein-
forced by interaction with his or her peer group. Thus, peer exposure will help a child to develop better.
It should be noted that learning should not only be based on rewards. Research suggests that the
effect of rewards on learning is temporary. Children should be encouraged to be self-motivated in their
learning. Such learning stays for a relatively longer time.
Development has a quality of predictability and this predictability helps us to understand the abilities
of children. Awareness about these abilities facilitates children’s learning process because the facilitator
becomes aware of the learner’s capabilities and is able to deal with the child accordingly. Learners who
have teachers sensitised to their needs show great performance in their work.
Learning is also influenced by the social and cultural context. Family background, which includes social
status, economic condition and educational condition, plays a significant role in the child’s development
and hence, influences learning too.
The teacher should have a clear understanding about the importance of culture in development and
learning. It does not mean that teachers should know about all the cultures. This is impossible, but, they
should be sensitive enough to allow learners to use their own cultural experiences to develop a healthy
perspective about the concept they are expected to learn. This will provide space for multiple perspec-
tives in class. Teachers need to appreciate all perspectives emerging in the class with a positive attitude.
This appreciation will lead the entire class to respect each other’s point of view.
Children learn actively, they are not passive entities. They make sense of their surroundings and learn.
They learn through observation and interaction and in the process, they contribute to their own develop-
ment. Their daily life experiences help in this process.
Interaction between biological maturation and the environment leads to development and learning.
However, theorists have different views about how this interaction takes place. The physical and social
environment in which a child lives, determines this interaction. Play has a significant role in this process.
Play also has a role in the development of emotions, cognition and so on. Language development occurs
because of interaction with society. Children play a lot of games in their younger age and communicate
with each other freely in peer groups. This free communication is a very important tool of their language
development. This oral language development provides base for later written language development.
Children get space to express and represent their views, thought and feeling through play.
A safe environment is essential for development and learning. Children need to feel free to express
themselves. It is the responsibility of the school, home and community to provide a safe and secure envi-
ronment for children.
Principles of Development
In this section, we shall focus on the different principles associated with development and learning.
Principle of Change
As we know, human beings always think of moving ahead. Similarly, the nature and scope of develop-
ment involved also changes with time. What a person was at age 5, will not be same at age 20. The person
will have changed in many respects such as physical growth, understanding and maturation. The process
of development in the person also changes correspondingly.
Principle of Significance of Early Development

A universally accepted idea is that early development is more important and critical than later devel-
opment. Early development involves the experiences a child has during his or her young age. Healthy
experiences will lead to healthy development while negative experiences may lead to an unhealthy
development. Positive experiences can be provided by parents through love and caring. There are some
capabilities, which develop best at some specific time of life, such as brain development, language devel-
opment and so on. Parental love and care promote the mental health of a child and the child becomes
less prone to behavioural problems at a later age.
Principle of Predictability
Development principles are predictable. We can know the particular age at which children will learn to
walk, speak and so on. These predations help to decide many things for children. But, it is important to
note that this principle does not mean that all children will develop in same way. There may be differ-
ences in the way each child develops because every child has a unique personality, which is developed on
the basis of his or her socio-cultural context.
Principle of Interaction between Heredity and Environment

Development of child is a process that cannot be defined wholly based either on heredity or envi-
ronment. Both have to play an important role in child development. There are arguments in favour
of both. However, most of the psychologists agree that an interplay of these two factors leads to
development. Where heredity decides or set some limits on development (mostly physical), envi-
ronmental influences complete the developmental process (qualitative). Environmental influences
provide space for multi-dimensional development through interaction with family, peer, society
and so on.
Principle of Individual Differences

One the most important principle of development is that it involves individual differences. There is no
fixed rate of development. That all children will learn to walk is universal, but the time at which each
child takes his or her first step may vary. This difference may be attributed to heredity and environmental
factors. It is important to understand Environmental influences provide these differences to provide bet-
ter opportunities for development.
Principle of Expectations
There are some expectations from a child at each stage of development. For example during infancy,
children learn to control physical actions; as toddlers, they learn to correlate the different concepts they
have learnt; at school, they learn to interact with peer group and increase their social context. Therefore,
there are some expectations associated with different stages of development.
Principle of Association of Maturation and Learning

Biological growth and development is known as maturation. Biological change involves changes in the
brain and the nervous system, which provide new abilities to a child. Development proceeds from simple
to complex. In the beginning, a child learns through concrete objects and gradually moves to abstract
thinking. This transition happens because of maturation.
Principle of Continuation
Development is a continuous process. Children keep adding new skills to their abilities on the basis of
their experiences. Almost all children follow a similar pattern in the sequence of acquisition of their skills.
This sequence continues to move and add new knowledge and skills and help children to learn from their
experiences. There is no time when we do not learn. Learning is directly related to development, which
in turn, is a process that stops only with the life of a person.
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Human development is affected by several factors. Different studies were conducted to understand the
factors influencing human development and two factors were found to play a major role. They are hered-
ity and environment. Heredity explains our growth pattern and determines how we grow older. We are
similar to our parents, not only in terms of physical characters, but also in what we do. In the same way,
environment also influences our learning, behaviour and personality. The similarities that we have with
our parents depend upon the genetic makeup transmitted from the parents to the child. Heredity may
influence many traits such as the colour of the eyes, height and susceptibility to specific diseases.
Similarly, development is also influenced by the environment. Environment, here, refers to the sur-
rounding context, interaction with people, socio-cultural context, political and historical context of the
person’s life and many other dimensions. The school has significant role to play in a child’s learning and
development. Content, pedagogy, school environment, teachers and peer group contribute to the school
environment of a child.
The debate of the importance of role of heredity versus that of environment is very prominent. Though
studies have proved that we all are part and parcel of a combination of both, it sometimes becomes dif-
ficult to say which influences more, heredity or environment.
Heredity is a science where we study the role and importance of heredity in different aspects of devel-
opment. The study of genes, how they are transmitted from one generation to another and how they
influence a person, is the subject matter of human genetics. Conception occurs when a man’s sperm cell
contacts an ovum. At the time of conception, the 23 chromosomes of sperms combine with the 23 chro-
mosomes of ovum. Genes that are present in these chromosomes carry hereditary traits. Here, it is also
important to know that mutation is a process when genetic structures are changed.
Environment refers to everything except heredity, which stimulates and influences a person. It includes
the person’s family life, social life, economic life, peer group, education and so on. Studies have proved
that the role of heredity and environment in development is significant.
This debate is also known as nature versus nurture, where nature stands for heredity and nurture
stands for environment. Nature and nurture have their own role in child development. Two children in
the same family getting the same treatment will still have different rates of development. Not only this,
their intelligence levels will also be different from one another. This shows that heredity has a great
influence. But, on the other hand, when twins are nurtured in different environments, they are seen to
develop differently. Thus, environment also plays a significant role in child development.
The above discussion explains that development happens because of the interaction of environment
and heredity where both have a significant role to play. While certain things are determined by heredity,
others are developed by the environment.
Principle of Heredity
The union of 23 chromosomes of the male with that of the female is the cause for conception. Of these,
22 pairs of chromosomes are the same in men and women. These are known as autosomes. The 23rd
chromosome decides the sex of the child and is known as sex chromosome. In females this sex chromo-
some is similar, but in men it is dissimilar. It is important to understand that there are two types of sex
chromosomes, i.e., X and Y, of which X is a long and Y is a small chromosome. The female has only X
chromosome while the male has both. When the X chromosome of the female combines with the X chro-
mosome of the male, a female baby is conceived. When the X chromosome of the female combines with
the Y chromosome of the male, it results in a male baby. Chromosomes are made of genetic matter. Each
gene determines a different characteristic and we inherit them from our forefathers.
Some people have more X and Y chromosomes than normal. As we know, the normal combination is
XY and XX. But sometimes abnormalities set in to create chromosomal combinations such as XXY or XYY
or XO. In XXY abnormality, a person will look like a man but will be sterile (Klinefelter’s Syndrome). In XO
abnormality, person will look like a female but will be sterile (Turner’s Syndrome). In XYY abnormality,
the person develops tendencies of delinquency.
Role of Heredity and Environment in Development (A Few Case Studies)
There are various studies available, which prove that heredity affects the different aspects of devel-
opment. These studies were conducted on identical twins and fraternal twins. Identical twins conceive
when a single egg is fertilised to form one zygote, which then divides to form separate embryos. These
twins will be genetically equivalent human beings. In the case of fraternal twins, two separate eggs are
fertilised. These twins will share some common genetic characteristics but they will be unique from each
other. Thus, identical twins share more characteristics than fraternal twins
Plomin and Petrill (1997) said that mostly twins live in a single family with parents and in the same envi-
ronment. However, even when twins live in different families, they share many characteristics, proving the
effect of heredity on development. These children have similar biological parents in terms of heredity.
It is important to note that heredity and environment both have a significant role to play as far
as development is concerned. Here, we shall discuss some studies of twin children and roster chil-
dren and their development. These studies prove that the environment also has an important role in
development.
Jim Lewis and Jim Springer: They are identical twins and both grew up in different families. They
met with each other when they were 45 years old. Dr Thomas Bouchard (1980) of University of
Minnesota studied them to understand their developed behaviour. Different tests were con-
ducted on them with reference to intelligence, adjustment and other aspects of development.
The finding proved that they have lots of similarities and differences too. Thomas concluded
that both heredity and environment played a significant role in development.
Geselll and Thompsaon (1929), conducted a study on two identical twin girls. They were kept in
similar environment. When they reached to age 14, their behaviour was studied and the finding
was surprising. In many ways such as physical growth, appearance and intelligence, they both
were similar. But in-depth study showed that there are differences in their behaviour, intelli-
gence and so on. Gesell and Thompson proved that heredity and environment played a signifi-
cant role in the development of these identical twins girls.
Oskar Stohr and Jack Yufe: Both were separated when they were six months old. Oskar grew up
as a catholic in Germany, whereas Jack grew up as a Jew in Israel. Despite their different social
and cultural backgrounds and the distance that separated them, they showed a lot of similari-
ties when they met after more than 40 years. Their speech and thought patterns were similar.
However, there were also differences, owing mostly to the difference in culture in which they
were brought up.
Only identical twins can share exactly similar genetic characteristics. Popular notion about any kind of
twins is that they will look alike, but, it is not true. Fraternal twins are ordinary siblings, as they do not have
similar genetic formation. The possibility of genetic similarity is very high in identical twins as they develop
from a single fertilised ovum.
Traits are decided by the interaction of different genes. The kind of traits a person has is not the
outcome of a single pair of genes. It is the result of interaction of various genes. However, it is also
a fact that traits which are based on the effect of combination of different genes are difficult to
study.
Laws of Heredity
Johann Gregor Mendal (1866) contributed significantly in developing the laws of heredity. He propounded
two laws of heredity, namely, ‘Law of Segregation and Dominance’ and ‘Law of Independent Assortment.’
Though he conducted all his experiments on plants, his laws are universally accepted. We can understand his
laws in brief as given below.
Law of Segregation and Dominance

