Microeconomics, 22nd Edition

Campbell R. Mcconnell
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Page v
Page i
THE MCGRAW-HILL SERIES: ECONOMICS
Page ii
ESSENTIALS OF ECONOMICS
Brue, McConnell, and Flynn

Essentials of Economics

Fourth Edition

Mandel
M: Economics, The Basics

Fourth Edition

McConnell, Brue, and Flynn

Economics: Brief Edition. Macroeconomics: Brief Edition, and Microeconomics:
Brief Edition

Third Edition

Schiller and Gebhardt

Essentials of Economics

Eleventh Edition

PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS
Asarta and Butters
Connect Master: Economics

Second Edition

Colander
Economics, Microeconomics, and Macroeconomics

Eleventh Edition

Frank, Bernanke, Antonovics, and Heffetz

Principles of Economics, Principles of Microeconomics, Principles of
Macroeconomics
Seventh Edition

Frank, Bernanke, Antonovics, and Heffetz

Streamlined Editions: Principles of Economics, Principles of Microeconomics,
Principles of Macroeconomics

Fourth Edition

Karlan and Morduch

Economics, Microeconomics, and Macroeconomics

Third Edition

McConnell, Brue, and Flynn

Economics, Microeconomics, and Macroeconomics

Twenty-Second Edition

Schiller and Gebhardt

The Economy Today, The Micro Economy Today, and The Macro
Economy Today

Fifteenth Edition

Slavin
Economics, Microeconomics, and Macroeconomics

Twelfth Edition

ECONOMICS OF SOCIAL ISSUES

Guell
Issues in Economics Today

Ninth Edition

Register and Grimes

Economics of Social Issues

Twenty-First Edition

ECONOMETRICS
Hilmer and Hilmer
Practical Econometrics
First Edition

Prince
Predictive Analytics for Business Strategy

First Edition

MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
Baye and Prince
Managerial Economics and Business Strategy

Ninth Edition

Brickley, Smith, and Zimmerman

Managerial Economics and Organizational Architecture

Seventh Edition

Thomas and Maurice

Managerial Economics

Thirteenth Edition

INTERMEDIATE ECONOMICS
Bernheim and Whinston
Microeconomics

Second Edition

Dornbusch, Fischer, and Startz

Macroeconomics

Thirteenth Edition

Frank
Microeconomics and Behavior

Ninth Edition

ADVANCED ECONOMICS
Romer
Advanced Macroeconomics
Fifth Edition

MONEY AND BANKING

Cecchetti and Schoenholtz
Money, Banking, and Financial Markets

Sixth Edition

URBAN ECONOMICS
O’Sullivan
Urban Economics

Ninth Edition

LABOR ECONOMICS
Borjas
Labor Economics

Eighth Edition

McConnell, Brue, and Macpherson

Contemporary Labor Economics

Twelfth Edition

PUBLIC FINANCE
Rosen and Gayer
Public Finance

Tenth Edition

ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Field and Field
Environmental Economics: An Introduction

Eighth Edition

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
Appleyard and Field
International Economics
Ninth Edition

Pugel
International Economics

Seventeenth Edition
THE SEVEN VERSIONS OF MCCONNELL, BRUE, FLYNN
MICROECONOMICS

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY

10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
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prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may

not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 23 22 21 20

ISBN 978-1-260-59751-6
MHID 1-260-59751-2

Cover Image: Shutterstock/Rawpixel.com

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are
considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time
of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an
endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-
Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information
presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
To Mem, Terri and Craig, and Rupali

Page vii
Page viii
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

CAMPBELL R. MCCONNELL earned his Ph.D. at the University of Iowa Page ix

after receiving degrees from Cornell College and the University of Illinois.
He taught at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln from 1953 until his retirement in
1990. He was also coauthor of Contemporary Labor Economics and Essentials of
Economics . He was a recipient of both the University of Nebraska Distinguished
Teaching Award and the James A. Lake Academic Freedom Award and served as
president of the Midwest Economics Association. Professor McConnell was
awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Cornell College in 1973 and
received its Distinguished Achievement Award in 1994. He was also a jazz expert
and aficionado until his passing in 2019.