If the traits of one gene are not manifest in one generation, it does not mean that they die. They still sur-
vive and may come to the fore or become dominant in future generations. For example, if a person has a
specific kind of genetic problem, there is a possibility that his son may not express that problem explicitly,
but, his grandson may show it just as he does now.
Law of Independent Assortment

This law explains that distribution of one genetic trait does not influence the distribution of other traits.
For example, in a white family, all will be white but their height may vary.
Importance of Heredity and Environment for Education

The above discussions clearly prove that both heredity and environment have a specific role to play in
development and also in education. A balanced development occurs because of the combined role of
heredity and environment. A child may have good heredity background, but if the environment in which
he or she is brought up is not good, he or she may not develop adequately. On the contrary even if the
heredity is not good, favourable environmental factors can help in a child’s development.
Awareness of a child’s heredity and environment is important for a teacher. This awareness will help
the teacher understand the reasons behind a child’s behaviour and facilitate his or her development. It
also gives a complete perspective of the child’s tendencies, desires, problems and aspirations and helps
the teacher to interact with the students as required.
SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND
èè Interaction of heredity and environment influ- èè A safe environment and secure relationships
ences learning and development. provide better space for development.
èè Every aspect of learning and development is èè Social and cultural contexts influence both
significant. development and learning.
èè The rate of development and learning differs èè There are different ways by which children can
based on individual differences. be trained to learn and develop.
èè Early development is more significant than èè Chromosomes always occur in pairs. Genes are
later development. part of chromosomes and these determine the
èè Development moves from simple to complex. traits of a person.
èè Play has a significant role in development and èè Every child carries 23 pair of chromosomes – 23
learning. chromosomes from the father and 23 from the
èè There is a predictable sequence in development mother. One chromosome is different (sex chro-
and learning. mosome) in men and this decides the sex of a
child.
èè We also should be aware that only one half of and learning. This will enable them to under-
the child’s genes are from the parents while the stand children better and enhance the stu-
remaining portion is inherited from ancestors. dent’s learning skills.
èè Teachers should have knowledge about the role
of heredity and environment in d evelopment
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is the relationship between learning and 9. How does an understanding of the principle of
development? Answer with suitable examples. development help teachers?
2. How is social development different from cog- 10. You are a teacher of class 10. What will you
nitive development? suggest to the parents in a PTA meeting for
3. Why are early life experiences more significant a healthy development of identity of their
in development than later experiences? children?
4. How does heredity and environment influence 11. How is identity achievement better than iden-
development? tity foreclosure? Why?
5. With suitable examples, prove that develop- 12. Rohan and Mukesh are identical twins. Mukesh
ment patterns are predictable. was adopted by someone living miles away
6. Discuss the role of socio-cultural context in from Rohan’s family. Rohan and Mukesh met
development and learning. when they are at age 30. There are numer-
ous similarities and differences between them.
7. Helping learners recapitulate or recall what
What are the causes of these similarities and
they have already learnt is important because:
differences? Take some examples hypotheti-
8. There are cultural diversities in an Indian class cally and explain where they will be similar and
room. How can you make use of these diversi- different.
ties to provide better space for learning? 13. How does the knowledge of heredity and
environment of a child help teachers in their
teaching?
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following statements is not true (d) Cognitive achievement is associated with
about friendship in adolescence? increased intimacy in adolescent friendship.
(a) Friendship and adjustment are related 2. A study was conducted to see the effect of par-
notions. In good friendship, there is good enting style on learning and motivation. It was
adjustment; in bad friendship, there is a found that parents of children with high perfor-
problem in adjustment. mance use _______________ style of parenting.
(b) Friendship in adolescence is more intensive (a) authoritarian
than any other period of life. (b) authoritative
(c) In adolescence, females need more emo- (c) permissive
tional support than males. (d) None of the above
3. Human development has which of the follow- 9. Humans have ___________ pairs of chromosomes.
ing four domains: (a) 55 (b) 60
(a) Psychological, emotional, physical and (c) 46 (d) 23
cognitive. 10. A change in the genetic structure of a gene is
(b) Physical, social, cognitive and spiritual. called:
(c) Physical, social, emotional and cognitive. (a) Translocation (b) Duplication
(d) Spiritual, cognitive, emotional and (c) Inversion (d) Mutation
social-psychological.
11. Twenty-two pairs of chromosomes are the same
4. ___________ is an important principle of
in male and female. They are known as:
development.
(a) Autosomes
(a) Discontinuous process
(b) Simlarsomes
(b) The various processes of development are
(c) YY chromosomes
not inter-related
(d) XX chromosomes
(c) It does not proceed at the same pace for all
(d) Development cannot be linear 12. A newborn baby will be a boy if it has:
5. Individual attention has to play an important (a) XX chromosomes
role in the teaching–learning process because (b) XY chromosomes
(a) it provides better space to discipline each (c) YY chromosomes
student. (d) Cannot be decided
(b) learning and development take place dif- 13. “The traits of one gene that are non-effective in
ferently in learners. one generation may appear in the next.” This is
(c) learners always learn better in groups. the principle of:
(d) it is taught in teacher education programmes. (a) Segregation and dominance
6. Human development is the result of: (b) Independent assortment
(a) Only environment (c) Transferability
(b) Only heredity (d) Genes transformation
(c) Upbringing and education
14. When does a child start going to a formal
(d) Interaction between heredity and
school system?
environment
(a) Childhood
7. Cephalocaudal development takes place from: (b) Later childhood
(a) Head to body (c) Pre-adolescence
(b) Body to head (d) Adolescence
(c) Inside to outside
(d) Outside to inside 15. A child cries loudly when he or she goes to
school for the first time to show discomfort.
8. Sonu and her father are playing with a toy car.
But he/she does not cry when admitted to
Sonu’s father drives the car in front of Sonu.
another school later, since he/she then feels
Sonu seems to be very excited to play and
only a little tensed. This change in behaviour
touch the car. Soun’s father, however, quickly
represents which of the following principle of
hides the car toy behind his back. Sonu turns
development?
back from his father and starts playing a ball.
(a) Principle of gradual development
What is the age of Sonu?
(b) Principle of orderly development
(a) 10 months old
(c) Principle of differentiation and
(b) 1 month old
inter-gradation
(c) 15 months old
(d) Principle of sequential development
(d) 6 months old
16. Which of the following statements is correct? 18. Development is:

(a) There is no influence of environment on (a) Linear
development. (b) Discontinuous
(b) Family rearing does not affect the (c) Not inter-connected
development. (d) It does not occur or proceed at the same
(c) Interaction between genetics and environ- rate for everyone
ment influences development. 19. Concept development is associated with:
(d) Learners with similar ability will adjust (a) Cognitive development
similarly. (b) Emotional development
17. Development is the product of: (c) Social development
(a) Heredity and environment (d) Moral development
(b) Environment alone
20. Heredity is:
(c) Heredity alone
(a) Secondary social structure
(d) Education
(b) Universal social structure
(c) Dynamic social structure
(d) Static social structure
PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following statements about intel- (c) Exact course and nature of development is
ligence is correct? [2019] determined at the time of birth itself.
(a) Intelligence is hereditary trait that involves (d) Individuals develop at different rates.
mental activities such as memory and 4. Several research studies show that teachers
reasoning. have more overall interaction with boys than
(b) Intelligence is multi-dimensional involving girls. What is the correct explanation for this?
several abilities not entirely measureable [2019]
by intelligence tests. (a) Boys need more attention than girls.
(c) Intelligence is the ability to think (b) This is an example of gender bias in teaching.
convergently. (c) Boys are easier to manage than girls in the
(d) Intelligence a relatively permanent change classroom.
in behaviour as a result of experience. (d) Boys have much more academic capabilities
2. Associating toys, articles of clothing, household than girls.
items, occupations and colours with specific 5. Which one of the following statements is true
sex, is a demonstration of [2019] about the role of heredity and environment?
(a) gender theory [2018]
(b) gender relevance (a) A child’s ability to learn and perform is
(c) evolved gender identity completely decided by the genes.
(d) gender stereotyping (b) Good care and a nutritious diet can fight
off any disorder a child is born with.
3. Which of the following is not a principle of
(c) Environment plays a significant role only in
development? [2019]
the child’s language development.
(a) Development is relatively orderly.
(b) Development takes place gradually over a (d) Certain aspects of development are influ-
period of time. enced more by heredity and others more by
environment.
6. School is an institution of socialization of chil- Principle Description

dren where [2018] (a) Proximodistal trend (i) Different children
(a) school routines occupy the central position develop at different
(b) school activities occupy the central position rates
(c) school teachers occupy the central position (b) Cephalocaudal trend (ii) Head to toe sequence
(d) school children occupy the central position (c) Inter individual (iii) In a single child, the
differences rate of development
7. The cephalocaudal principle of development can vary from one
domain of develop-
explains how development proceeds from:
ment to the other
[2016]
(d) Intra individual (iv) From the centre of
(a) head to toe differences body to outwards
(b) rural to urban areas (v) Progression from
(c) general to specific functions simple to complex
(d) differentiated to integrated functions
12. The period of infancy is from : [2015]
8. A 6-year-old girl shows exceptional sporting (a) birth to 1 year
ability. Both of her parents are sports persons, (b) birth to 2 years
send her for coaching everyday and train her (c) birth to 3 years
on weekends. Her capabilities are most likely to (d) 2 to 3 years
be the result of an interaction between:[2016]
13. Development proceeds from _________ to
(a) health and training
_________ [2015]
(b) discipline and nutrition
(a) general → specific
(c) heredity and environment
(b) complex → hard
(d) growth and development
(c) specific → general
9. Which of the following statements about prin- (d) dsimple → easy
ciples of development is incorrect? [2016]
14. Which one of the following is not the principle
(a) Development depends on maturation and
of child development? [2015]
learning.
(a) All development follows a sequence.
(b) Development takes place due to a con-
(b) All areas of. development are important.
stant interaction between heredity and
(c) All development results from an interac-
environment.
tion of maturation and experience.
(c) Every child goes through stages of develop-
(d) All development and learning proceed at
ment, yet there are wide individual differ-
an equal rate.
ences among children.
(d) Development is a quantitative process 15. What is meant by ‘nature’ in ‘nature-nurture’
which can be measured precisely. controversy? [2015]
(a) The environment around us
10. The unique interaction of _________ and
(b) Biological givens or the hereditary
_________ can result in different paths and out-
information
comes of development. [2016]
(c) Temperament of an individual
(a) challenges; limitations
(d) Complex forces of the physical and social
(b) heredity; environment
world
(c) stability; change
(d) exploration; nutrition 16. Which one of these is a principle of child
development? [2015]
11. Match the following Principles of development
(a) Development occurs due to interaction
with their correct descriptions: [2016]
between maturation and experience.
(b) Experience is the sole determinant of (c) Heredity and environment are insepa-
development. rably interwoven and both influence
(c) Development is determined by reinforce- development.
ment and punishment. (d) Children are genetically predisposed to
(d) Development can accurately predict the what they would be like irrespective of
pace of each individual child. whatever environment they grow up in.
17. In the context of ‘nature-nurture’ debate, 18. Human development is [2014]
which one of the following statements seems (a) quantitative
appropriate to you? [2015] (b) qualitative
(a) A child is like a blank slate whose character (c) unmeasurable to a certain extent
can be moulded by the environment into (d) both quantitative and qualitative
any shape. 19. The nature-nurture debate refers to [2014]
(b) Environmental influences only have a lit- (a) genetics and environment
tle value in shaping up a child’s behaviour (b) behaviour and environment
which is primarily genetically determined. (c) environment and biology
(d) environment and upbringing
ANSWER KEYS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a)
2 Socialisation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Engage with the discourse of socialisation
• Elaborate upon the process of socialisation with reference to its types and agencies
• Explore different perspectives of theorists about socialisation
• Develop a critical perspective about the role of education, society and state in socialisation
INTRODUCTION
“Socialisation” is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political scientists, and
educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ide-
ologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within his or her own
society. Socialisation is thus, “the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained.”
Socialisation can be defined as the type of social learning that occurs when a person interacts with
other individuals. It refers to a process through which “individuals learn to become members of society by
internalising social norms, values, and expectations and by learning the appropriate cognitive, personal,
and social skills they need to function as productive members of their societies.” Part of the socialisa-
tion process entails development of self and personality enhancement. In other words, it is the process
through which we become who we are and through which we develop relatively stable characteristics
that distinguish us from each other. Many theorists argue that the socialisation process occurs over a
person’s lifetime.
Socialisation occurs through human interaction. A great deal of learning happens with family
members, best friends, teachers, and all those for whom we have affection and respect. We also
learn, though to a limited extent, from the people on the street, characters, portrayals and depictions
of characters in films and magazines and other sources. It is through observation and interaction that
we learn to behave according to the expected norms and values of the society. Socialisation affects
the overall cultural fabric of the society and every society ensures that its children get attuned to
societal norms at an early age. Socialisation shapes our perception of ourselves as well as of the out-
side world.
Socialisation is a process through which a “biological child” acquires specific “cultural identity” and
learns to respond to such an identity. It is through the means of socialisation that human infants begin to
acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society and is the most influential
learning process one can experience. While an animal’s behaviour is biologically set, human beings need
social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.
Socialisation has been an area of study for the sociologist, social psychologist, anthropologist, and
educationist for a long time. As for educationists, it is important for them to study socialisation as a phe-
nomenon. Sociologists study socialisation primarily to understand how to acquire knowledge, behaviour,
attitude and value to live in a society. In other words, the sociologist looks for ways by which objective
knowledge and behaviour of the society can be internalised by a child. Psychologists study socialisation
in the form of personality development. Many psychologists who study child development, stages and
concepts also include socialisation in their curriculum to develop an understanding of self-development
and of how perception about others is formed.
Cooley Concept of ‘Looking Glass Self’

Socialisation is a process by which an individual interacts significantly with others, and his or her view
about one’s own self becomes very important. Everyone develops his or her identity with reference to
how others think and perceive him or her and how he or she takes others’ perception. In other words, a
person’s identity is developed based on his or her understanding of how others perceive him or her. C.H.
Cooley (1902) called it the ‘looking glass’ self.
There are two specific aspects which influence one’s socialisation, namely, the individual and others
(social groups). As per C.H. Cooley, these two aspects are also known as primary and secondary groups.
The interaction taking place between the individual and others contributes to the process of socialisation.
C.H. Cooley proposed a theory of self-development and argues that development of self is subject to oth-
ers’ interpretation of a person and how that person takes and perceives that interpretation. Others view
us send us back an image – a perception that becomes crucial for the development of self.
We are all conscious of how we look: our face, body and overt personality, and are concerned about how
others will view us and what they will think about us. We live in an imaginary world where we try to per-
ceive ourselves from the other’s point of view. Piaget called it adolescence ego centrism, in which children
develop an imaginary audience.
According to C.H. Cooley (1902) “as we see our face, figure, and dress in the glass, and are
interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as
they do or do not answer to what we should like them to be; so in imagination we perceive in
another’s mind some thought of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and
so on, and are variously affected by it.”
In the same line, Howson (2004) argued that as a mirror tells us about our external features and appear-
ance, so our internal appearance is determined by what others think about us and how we are affected by
that thinking. Looking glass has been used as a metaphor to explain our understanding about the explicit
or concrete information we have about us directly or through others. This helps in development of the
idea of self. He also said that three aspects are significantly important for development of self: how we
appear to others, how others think or perceive us and self-feeling and self-perspective. Whether we are
looking handsome, the community one belongs to and the feeling of being handsome or being associated
with any particular community can be seen as examples of the above-mentioned three aspects respectively.
Hence, we may conclude by saying that C.H. Cooley believes that our self is constructed on the basis of
our interaction with the three aspects mentioned above.
It is worth quoting Hepworth in full here because he puts it so beautifully: “Because we have no direct
access to the external reality of the body, even with the existence of aids such as mirrors and the wide
Chapter 2 Socialisation 17
range of technical apparatus available to us now (cameras, video cameras and the like), the act of human
perception is always mediated symbolically by meaning. When we look into a mirror, we are therefore
engaged in an act of the imagination whereby the self is constructed symbolically as a portrait or picture”
(Hepworth, 2000).
“I” and “Me” by Mead