STANLEY L. BRUE did his undergraduate work at Augustana College (South

Dakota) and received its Distinguished Achievement Award in 1991. He received
his Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. He is retired from a long career
at Pacific Lutheran University, where he was honored as a recipient of the
Burlington Northern Faculty Achievement Award. Professor Brue has also received
the national Leavey Award for excellence in economic education. He has served
as national president and chair of the Board of Trustees of Omicron Delta Epsilon
International Economics Honorary. He is coauthor of Economic Scenes, fifth
edition (Prentice-Hall); Contemporary Labor Economics, eleventh edition;
Essentials of Economics, third edition; and The Evolution of Economic Thought,
eighth edition (Cengage Learning). For relaxation, he enjoys international travel,
attending sporting events, and going on fishing trips.

SEAN M. FLYNN did his undergraduate work at the University of Southern

California before completing his Ph.D. at U.C. Berkeley, where he served as the
Head Graduate Student Instructor for the Department of Economics after
receiving the Outstanding Graduate Student Instructor Award. He teaches at
Scripps College (of the Claremont Colleges) and is the author of Economics for
Dummies, third edition (Wiley); Essentials of Economics, third edition; and The
Cure That Works: How to Have the World’s Best Healthcare—at a Quarter of the
Price (Regnery). His research interests include behavioral finance, behavioral
economics, and health care economics. An accomplished martial artist, Sean has
coached five of his students to national championships and is the author of
Understanding Shodokan Aikido. Other hobbies include running, traveling, and
cooking.

Page x
 KEY GRAPHS

1.2 The Production Possibilities Curve 10 Page xi

2.2 The Circular Flow Diagram 36
3.6 Equilibrium Price and Quantity 55
4.5 Negative and Positive Externalities 81
7.1 Total and Marginal Utility 137
9.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns 179
9.5 The Relationship of the Marginal-Cost Curve to the Average-
Total-Cost and Average-Variable-Cost Curves 183
9.8 The Long-Run Average-Total-Cost Curve: Unlimited Number of
Plant Sizes 187
10.3Short-Run Profit Maximization for a Purely Competitive Firm
203
10.6The P = MC Rule and the Competitive Firm’s Short-Run Supply
Curve 206
11.6Long-Run Equilibrium: A Competitive Firm and Market 220
12.4Profit Maximization by a Pure Monopolist 235
12.6Inefficiency of Pure Monopoly Relative to a Purely Competitive
Industry 238
12.8Rate Regulation of a Natural Monopoly 244
13.1A Monopolistically Competitive Firm: Short Run and Long Run
254
14.2The Kinked-Demand Curve 267
17.3Labor Supply and Labor Demand in 324
(a) a Purely Competitive Labor Market and
(b) a Single Competitive Firm
20.10Efficiency Loss (or Deadweight Loss) of an Excise Tax Paid by
Producers 400
23.1The Lorenz Curve and Gini Ratio 440
26.2Trading Possibilities Lines and the Gains from Trade 507
26.6The Economic Effects of Protective Tariffs and Import Quotas
515
27.1The Market for Foreign Currency (Pounds) 532
 IN MEMORIAM