Mead is known for his contribution to the field of development of mind. He also contributed to the field
of the development of self-consciousness, which he represented best by “I” and “me”. He perceived “I”
and “me” as different but associated phases and emphasised on the collectiveness/wholeness of the two
with reference to the development of self-consciousness.
To understand Mead’s theory, the process of internalisation is significant. It can be best understood as
“me” or the self we are most acquainted with, and focuses on how a person internalises the attitude of
others. “I” refers to the ideas, understanding or attitude we present to others. “I” represents the agency
a person uses by him/her -self whereas “me” relates the self to others and gets affected by them directly
or indirectly.
“I” and “me” are part of the self but have different features. In this context, it is important to under-
stand how one can be outside of him/her -self. It is difficult to be detached form one’s experiences since
he/she would be part of the self. Mead believes that this is the fundamental problem with selfhood. He
argues that it is important to be an object to be reflexive about an individual.
Social role, social participation and social influence are important aspects of Mead’s theory of “I” and
“me”. The formation of mind plays a major role in the understanding of a person’s perspective. We live
in a society and interaction based on interpersonal relations help us to understand each other’s perspec-
tives. These perspectives play a major role in language development and are reinforced while interacting
with parents, friends or playing with toys leading to intellectual and emotional development.
There is no single way of development of self; rather, there are multiple ways to it. Society influ-
ences a person but society is constituted by people only. This relationship can be considered to be
argumentative, but since we develop our self with reference to the interaction we have in our soci-
ety and are not born with it, the kind of environment we get to experience in our world determines
the kind of personality we turn out to be. However, an important aspect of this theory is that simply
being present in any environment does not affect one’s nature; rather, it is active engagement that
plays a more significant role. Butts (2008) said that when we become able to take on others’ perspective
and try to understand it, this role-taking is known as the theory of mind.
Theory of Mind
In this sense, there is no “essential core or self to the person,” and each person could have been con-
structed differently. Once constructed by society, individuals themselves then shape societies. Berger and
Luckmann (1967) described this relationship as a dialectic operation. The cornerstone of this philosophy is
that “people are not born with what we think of as a self, but develop it in their interaction with others.”
The unit of analysis in this interaction is the social act. When humans begin the process of developing
self-consciousness and are able to take on perspectives of others, this role taking is known as “theory of
mind”.
Types of Socialisation
There are primarily two types of socialisation – primary socialisation and secondary socialisation. Primary
socialisation occurs during the initial phases of life.
Primary Socialisation
In primary socialisation, identity of self is first conceived and formed and later strengthened by second-
ary socialisation. The identity of self formed during this period remains more or less intact. It is called
primary due to two facts: first, it happens at the starting phase of life and second, more importantly, it
has a powerful impact on our life and plays determining role in shaping attitudes. The period of primary
socialisation starts with the arrival of a child into this world. At that time, the child has no conception and
comes only with sensory schema. Most of the time spent by the child in this period is with “significant
others”, meaning mothers, fathers, family members or other care-takers. During this period, learning
mostly involves internalisation and occurs in an emotionally charged environment. A child internalises the
significant other’s way of seeing the world and further develops a liking or disliking for colour and taste.
The process of how development of self happens in a child can be better understood by C.H. Cooley’s
“looking glass self” theory and Mead’s concept of “I” and “Me” explained above. With the internalisa-
tion of self of significant others and externalising it, a child comes to have his or her self developed.
Apart from development of self, this initial period is marked by development of the idea of society and
development of social roles in the child’s mind. However, it is only in the secondary socialisation period
that a child learns complex roles.
Secondary Socialisation
Secondary socialisation starts with a child’s first steps into larger society. “Secondary socialisation is the
acquisition of role-specific knowledge, the roles being directly or indirectly rooted in the division of
labour.” Education falls into secondary socialisation while some psychologists argue that the primary
years of schooling are still a part of primary socialisation. “In secondary socialisation, biological limita-
tions become decreasingly important to the learning sequences, which now come to be established in
terms of intrinsic properties of the knowledge to be acquired; that is, in terms of the foundational struc-
ture of that knowledge. For example, in order to learn certain hunting techniques one must first learn
mountain climbing; or in order to learn calculus one must first learn algebra.” Although most of learning
of roles, skills, and proper behaviours occur during secondary socialisation, it is marked by one fundamen-
tal problem: “it always presupposes a preceding process of primary socialisation; that is, it must deal with
an already formed self and an already internalised world.”
Institution or Agents of Socialisation

Institutions or agents of socialisation that can impress social norms upon an individual include the fam-
ily, education, religion, peer groups, economic systems, legal systems, penal systems, language and the
media. A child comes into contact with these institutions and gets socialised in the course of interacting
with these groups. People may be socialised into groups, of which they are already a part or they may
wish to attach to other groups. It is not a process completed in early childhood; in contrast, it takes place
throughout life.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory of Individual and

Social Development
Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed this theory of human social development in the year 1979. This theory
has helped greatly in analysing and understanding a person and the effect of different environmental
systems that he or she encounters. Though the theory has undergone many changes since its first publica-
tion, it became the foundation for many other theoretical works. The Ecological System theory explains
MACROSYSTEM
Attitudes and ideologies
of the culture
EXOSYSTEM
Social MESOSYSTEM
Industry
services
MICROSYSTEM
Family Peers
INDIVIDUAL
(sex, age,
health, etc.)
Church School
Mass
Neighbours
media Health services
Local politics
Ecological theory of human development
the changes that happen in a child and how a child’s environment affects him as he grows and develops.
The theory emphasises that environmental factors play a major role in development.
The below given figure depicts the ecological theory of human development.
An individual child is not an isolated being. He or she lives as part of a larger set-up. While the child’s
relation with a few members of the set-up is direct, his or her interactions with others may be distant and
not as evident. However, these interactions are consequential and have an effect on the child’s develop-
ment. According to this theory, there are layers of ecological system and their interacting systems are not
separated from one another. There is an interaction not only among systems but also between the system
and the child, and the child’s own interaction with the systems. Earlier versions of this theory gave little
agency to the child but in the later versions it accepts the agency on the part of child and holds that the
child also interacts and modifies the systems.
Bronfenbrenner divided the ecological systems as different aspects and layers and called them the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem and the chronosystem.
Microsystem
Children’s microsystem includes any immediate relationships or organisation they interact with. Family,
peers, siblings, friends and teachers, come under this system. They are immediate and directly connected
with the child. How these institutions interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows. With
ncouragement and better nutriment, the child will be able to grow better. Moreover, how a child acts and
e
reacts to these people in the microsystem will, in turn, affect his or her behaviour. It is to be noted that the
unique genetic makeup and biology of each child also influences his or her personality traits.
Mesosystem
The mesosystem involves the relationship between the microsystem and one’s life. It connects two rela-
tionships, such as interaction between one’s family and teachers, relationship between the child’s peers
and family and so on. This means that one relationship is related to the other and has an impact on one
another. If the parents neglect a child, the probability is that a child will not develop positive attitude
towards the teacher. In addition, it may be possible that in the presence of peers, this child may feel
awkward and in the presence of classmates, he may resort to withdrawal. The conflicting environment
of family might have a negative impact on the growth of a child. Parents need to take an active role to
ensure proper growth of their child. Parents attending teacher–parent conferences and watching their
child playing cricket or badminton games will help to ensure the child’s overall growth.
Exosystem
The exosystem is a setting where children do not play any active role but maintain a link in the context
of the systems where they are actively participating. Thus, institutions have an effect on the child’s
socialisation. In this system come the parents’ workplace, extended family members, the neighbour-
hood, school boards, and mass media. Children may not be directly associated with these institutions
but they wield a large influence on their growth. For example, if one of the child’s parents is laid off
from job and he is unable to pay rent or buy groceries that will affect the child negatively. If the child’s
parent gets a promotion and a raise at work, this will have positive effect as the child will now be
provided with better facilities. Take one more example: If a child’s father has to move to another city
due to work, there may be a conflict between the mother’s and the child’s social relationship if this
movement exposes them to an unfamiliar culture and environment posing serious adaptation prob-
lems. However, the opposite may also turn out to be true and the changed surroundings can help to
bring about a tighter bond between the mother and the child. Nowadays, the media has tremendously
penetrated into the setting of the child. Children are watching a lot of cartoon and entertainment pro-
grammes. These programmes have been showing a negative effect on the child’s overall development.
Mass media restricts children’s involvement with context and increases their passivity. Children are also
exposed to violent and sexually implicit material at a very early age, which has resulted in their show
of aggression and disposition to unreal fantasies.
Macrosystem
The macrosystem describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include the status of the
country one lives in (developing or developed), socio-economic status, laws, history, and social condition. A
child’s parent’s workplace, his school, his standing in society, regional history, family status and caste are all
part of the large cultural and social context. Members of a culture share common cultural identity, values,
and heritage. The macrosystem may evolve over time as each successive generation may change the mac-
rosystem and lead to development in a unique fashion. The components of the macrosystem affect a child
throughout his or her lifetime. For example, a child born in a poor family has to work harder than a finan-
cially well-off child. Social and economic hardship mostly follows the poor all their life. Much research has
found that the macrosystem has tremendous impact on the child in terms of his or her overall development.
A child’s destiny may well be written in advance by the fact of his birth in one macrosystem or the other.
Chronosystem
The chronosystem refers to the changes or transitions that happen over the course of one’s lifetime.
It also includes changes in socio-historical circumstances. For example, divorce is one such transition.
Researchers have found that children have peak negative experience during the first year of divorce. By
the end of two years after parents’ divorce, its influence becomes less chaotic and more stable. An exam-
ple of the significance of socio-historical circumstance in the chronosystem would be the increase seen in
opportunities for women to pursue a career during the last forty years.
Since its publication in 1979, the Bronfenbrenner model of human development has influenced psy-
chologists over the years. His model, however, has been criticised for being too simplistic and lacking
in detail. Its inability to explain complexity and focussing little on interaction has drawn huge criticism.
Despite changes in the model over the years, it retains its overly environmentally deterministic outlook. It
does not pay much attention to children’s action and their resistance. The levels have also been criticised
for being too simplistic and for not addressing the fact of confluence of the micro and the macro in a
child directly. The exosystem and the macrosystem have been merged over the years since it is hard to
make a distinction between these two as they appear to blend at one time and diverge at another.
SOCIALISATION AND EDUCATION

Both socialisation and education involve selective learning and are attained through the means of system-
atic reinforcement of certain behaviour patterns. It involves the progressive learning of a series of roles.
Socialisation is mostly an unconscious subjective process rooted in the primary institutions of society while
education endeavours are considered to be conscious and purposive and is connected with the secondary
institutions of socialisation. In the pre-modern era, most of the learning was done through socialisation and
not through formal education. Individuals learnt largely by directly participating in the work, the family,
receiving religious instructions and so on. In such societies, there was a limited pool of knowledge and roles
that did not entail complexities and socialisation of the child ensured that no formal education was neces-
sary. In those societies, there was little need for a complicated pattern of education system and the child did
not have to be separated for more than six hours per day to an enclosed place called school. Education, even
if present, was mostly imparted in the form of apprenticeship. The modern system of education has its ori-
gin in industrial societies where the need was felt to impart more knowledge to children than what sociali-
sation could pass on. Today, in most parts of the contemporary world, education is disseminated through
a large and highly complex organisation. This organisation is a formal one because “it has a set of clearly
established goals, a definite structure, and procedure for reaching the established goals.” A student does
not merely respond to the formal knowledge presented by the teacher, lecture, and textbook. Students also
respond “to the informal patterns of relation and expectation that develop within the student body and
between a teacher and a student. It is this interaction between the formal and informal aspects of educa-
tion that distinguishes education (which is organised) from other aspects of socialisation.”
School as Social System

The school system refers to a space distinguished from the society set-up in its internal organisation and
possessing a sub-world. It is in this space that children from different families assemble to gain one com-
mon knowledge. Children bring with them a certain culture, pattern of speech, certain habits and certain
orientations of life, which they have learnt in their family and neighbourhood.
Children develop a set of relations in school with teachers and among classmates. Many things influ-
ence this relationship–the teacher’s attitude, extra-curricular activities in the school, the division of school
into classes, the values emphasised by the teachers and the headmaster and the social background of
the child. All these factors play immense role in determining whether a child establishes a healthy relation in
school and secures a particular position there. The student’s self-esteem and success is greatly influenced by these
above-mentioned factors.
Given below are a few parameters that will help us understand the role of school in socialisation:
nn
Curriculum nn
Peer group
nn
Pedagogy nn
Student–teacher relationships
nn
Textbooks nn
School’s attitude towards education
nn
Activities (curricular and co-curricular)
(co-scholastic)
Family, Socialisation and Education

The family is closely associated with the process of socialisation and plays a key role in the care-giving and
rearing of its children. From the time we are infants, we grow in the family and it is here that we form our
sense of self and personal identity. Development of normal socialisation skills and later development at
school great depend on the kind of family relations we have. Many studies have supported the claim that
parent–child interaction pattern can have a great influence on child development at school. Different
types of parenting have been identified: authoritative, liberal and so on. The nature of parenting is deci-
sive in the development of socially competent behaviour in children.
“Socially competent behaviour encompasses a range of socially valued behaviours and characteristics,
including cognitive development, internal locus of control, instrumental competence, and conformity to
parental standards.” Vygotsky argued that interaction between children and persons in the family helps to
mature cognitive ability of the child. When children interact with a mature person they learn more. The con-
fluence model of intellectual development combining contextual dimensions to the basic socialisation theory,
argues that intelligence of children is greatly enhanced by their interaction with mature persons. Thus, if a
child has younger siblings and his/ her interaction mostly happens with these younger, less mature persons,
then it is probable that the child might have less intellectual development. The reverse of this is also true.
Parents also influence the child’s experience in school. Parents can become associated with the child’s
school activities by visiting the school often, encouraging the child to recount his or her experience at
school, helping the child to complete homework and so on.
Epstein, in a study on the relationship between family and school, followed older children in VIII and IX grades
in order to assess the effect of the nature of their relations at home on their school activities. Both home and
school experiences were assessed based on the degree of the child’s participation in decision making. Greater
participation was shown by children who came from homes that were more democratic. It was reported that in
those families where democratic pattern was followed, children showed greater degree of freedom and their
attitude towards school was also positive. In addition, these children obtained higher school grades. Thus, it can
be said with all certainty that the family influences the educational process in two ways:
1. “They provide the kind of interpersonal stimulation that leads to the development in the child of
characteristics that are functional in school settings”
2. “They guide, coach, explain, encourage, and intercede on the behalf of children in reference to the
school experience.”
The family set-up clearly helps children to “acquire the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that make
them more or less able members of their (school’s) society.”
Social Class, Socialisation and Education

Social class is not separated from family and influences socialisation. The social class in which a child is
brought up has a great influence on his or her attitude, language and socialisation and these in turn
affect the child’s education and facets of life beyond it.
A few points to enhance our understanding of the role of family in socialisation:

nn
Since family is the first agent to which one is subjected, it forms the basis on which one is
introduced to norms, interpersonal relationships, beliefs and opinions.
nn
Although a family can fulfil a variety of other functions, not all of these are universal or
obligatory.
nn
Family orientation refers to the role of the family in providing children with a position in
society and socialising them.
nn
It provides companionship, love and security for the children and other constituent members.
nn
It establishes and continues inter-personal relationships among members.
nn
It provides the foundations for personality development.
nn
The family is a smaller group and a more closely-knit social system.
nn
Relationships at the family level are more intimate and face-to-face.
nn
The old and the young are related in a well-defined hierarchy of status.
nn
The family provides the individual with a primary group membership that endures through
life.
nn
The social class and status of the parents greatly affect what a child internalises.
nn
The social status of the family (religious, caste, financial, educationally) influences the child’s
interaction with society.
nn
Similarly, the child’s gender (male or female) also plays a part in his or her societal outlook.
It is argued vigorously that social class determines the extent of a student’s educational attainment. A.H.
Hasley argued that liberal policy makers “failed to notice that the major determinants of educational
attainments were not school masters but social situations, not curriculum but motivation, not formal
access to the school but support in the family and the community.”
In the context of education, terms such as “cultural deprivation”, “cultural capital”, “material disad-
vantage” and “cultural disadvantage” have gained substance. The concept of cultural disadvantage was
used to explain failure of pupils in schools. It was argued that those children who came from sections of
society at a material disadvantage are also at a “cultural disadvantage in terms of attitudes and values
that were transmitted to them.”
Peer Group, Socialisation and Education

As a child grows older, the family becomes less important in his or her social development. Children come
to attach more with their peer groups and spend much time in their company. Within peer groups, it was
found that young people feel more comfortable and enjoy the company of those who are at the same
age and have similar social status. Most friendship choices are made in the classrooms as they have to
spend most of the time there. At a younger age, academics might matter in deciding friendship choices
but during adolescence, it was found that non-academic activities matter more. Many research findings
have suggested that friends tend to be similar on “attitudes towards school, educational ambitions and
even academic performances than are random pairs within the classroom.”
A few points to enhance our understanding of the role of peers in socialisation:

nn
The influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence.
nn
However, peer groups generally affect only short-term interests unlike the family, which has
a long-term influence.
nn
Peer groups can also serve as a venue for teaching members gender roles.
nn
Adolescent peer groups provide support for children and teens as they metamorphose into
the adult society with decreasing dependence on parents, increasing feeling of self-suffi-
ciency, and connecting with a much larger social network.
nn
The term “peer pressure” is often used to describe instances where an individual feels indi-
rectly pressured into changing his or her behaviour.
Gender, Socialisation and Education

Henslin contends, “An important part of socialisation is the learning of culturally defined gender roles.”
Girls and boys have different socialising experiences. By the time a child enters school, he or she has a fair
understanding of their gender identity. This gender identity is acquired largely from parents, siblings, tel-
evisions and other socialising agents. It is termed as gender roles, which means there are certain attitudes,
value and behaviour that are divided based on gender basis. For example, toughness is associated with
men while tenderness is considered as a trait of women. As primary agents of socialisation, parents play
a critical role in developing this gender identity. To differentiate socialisation based on gender, gender
socialisation as a field of study has grown over the years. Gender socialisation refers to the learning of
behaviour and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to
be girls. This “learning” happens by way of many different agents of socialisation. The family is certainly
important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the mass media. Gender
roles are reinforced through “countless subtle and not so subtle ways.”
Children learn gender roles by observing teachers and administration. The social learning theory
explains that gender images are transmitted through books, television programmes and children’s toys.
Teachers and schools are important sources of information on appropriate behaviour.
It was found that despite claims of equality in the classroom, a girl child gets less attention than a
male child there. Boys are encouraged to solve problems while girls are provided answers readily. Girls
are asked to do soft work such as watering plants, while on the other hand, boys are asked to perform
difficult tasks such as lifting desks. On the discipline front too, girls are disciplined less harshly than boys
are. These differences also found portrayed in the textbooks. Many studies have highlighted the fact
that school textbooks often contained a sexist depiction. Women are mostly portrayed as dependent
and doing domestic work, thus reinforcing traditional gender roles entrenched in the larger society. This
stereotypical depiction of gender roles in educational books defeat the larger aim of bringing gender
equality, making schools function more or less in line with society to perpetuate gender roles.
State, Socialisation and Education