Page xii
CAMPBELL R. McCONNELL (1928-2019)
We have lost a gracious friend, superb mentor, and legendary coauthor. In 2019
Professor Campbell R. “Mac” McConnell passed away at age 90 in Lincoln,
Nebraska. Mac was one of the most significant and influential American economic
educators of his generation. Through his best-selling principles textbook, he made
introductory economics accessible to millions of students. By way of numerous
adaptations and translations of his textbook, he influenced students throughout
the world.
Mac was born in Harvey, Illinois, graduated from Cornell College (Iowa) and
obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa. He had a long and successful
career as a researcher and teacher at the University of Nebraska, publishing peer-
reviewed research articles and serving in leadership positions such as President of
the Midwest Economic Association. His gift of explaining complex economics
simply and thoroughly led him to explore opportunities to extend his educational
reach beyond his own classroom. McGraw-Hill understood the great potential in
his textbook proposal and the first edition of Economics: Principles, Problems, and
Policies made its debut in 1960. It was an instant hit and by the late 1970s it
became the leading seller in the United States, supplanting Paul Samuelson’s
textbook as the market leader. Economics remains the top seller today.
In 1986, Mac and his former student, Stanley Brue, coauthored Contemporary
Labor Economics and two years later Professor Brue joined Mac as a coauthor of
Economics . Stan, Mac, and McGraw-Hill added Sean Flynn as the third coauthor
on the authorship team in 2008. The authorship transitions have been planned in
advance, with authors working side-by-side for several editions. These smooth
transitions have greatly contributed to the progress of the book and its continuing
success.
We (Stan and Sean) are humbled and proud to have worked with Mac and
McGraw-Hill over these many years. We pledge to instructors and students that
we will continue to stress clarity of presentation—in each new chapter, revised
paragraph, rephrased explanation, and edited sentence. We believe that our
dedication to preserving and improving the quality of the book is absolutely the
best way for us to honor and extend Mac’s amazing legacy. Mac liked to say that,
“Brevity at the expense of clarity is false economy.” We will honor him, and his
legacy, by always putting clarity first.
We greatly miss our coauthor and long-time friend Campbell R. McConnell.
Stanley L. Brue
Sean M. Flynn
 PREFACE

Welcome to the 22nd edition of Economics , America’s most innovative Page xiii
—and popular—economics textbook.
We are pleased to present faculty and students with comprehensive
revisions, insightful new content, and significant improvements to
both our online learning system and our industry-leading ancillary
materials.

Significant Content Updates

The financial crisis and the subsequent slow recovery increased both student and
faculty demand for principles-level content geared toward explaining directly and
intuitively why markets and governments fail—sometimes spectacularly—in
delivering optimal social outcomes. To satisfy that demand, our presentation of
market failures, government failure, and public choice theory has been
significantly restructured in Chapters 4 and 5 to allow students to quickly
absorb the key lessons regarding externalities, public goods provision, voting
paradoxes, the special interest effect, and other problems that hinder either
markets or governments from achieving optimal social outcomes.

Improved Efficiency for Instructors

Faculty time is precious. To preserve as much of it as possible for the faculty
adopting Economics, we went sentence-by-sentence and section-by-section,
pulling out extraneous examples, eliminating unnecessary graphs, and—in some
cases—removing entire sections that faculty reported they didn’t have time
to teach. We have slashed the average chapter’s word count by about
15 percent, even after accounting for newly added content.
These changes have been reviewed positively by faculty and we are excited
that our streamlined presentation frees up faculty time for more
advanced classroom activities, including experiments, debates,
simulations, and various forms of peer instruction and team-based
learning.

Improved Readability for Students

Student time is also precious. The current crop of college students are digital
natives and social media pioneers. They are used to Googling for answers,
reading things that tend to be no longer than a Tweet, and receiving instant
feedback. We have revised our presentation to accommodate their fast-
paced, nonlinear learning style. You will find a greater economy of language
and an increased focus on key examples, including new Key Graphs that have self-
contained Quick Quizzes to help students comprehend and apply crucial models.
We have also worked hard to accommodate the large number of
students who study by “hunting” through a chapter rather than by
reading the content in sequence. They will find dozens of additional in-
chapter Quick Review boxes to help them identify key material, scores of
additional headers to help them scan for key concepts, and a much greater
use of bullet points to organize related concepts and ideas.
These revisions will also aid traditional students who study the old-fashioned
way by providing them with increased structure and organization. Traditional
students will additionally appreciate our switch to a single-column
design that allows for extensive note taking in the margins.

Examples and Illustrations that Resonate

with Students
Students absorb economic theory most easily when it resonates with
their experiences and is explained with current examples.
To that end, the 22nd edition covers many topics that are currently in
the news. Topics include green-energy subsidies, universal basic income, the
“Fight for $15,” soaring tuition costs, unfunded liabilities, and congestion pricing.
The new edition also features new “Consider This” and “Last Word”
boxed features that drive home key ideas in an accessible, student-oriented
manner. Topics include “Bitcoin and Cheap Electrons,” “Hasta La Vista,
Venezuela,” and “Voluntary Pollution Control.”

Accelerating Student Achievement via

Adaptive Learning and Innovative
Ancillary Materials
Would you as a faculty member enjoy spending less time on
definitions and more time on theory, applications, and enrichment
material?
Most faculty say YES!—which is why we continue to make large annual
improvements to what is already the most effective digital learning platform in
higher education: Connect Economics .
Before Class
You can use Connect Economics and its built-in adaptive reading
technology, SmartBook, to ensure that students know all the basics
before class starts. Simply assign your selected chapter readings in SmartBook
and have students complete related problems and questions before lecture. The
Connect Economics platform will automatically probe for misunderstandings—and
then fix them with instant feedback and remediation.
To further enhance the ability of instructors to “get students up to speed”
before class, we also offer interactive graphing exercises, math-
preparedness tutorials, and a large bank of custom-made videos
covering real-world examples. All are assignable within Connect Economics ,
and each includes assignable assessment questions and instant feedback.

During Class Page xiv

You can then proceed, during class, to higher-level learning activities
that build correct intuitions and the ability to apply models, theories, and concepts
to new situations that have not already been covered in your class.
Creating higher-level classroom activities is no easy task, and we know from
personal experience that faculty often find themselves with too little time left over
at the end of a long day of teaching, service, and research to create the high-
quality enrichment materials that they would like to use in class.
To that end, we have gone out of our way to developed two major in-
class enrichment tools that you can use to “flip” your classroom and
engage students at a higher level.
Guided Peer Instruction With the help of Todd Fitch of U.C. Berkeley, we
have authored and field-tested hundreds of in-class questions and
answers that can be used to facilitate the peer instruction teaching
method pioneered by Eric Mazur of Harvard University. Our version,
which we call Guided Peer Instruction (or GPI), is a student-focused, interactive
teaching method that has been shown to more than double student understanding
relative to “chalk and talk” and other lecture-based presentation formats. We are
proud to be the first textbook to fully support Guided Peer Instruction.
Application-Based Activities (ABAs) These immersive decision-
making simulations are delivered digitally within the Connect platform
and put students in the role of everyday economists. Students practice
their economic thinking and problem-solving skills as they apply course concepts,
and see the implications of their decisions as they go. Each activity is designed as
a 15-minute experience that can be replayed by eager students to build intuition.
A 22nd Edition for the 21st Century
Economics has maintained its position as the world’s best-selling
economics textbook for nearly fifty years by continually updating its
coverage and its pedagogy. We weren’t just the first with adaptive learning
and instant remediation, but also with everything from student study guides to
computerized test banks (in the 1970s!).

McConnell Is/Was/And Will Remain The Innovation Champion:

• The first textbook with a student study guide.

• The first textbook to place both a meaningful title and a short accompanying
explanation next to every graph, figure, and table.
• The first textbook with comprehensive test banks.
• The first textbook with multi-colored graphs.
• The first textbook with overhead projector slides.
• The first televised economics lectures.
• The first overhead projector slides.
• The first instructors’ manual.
• The first computerized test bank.
• The first textbook with PowerPoint slides.
• The first fully integrated adaptive-learning system.
It is our sincere hope that our 22nd edition will continue to promote
rapid learning and deep understanding as the 21st century passes its 20th
birthday. We have worked hard to ensure that Economics and all of its ancillary
materials are comprehensive, analytical, and challenging—yet fully accessible to a
wide range of students. Where needed, an extra sentence of explanation
is provided. Brevity at the expense of clarity is false economy.
Sean M. Flynn

Stanley L. Brue

Chapter-by-Chapter Changes
Each chapter of Economics, 22nd edition, contains data updates, revised Learning
Objectives, and new examples. Chapter-specific updates include new boxed
pieces, additional Quick Reviews, and, where appropriate, substantial revisions to
the core content.
Chapter 1: Limits, Alternatives, and Choices features a new Last Word
about “The Marginal Starbucks,” a new Global Perspective comparing investment
levels in selected countries, and a new Consider This titled, “Is Facebook Free?”.
Chapter 2: The Market System and the Circular Flow contains three new
Consider This pieces—on Bitcoin mining, the Korean peninsula at night, and flood
insurance subsidies—as well as a new Last Word about the economic collapse of
Venezuela.
Chapter 3: Demand, Supply, and Market Equilibrium includes a new
Consider This on market equilibrium as well as a new Global Perspective on the
price of a loaf of bread in various countries.
Chapter 4: Market Failures Caused by Externalities and Asymmetric
Information is a new chapter that features substantial new content, including a
Consider This on congestion pricing, a Global Perspective on pollution abatement,
a Key Graph on externalities, and a Last Word on how markets for pollution
credits overcome information asymmetries between polluting firms and the
government.