Children get a sense of national pride and develop an emotional, positive and patriotic feeling towards
the country during the socialisation process. By observing symbolic nationalism and its propagation by
the mass media, a child develops a sense of national identity. This feeling emerges from the child’s need
to connect with something big and feel associated with a larger cause. The school contributes greatly to
the patriotic feeling in the child. A child comes to identify himself or herself with the nation and think
of sacrificing his or her life for the sake of nation. This project of internalising nationalism is carried out
through colouring textbooks with patriotic emblems, symbols, and stories of those who fought for the
nation. Teachers talk appreciatively of those who put the nation before themselves. In this atmosphere,
children acquire a national identity and feel proud of their nation. Thus, it can be said that the state inter-
venes through the education system to inculcate in children an urge to be faithful to the nation.
Supporting the Learner’s Personal and Social Development through the Process
of Socialisation
Given below are useful tips to the teacher to enhance their students’ personality and social
development:
nn
Help students examine the kind of dilemmas they are currently facing or will face in the near
future: sibling rivalries, teasing, stealing, prejudice, treatment of new students in the class.
nn
Help students see the perspectives of others: allow them to present their views on any topic.
nn
Help students make connections between expressed values and action: what should be done
and what will you do.
nn
Safeguard the privacy of all participants.
nn
Make sure the students are really listening to each other.
nn
Make sure, as much as possible, that the class reflects concern for moral issues and values.
SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND
èè Socialisation refers to the lifelong process of attitude we develop toward ourselves, based
inheriting and disseminating norms, customs on how we believe others perceive us.
and ideologies that provide an individual with èè The internalisation process can be best under-
the skills and habits necessary for interacting stood as “me” or the “self we are aware of”
within his or her own society. and the way in which “humans internalise an
èè Socialisation occurs through human interaction. organised set of attitudes of others.” In con-
èè Socialisation is a process through which a “bio- trast, the “I” of the self is the response to the
logical child” acquires specific “cultural iden- attitudes that the organism offers (Meads).
tity” and learns to respond to such an identity. èè There are two kinds of socialisation,
èè A person’s sense of self is created by the ideas namely, primary socialisation and secondary
he or she believes others have about him or her. socialisation. Primary socialisation is more
èè The metaphor of the looking-glass, or mirror significant than secondary socialisation.
about self emerges in three key stages: first, we èè The Bronfenbrenner model of ecological sys-
imagine how we appear to others; second, the tem of social development talks abut four lay-
self-idea develops in relation to how we imag- ers called microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem
ine others perceive or judge us; and third, the and macrosystem.
self-idea emerges through the self-feeling or
èè School curriculum, pedagogy and other prac- èè Family, peers, community, religion, class, gen-
tices play a significant role in socialisation. der and state are also significant agencies for
socialisation.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. “Socialisation is an ongoing process.” Comment 6. What do you understand by the term “internal-
with suitable examples. isation” and “object self” as given by George
2. Most of the theorists believe that socialisation Meads?
is a process through which a biological child 7. What is the difference between primary sociali-
acquires specific cultural identity and learns to sation and secondary socialisation? Discuss
respond to such an identity. Do you agree with some of their respective agencies with refer-
the given statement? ence to their role in socialisation.
3. Discuss the idea of “self” given by C.H. Cooley. 8. Discuss the following with reference to the pro-
Take some suitable examples to illustrate. cess of socialisation: microsystem, mesosystem,
4. To what extent do you agree with the state- exosystem and macrosystem.
ment that “the self-idea develops in relation to
9. Discuss the role of education and school in the
how we imagine others perceive or judge us.”?
socialisation of children. Take some examples
Discuss with suitable examples.
to support your answer.
5. Elaborate upon Mead’s idea of “I” and “Me”.
Take suitable examples with reference to the
process of socialisation.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following statements is true? (c) the language.

(a) Human infants are born with a culture. (d) All of the above
(b) Human infants come into the world ready
4. Which of the following statements is true?
to learn a culture but are not born with
(a) Socialisation plays no part in personality
one.
formation in individuals.
(c) Socialisation and acculturation are
(b) Heteronormous societies follow some
synonymous.
shared norms.
(d) (b) and (c) are true.
(c) Successful socialisation can result in uni-
2. The general process of acquiring culture is formity within a society.
referred to as _____________. (d) (b) and (c) are true.
(a) socialisation 5. Ram is not socialised like the other members of
(b) acculturation his society. He will be known as being __________
(c) internalisation ______.
(d) None of the above (a) mentally ill
3. Socialisation helps us to learn (b) deviant
(a) the role we have to play in future. (c) abnormal or odd
(b) the culture’s norms. (d) All of the above
6. Socialisation begins (b) it allows us to overcome our innate biologi-

(a) at the time when an individual is conceived. cal instincts
(b) at birth or shortly after that. (c) it facilitates the learning of male and
(c) at the stage of nursery school. female roles in society
(d) when children reach puberty and are able (d) it shapes our identity and self
to understand the reasons for society’s 13. Piaget’s stages of development can be modi-
rules. fied by
7. Which of the following is true of socialisation? (a) experiences a child has in society.
(a) Early childhood is the most significant time (b) psychoanalysis.
of socialisation. (c) factors associated with biology.
(b) Socialisation stops on attaining adulthood (d) the influence of the mass media.
as we would then have learnt our culture. 14. Mohit talks a lot at school but not at home. This
(c) All cultures use the same techniques to may be because
socialise their children. (a) the teacher pressures the learner.
(d) Socialisation can only be done through (b) the school provides space to talk a lot.
education. (c) Mohit is not happy at home.
8. Who is most directly involved in the socialisa- (d) his ideas are valued at school.
tion of children around the world? 15. Om Prakash, a teacher of class 10, involves his
(a) Adult men 20–40 years of age students in various group activities. This process
(b) Grandparents will facilitate the student’s learning and also
(c) Women and girls help in
(d) Teachers (a) socialisation.
(b) value education.
9. The influence of the family as a social agent is (c) aggression.
eventually replaced by _____________. (d) individualisation.
(a) professionals
16. Raman is an economically deprived child in
(b) neighbours
your class and he is generally not seen to be
(c) peer groups
very active. What will you do to make him par-
(d) None of the above ticipate in all activities that take place in class?
10. Where does the agent of socialisation conduct (a) You will show examples of other learners
activities? who are doing well and assure Raman that
(a) Communities (b) Peer groups he can also do well if he makes an effort.
(c) Categories (d) Media (b) You will insist that he has to participate
since you have high expectations of him.
11. According to Jean Piaget, at what stage do chil-
(c) You will show faith in his ability and
dren develop the ability to use symbols?
capacity.
(a) Formal operational
(d) You will scold him for his non-participatory
(b) Concrete operational
behaviour.
(c) Pre-operational
(d) Sensorimotor 17. What is the meaning of socialisation with refer-
ence to education?
12. According to this chapter, socialisation is sig- (a) Rejecting social norms
nificant because ______________. (b) Adaptation and adjustment with social
(a) it ensures that we are bound by the rules of environment
society (c) Simply following social norms
(d) Developing social norms
18. Learners should be encouraged to interact with 20. Ramit is a teacher of class 6 and always wants
peers so that his students to come to class regularly on time
(a) the course can be completed early. and do their work properly. Ramit should
(b) the teacher can control the class. (a) model his behaviour on the same lines as
(c) learners acquire cooperative learning and what he is expecting from his learners.
social skills. (b) scold learners for inappropriate work.
(d) learners can get to know each other. (c) punish learners for late coming.
19. School textbooks socialise you through (d) complain to the principal about his stu-
(a) content. (b) exercises. dents’ behaviour.
(c) examples. (d) All of the above
PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS
1. According to Lev Vygotsky, learning is [2019] (b) Competitive classroom

(a) a passive activity (c) Constant comparative evaluation
(b) a conditioned activity (d) Corporal punishment
(c) a social activity 6. Which of the following are secondary agents of
(d) an individual activity socialization? [2016]
2. To understand individual differences in devel- (a) School and immediate family members
opment it is important [2019] (b) Family and relatives
(a) to look at the environmental factors that (c) Family and neighbourhood
affect individuals. (d) School and neighbourhood
(b) to consider maturation of the body and the
7. Research suggests that in a diverse classroom, a
brain.
teacher’s expectations from her students their
(c) to consider both inherited characteristics
learning. [2016]
as well as environmental factors and their
(a) should not be correlated with
interplay.
(b) do not have any effect on
(d) to look at the inherited characteristics that
(c) have a significant impact on
give each person a special start in life.
(d) are the sole determinant of
3. If you join a teacher fraternity and choose to 8. ‘Having a diverse classroom with children from
dress like most of the others in your group, you varied social, economic and cultural back-
are exhibiting [2018] grounds enriches the learning experiences of
(a) obedience (b) compliance all students.’ This statement is: [2016]
(c) conformity (d) group identity (a) correct, because it makes the classroom
4. The concept of object permanence is attained more hierarchical
during Piaget’s _______ stage of development. (b) incorrect, because it leads to unnecessary
[2018] competition
(a) preoperational (c) incorrect, because it can confuse the chil-
(b) concrete operational dren and they may feel lost
(c) formal operational (d) correct, because children learn many skills
(d) sensorimotor from their peers
5. Which of the following is an example of effec-
9. Which of the following is true of school and
tive school practice? [2016]
socialization? [2016]
(a) Individualized learning
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Boarding party
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Title: Boarding party
Author: Robert F. Young
Illustrator: Virgil Finlay
Release date: December 4, 2023 [eBook #72310]
Language: English
Original publication: New York, NY: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company,

1963
Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOARDING

PARTY ***
The fey Mr. Young continues his scholarly researches
in the scientific origins of our myth and legend
with this tale of an agile—and avaricious—one-man
BOARDING PARTY
By ROBERT F. YOUNG
Illustrated by FINLAY
[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Amazing Stories September 1963
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
(Translator's note: The original of the following report was recently
acquired by the Terran Industrial Library through the Interstellar
Historical Exchange Society, into whose illustrious fold the member
nations of the Terran Economic Bloc have at last been admitted. The
narrative is of primary interest to the library officials because it
provides unequivocable proof that, long before the Interstellar
Economic Community took official cognizance of our existence,
several articles of Community Commerce found their way into our
culture. To the layman, however, the narrative is of primary interest
because it provides an intriguing parallel to a narrative of an
altogether different nature.)
TO: Interstellar Nurseries, Frimm 4

FROM: Captain of the Greenship Uxurient, Urtz 2
SUBJECT(S): (1) Why the Uxurient put in to an out-of-bounds
system during the Frimm 4-Urtz 2 run; (2) how a boarding party of
one gained the greendeck and made off with a Uterium 5 snirk bird,
a toy friddlefork, and two containers of yellow trading disks; (3) why
the Uxurient's flexible ship-to-ground capillary tube is ten exids
shorter than it used to be.
(1)
Why the Uxurient put in to an Out-of-Bounds System during the
Frimm 4-Urtz 2 Run
Two light-cycles out from Frimm 4, the first shoots of the yumquat
trees broke through the greendeck precisely on schedule. A little
over a light-cycle farther out I noticed during one of my periodic
inspections that the young leaves were beginning to turn yellow, and
subsequent tests of several greendeck soil samples revealed an
acute deficiency of mineral elements D-2 and Z-1, plus an advanced
aridity. I immediately retired to the greenship's subdeck, where I
found the contents of the soil-solution vat to be at a shockingly low
level. An analysis of the contents indicated a near-total absence of
mineral elements D-2 and Z-1.
Further investigations have since convinced me that the
responsibility for this critical shortage rests upon the shoulders of
none other than Ur-Lon-Ho-Lee, Interstellar Nurseries' senior
shipping clerk, but at the time, the yumquat-tree shipment pre-
empted my attention to the exclusion of all other matters. If the trees
were to be allowed to shoot up at the usual accelerated growth rate
and were to be delivered in satisfactory sapling stage to the Urtz 2
customer who had ordered them, I had but one course of action
open to me: to put in to the nearest system, find a planet with a soil
rich in moisture and rich in mineral elements D-2 and Z-1, and
replenish the soil-solution vat by means of the Uxurient's ship-to-
ground capillary tube. Fortunately, there happened to be a system in
the vicinity of the Uxurient's present position, but unfortunately it
happened to be one of the many systems that are out-of-bounds to
Interstellar Economic Community ships. Before coming to a decision,
then, I had to weigh the importance of my mission against the risk of
causing "a substantial interference in the normal evolution of an
extra-Community culture"—a possibility that is always present when
a Community ship is forced to enter an out-of-bounds system. I
decided that it was my responsibility both to the customer and to the
company to run this risk, and proceeded to put in to the system at
once.
I wasted no time on the outer worlds, knowing from experience that
such worlds rarely yield anything in the way of flora and hence could
not possibly possess the kind of soil I needed, but arrowed in to the
orbital regions of the first four. Perceiving at once that Four would not
serve my purpose, I continued on to Three. Three turned out to be a
Frimm 4-type planet in all respects save its slightly smaller size; it
also turned out to be the reason for the system's having been placed
out-of-bounds. I was not surprised: One seldom finds soil of the type
employed by Frimm 4 nurseries without finding intelligent life in the
immediate vicinity. In this instance, I used the term "intelligent life" in
its broadest sense, for the several civilizations I transchecked at
random revealed technologies not far removed from the paleolithic
stage, and in one case, in the very midst of it.
On several of the land masses I detected scattered deposits of the

soil-type I needed, and I could have replenished the Uxurient's soil-
solution vat from any of them. However, I chose an unusually rich
one on a large island near the major land mass, reasoning that the
less time I consumed in the operation, the less chance there would
be of my occasioning "a substantial interference in the normal
evolution of an extra-Community culture". This particular deposit
bordered a small community of scattered, thatch-roofed dwellings,
and abounded in trees similar to the yumquat species. After
activating the Uxurient's ventral camouflage-unit, I brought the
greenship down to about two hundred mirids, gravved it into position
above the edge of the forest, and opened the capillary-tube lock. I
timed my maneuver to coincide with the passing of the dusk belt,
but, reluctant to attract any more attention than was absolutely
necessary, I waited through most of the ensuing night phase before
lowering the capillary tube. Unfortunately, I erred somewhat in my
calculations, and the tube's rhizomorphous feeding system, owing
partially to the rather strong wind that had sprung up during the night
phase, entered the soil much closer to one of the native dwellings
than I had intended should be the case; however, dawn being near
at hand, I lacked sufficient time to recoil and relocate the device, so I
left it where it was. I was not particularly worried: the natives'
superstitious fear of the tube would probably preclude their
approaching it closely enough for them to be able to damage it, and
if their superstitious fear of the tube itself was not strong enough to
make them keep their distance, their fear of the "low-lying cloud"
from which the tube depended should be.
My mind at ease in this respect then, I reduced the opacity of the
hull's upper hemisphere to complete transparency so that the
greendeck would benefit from the rays of the system's sun, after
which I retired to the subdeck to check on the first influx of nutrients
into the soil-solution vat. The length of the capillary tube prohibited
any immediate change in the solution-level, so while I waited, I
busied myself checking the tubes that run down to the vat from the
section of the greendeck where the upper extremities of the capillary
tube are affixed. Next, I checked the outgoing tubes that feed the
greendeck soil. By the time I finished, the level had begun to rise.
I waited till it rose above the halfway mark, then I took a sample and
ran an analysis. The result delighted me: the D-2 and Z-1 mineral
element content had quadrupled! If the rapidity with which the vat
was filling continued, I would be able to disengage the capillary tube,
recoil it, and be on my way before the next night phase.
I lingered for a while longer, watching the level climb. Finally,
remembering that I had not eaten since before my discovery of the
soil deficiency, I left the vat-room, picked up three lliaka hind
quarters in the meat-compartment, attached them to my belt, and
proceeded up the ramp to the greendeck. The thought of the fine
steaks which the quarters would yield made me realize how truly
hungry I was, and I set off across the greendeck toward my distant
living quarters with quickened steps. As I walked, the sight of the arid
soil stretching away in every direction afflicted me with melancholy,
even though I knew that the deplorable condition was well on its way
toward being corrected. The leaves of the baby yumquat trees, I saw
to my dismay, had more than merely yellowed: they had shriveled
too. And so scrawny were the little shoots that, had I not known that
they were there, I might very well have walked in their midst and
have been unaware of their existence. Indeed, the greendeck,
awash now with bright morning sunlight, had more of the aspect of a
desert than it did an aspect of a thriving oasis where plants are
grown during shipment. I submit that my bringing the Uxurient in to
an out-of-bounds system was more than merely justified: it was in
keeping with the highest ideals that govern man in his relationship to
plant-life.
(2)
How a Boarding Party of One gained the Greendeck and made off
with a Uterium 5 Snirk Bird, a Toy Friddlefork, and Two Containers of
Yellow Trading Disks.
Arriving at my living quarters, I removed my greendeck fatigues and
laid them upon the arms of the rack beside the entrance, wondering
as I always do on such occasions how Ho-Hat-Li-Tum, the
company's morale manager, could have fallen for so blatantly
whimsical an appointment as a clothes rack in the form of a life-size
woman. Granted, greenship pilots lead lonely lives, but tell me this:
how can the mere act of their laying their outer garments upon the
outstretched arms of a brainless, speechless, feelingless mannequin
in the least alleviate their loneliness? If Ho-Hat-Li-Tum were really
concerned about the morale of the greenship pilots, he would spurn
such halfway measures and concentrate his energies on getting the
regulation that forbids pilots to take their wives into space with them
rescinded.
To continue: Once in my living quarters, I proceeded directly to the
galley where I cut two large steaks from one of the lliaka
hindquarters. Placing the steaks upon the grill to sear, I got a loaf of
bread and decanter of wine out of the provision closet, after which I
set the table. When the steaks were done, I placed them on a large
platter and sat down to eat. It was at this point that I received a very
definite impression that I was being watched.
I looked around the galley. Other than myself, of course, no one was
there, and certainly the various cupboards were much too small to
harbor a secret onlooker. A secret onlooker indeed! Angry with
myself, I put the matter from my mind, concluding that the condition
of the yumquat trees had depressed me to a greater extent than I
had realized, and that I had fallen prey to preposterous imaginings. I
wish now that I had been less eager to ascribe what proved to be a
perfectly valid psychosensory perception to my emotional letdown.
I ate ravenously, devouring both of the steaks and the entire loaf of
bread. Afterward, a feeling of peace and good will stole over me, and
on an impulse I called the Uterium 5 snirk bird down from its perch
above the galley doorway and persuaded it by means of a crust of
bread to perch upon my forefinger. Despite the large and ovoid
xanthous droppings which these birds sporadically deposit on chairs,
tables and floors, they make wonderful pets, and I envied the
particular customer who was to receive this one—a tiny, bright-eyed
female—as a partial bonus for his yumquat-tree order. The other
components of his bonus—the toy friddlefork and the two containers
of yellow trading disks—stood on a shelf just behind me, and
reaching around and procuring them, I set them on the table before
me. Such evidence of largess invariably renews my faith in the
company, and on long runs I often get out customer bonuses and
speculate on the munificence of a concern such as ours. Thus I
speculated now—but not for long. I had not slept for nearly two zodal
periods and was far more tired than I realized, and to complicate
matters, the heavy meal which I had just consumed had had a
soporific effect upon me. Almost before I knew it, I dozed off.
I believe that my first apprisal that the previously mentioned