Chapter 5: Public Goods, Public Choice, and Government Page xv

Failure is another new chapter that also features substantial new
content, including innovative material on quadratic voting and a Last Word
discussing the ineffectiveness of corporate relocation subsidies.
Chapter 6: Elasticity contains a new Consider This on “The Southwest Effect”
as well as revised examples, wording improvements, and two new Global
Perspectives, the first giving cross-price elasticities between food prices and
education spending in various countries and the second reporting on the income
elasticities of the demand for gasoline in selected countries.
Chapter 7: Utility Maximization contains several new examples as well as
revisions of existing material for clarity and concision.
Chapter 8: Behavioral Economics benefits from new applications and a
significantly streamlined presentation.
Chapter 9: Businesses and the Costs of Production includes a new Global
Perspective on international differences in manufacturing costs as well as
substantial rewrites for clarity in the opening section on economic costs.
Chapter 10: Pure Competition in the Short Run features new examples
plus a new Last Word on the damage that results when corrupt politicians divert
fixed-cost depreciation funds into their own pockets.
Chapter 11: Pure Competition in the Long Run contains updated examples
as well as a new Last Word discussing whether entrepreneur Elon Musk’s profits
(at SpaceX, Tesla, etc) are defensible in the long run.
Chapter 12: Pure Monopoly has a new Consider This about France’s long
history of government salt monopolies as well as two new Key Graphs on,
respectively, the inefficiency of pure monopoly and the different strategies for rate
­regulation.
Chapter 13: Monopolistic Competition contains new examples, edits for
brevity, and a new Global Perspective on restaurants per 100,000 residents in
various cities around the world.
Chapter 14: Oligopoly and Strategic Behavior has a more intuitive
introduction to the Prisoner’s Dilemma as well as a significantly streamlined
presentation made possible by, among other things, the removal of the much
praised but rarely assigned material on sequential games.
Chapter 15: Technology, R&D, and Efficiency contains edits for brevity,
revised examples, and a relocated Last Word on why patents may be a net
hinderance to innovation in the tech sector.
Chapter 16: The Demand for Resources features a new Global Perspective
on the Top Ten oil importing nations as well as revised examples and edits for
brevity and clarity.
Chapter 17: Wage Determination has a new Quick Review as well as
student-friendly rewrites utilizing bullet points and additional section headers.
Chapter 18: Rent, Interest, and Profit incorporates wording improvements,
data updates, and a greater focus on core content, made possible by
consolidating or discarding the previous edition’s coverage of the single tax on
land and usury laws.
Chapter 19: Natural Resource and Energy Economics contains extensive
data updates, substantial new material on energy costs and alternatives, a
streamlined discussion of the user cost model, and a new Consider This piece on
the famous bet between Julian Simon and Paul Ehrlich over resource prices and
resource constraints.
Chapter 20: Public Finance: Expenditures and Taxes benefits from
consolidations and revisions that enhance brevity and clarity as well as a new Key
Graph on the deadweight losses caused by excise taxes.
Chapter 21: Antitrust Policy and Regulation features a new Global
Perspective on the annual number of corporate mergers taking place in selected
countries as well as extensive updates to the chapter’s examples of court cases
and regulatory actions.
Chapter 22: Agriculture: Economics and Policy delivers numerous data
updates, a heavily updated discussion of recent farm bills, including the
Agricultural Act of 2018, and a new Last Word on the U.S. Department of
Agriculture’s Conservation Reserve Program that created a glut of timber while
attempting to prevent a glut of crops.
Chapter 23: Income Inequality, Poverty, and Discrimination presents a
new Last Word on the debate over Universal Basic Income as well clarifying
revisions to our discussion of the Lorenz curve and the Gini ratio, including a new
Key Graph and Quick Quiz that tests students on their understanding of those
concepts.
Chapter 24: Health Care incorporates extensive data updates as well as
significant revisions to our discussion of the Affordable Care Act, including
references to the court decision that repealed the individual mandate.
Chapter 25: Immigration contains several data updates as well as a new Last
Word that considers whether the Australian and Canadian immigration systems
might be considered as reform models for the U.S. immigration system.
Chapter 26: International Trade contains extensive data updates, a
streamlined presentation of the arguments in favor of protectionism, a new Key
Graph on the economic effects of tariffs and import quotas, and an updated and
consolidated discussion of multilateral trade pacts, including the USMCA revisions
to NAFTA.
Chapter 27: The Balance of Payments, Exchange Rates, and Trade
Deficits offers significantly streamlined coverage of fixed exchange rates,
extensive data updates, and various edits for concision and clarity.
Chapter 28: The Economics of Developing Countries includes new
examples, data updates, and a new Consider This about the fraction of the
world’s population living in extreme poverty falling from 36 percent in 1990 to just
10 percent in 2015.