psychosensory perception had not been illusory after all was the
creak of one of the cupboard doors. Unfortunately, this apprisal was
on the unconscious, rather than the conscious, level, and failed to
arouse me from my stupor. It took the hysterical cackling of the
Uterium 5 snirk bird, a few moments later, to bring me back to true
awareness, and by that time, it was too late. The tiny man who had
shinned up the table leg and seized the snirk bird, the two containers
of yellow trading disks, and the toy friddlefork had already regained
the deck and was running toward the doorway. In the process of
climbing back down, he must have bumped the toy friddlefork and
accidentally activated its tonal unit, for it was bleating away
insistently as he bore it away. Indeed, so insistent were its cries that
one would have thought that it expected me to come after it and
succor it.
Incredulously, I got to my feet. I saw then that the thief was not a
man, but a boy—the tiniest boy that I have ever seen in my whole
life. Assuming his stature to be average, it is unlikely that even a full-
grown adult of his species would come any higher than a Frimm 4's
citizen's knee-cap!
I called after him, uttering my name in as gentle a tone of voice as I
could manage and assuring him that if he would return the articles
he had stolen no harm would come to him. He only ran the faster,
and fairly streaked through the galley doorway, down the entrance
corridor, and out onto the greendeck. I had no choice but to set off in
pursuit, and this I did, naively believing that I could overtake him
easily. In this I erred indeed. Never have I ever seen anyone run so
fast. Why, there were times when I could have sworn that his feet
weren't even touching the deck!
As I lumbered along in his wake, I wondered how he could
conceivably have gotten on board. Had he climbed the capillary
tube? This didn't seem possible in view of the Uxurient's altitude and
in view of his diminutiveness, but I could think of no other answer.
There was no need for me to, I saw presently: that he had climbed
up the tube was unequivocably demonstrated by the ease and the
celerity with which he now began to climb down it.
(3)
Why the Uxurient's Flexible Ship-to-Ground Capillary Tube is now
Ten Exids Shorter than It used to be
Loath to give up the chase, I started climbing down the tube myself.
This is not as difficult as one would at first imagine—as I myself had
imagined, in fact, prior to making the attempt. The branch-like
protuberances that absorb the sunlight and transmute it into the
energy required for the capillary-action provide numerous hand- and
footholds, and had it not been for the almost gale-force wind that had
developed, my descent would have been relatively easy. Even with
the wind, I found myself in no great danger, and I have no doubt but
what I would have reached the ground in due course had I not
underestimated the resourcefulness—and the blood-thirstiness—of
my youthful quarry. He kept calling out repeatedly at the top of his
voice, but I did not suspect what he was up to until, halfway down, I
paused and looked below me. I was just in time to see a woman run
out of the thatch-roofed dwelling near which the tube had rooted
itself and hand him a small object the very moment his feet touched
the ground.
I deduced from the shards of sunlight that the object threw off that it
was a cutting tool of some kind. I was not long left in doubt in any
event, for no sooner did the boy have it in his possession than he
began to wield it. A series of thuds was borne upward by the wind,
and with each thud, the tube gave a convulsive shudder. I had seen
unattached ship-to-ground capillary tubes at the mercy of the wind
before, and I knew the danger that confronted me. Consequently I
began climbing back up toward the Uxurient at once. While I will not
attempt to deny that I was frightened, I would like to point out that it
wasn't so much my predicament that frightened me, but the cold-
blooded attitude of the young savage below me. He thought that by
severing the tube he could bring it crashing to the ground, and the
ferocity and the frequency of his blows testified to the eagerness with
which he awaited my destruction.
It was his very attitude, I believe, that gave me the strength and the
determination to gain the Uxurient after the tube broke free and
began lashing wildly back and forth. For a long while I lay gasping on
the greendeck; then, when my breath came back, I recoiled the tube,
secured the tube-lock, and lifted into space. The soil-solution vat was
not as full as I would have wished, but by careful rationing I knew
that I could make its contents suffice. Whether I could or not, I
wanted no more part of the world I had just left. I never want to see
the place again.
I would like to append a word in my defense. While it is true that I
was instrumental in exposing an extra-Community culture to a
technology far beyond its ken, it must be remembered that all such
cultures are flexible in nature and can absorb the seemingly
inexplicable with the utmost equanimity. They achieve this quite
simply by identifying the unfamiliar with the familiar, and by ascribing
those phenomena which happen to be beyond their experience to
the workings of magic. Far from having an adverse effect, the
present instance will, I am sure, provide the basis for a colorful
legend. No doubt the legend will acquire a more satisfying ending,
and unquestionably the boy's exploits will be exaggerated. As
regards the Uterium 5 snirk bird, the toy friddlefork, and the two
containers of yellow trading disks, you may be sure that the young
rascal had already identified them with objects with which he was
familiar (and which he coveted) before he left the galley cupboard in
which he was hiding. If he had not done so, he would not have stolen
them. In any case, I am not unduly bitter about their loss, even
though I must make that loss good. The measure of a Frimm 4
citizen's true worth is the quantity of his magnanimity; hence I hope
that both the boy and the woman—probably his mother—live happily
ever after.
(signed)
Fee-Fi-Fo-Fum
THE END
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOARDING
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Child Development and Pedagogy 2020

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Copyright © 2020 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128.

Compositor: Saksham Printographics, Delhi

Prefacexi Family, Socialisation and Education 22

Critiquing Kohlberg’s Perspective of Chapter 06: Development of Language

Chapter 08: Children with Chapter 09: Assessment and

Help Learner to Adapt and Understand Chapter 13: Emotional Development

About the Book

CTET EXAM PATTERN–PAPER 1 (PRIMARY STAGE)

CTET EXAM PATTERN–PAPER 2 (ELEMENTARY STAGE)

CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND PEDAGOGY (PAPER 1)

CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND PEDAGOGY (PAPER 2)

*Please note that CTET examination was not conducted in 2017.

Prenatal Period : Until birth Pre-Adolescence : 

Development in Early Childhood (2–6 Years)

Development in Later Childhood (6–12 Years)

Development in Adolescence (13–19 Years)

DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

Principle of Significance of Early Development

Principle of Interaction between Heredity and Environment

Principle of Individual Differences

Principle of Association of Maturation and Learning

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Law of Segregation and Dominance

Law of Independent Assortment

Importance of Heredity and Environment for Education

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

16. Which of the following statements is correct? 18. Development is:

PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS

6. School is an institution of socialization of chil- Principle Description

Cooley Concept of ‘Looking Glass Self’

“I” and “Me” by Mead

Institution or Agents of Socialisation

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory of Individual and

Ecological theory of human development

SOCIALISATION AND EDUCATION

School as Social System

Family, Socialisation and Education

Social Class, Socialisation and Education

A few points to enhance our understanding of the role of family in socialisation:

Peer Group, Socialisation and Education

A few points to enhance our understanding of the role of peers in socialisation:

Gender, Socialisation and Education

State, Socialisation and Education

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Which of the following statements is true? (c) the language.

6. Socialisation begins (b) it allows us to overcome our innate biologi-

PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS

1. According to Lev Vygotsky, learning is [2019] (b) Competitive classroom

Title: Boarding party

Author: Robert F. Young

Illustrator: Virgil Finlay

Release date: December 4, 2023 [eBook #72310]

Original publication: New York, NY: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company,

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOARDING

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

TO: Interstellar Nurseries, Frimm 4

Prefacexi Family, Socialisation and Education 22

Critiquing Kohlberg’s Perspective of Chapter 06: Development of Language

Chapter 08: Children with Chapter 09: Assessment and

Help Learner to Adapt and Understand Chapter 13: Emotional Development

Prenatal Period : Until birth Pre-Adolescence :

1. According to Lev Vygotsky, learning is [2019] (b) Competitive classroom