Page xvi
Acknowledgments
We give special thanks to Peggy Dalton, and Peter Staples for their hard work
updating the questions and problems in Connect, as well as the material they
created for the additional Connect Problems .
Thank you Jody Lotz for sedulously copy editing the ­Connect end-of-chapter
material and many thanks to Laura Maghoney for her expert revisions of the
SmartBook content and help with data updates.
Thanks to the dedicated instructors who accuracy-checked the end-of-chapter
content, test banks, and Instructor’s Manuals: Per Norander, Ribhi Daoud,
Gretchen Mester, Erwin Erhardt, Susan Bell, Stephanie Campbell, and Xavier
Whiticare.
We offer our gratitude to Laureen Cantwell for her research assistance and we
thank William Walstad and Tom Barbiero (the coauthor of our Canadian edition)
for their helpful ideas and insights.
We are greatly indebted to an all-star group of professionals at McGraw-Hill—in
particular Adam Huenecke, Anke Weekes, Harvey Yep, Chrissy Kouvelis, Kelly
Pekelder, Bobby Pearson, and Terri Schiesl—for their publishing and marketing
expertise.
The 22nd edition has also greatly benefited from a number of perceptive faculty
reviews. The reviewers, listed in the next section, were a rich source of
suggestions for this revision. To each of you, and to any others we may have
inadvertently overlooked, thank you for your considerable help in improving
Economics .
 CONTRIBUTORS

REVIEWERS
Alison J. Adderley, Valencia College Page xvii
Richard Agesa, Marshall University
Carlos Aguilar, El Paso Community College, Valle Verde
Yamin Ahmad, University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Eun Ahn, University of Hawaii, West Oahu
Miki Anderson, Pikes Peak Community College
Giuliana Andreopoulos, William Paterson University
Thomas Andrews, West Chester University of Pennsylvania
Fatma Antar, Manchester Community College
Len Anyanwu, Union County College
Kathleen Arano, Indiana University Southeast
Emmanuel Asigbee, Kirkwood Community College
John Atkins, Pensacola State College
Moses Ayiku, Essex County College
Leon Battista, CUNY Bronx Community College
Wendy Bailey, Troy University
Dean Baim, Pepperdine University
Herman Baine, Broward College
Tyra Barrett, Pellissippi State Community College
David Barrus, Brigham Young University, Idaho
Jill Beccaris-Pescatore, Montgomery County Community College
Kevin Beckwith, Salem State University
Christian Beer, Cape Fear Community College
Robert Belsterling, Pennsylvania State University, Altoona
Laura Jean Bhadra, Northern Virginia Community College, Manassas
David Black, University of Toledo
Melissa Blankenship, North Central Texas College
Priscilla Block, Broward College
Augustine Boakye, Essex County College
William Byrd, Troy University
Stephanie Campbell, Mineral Area College
Bruce Carpenter, Mansfield University
Tom Cate, Northern Kentucky University
Semih Emre Çekin, Texas Tech University
Suparna Chakraborty, University of San Francisco
Claude Chang, Johnson & Wales University
Amy Chataginer, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College–Gautier
Shuo Chen, State University of New York–Geneseo
Jon Chesbro, Montana Tech of the University of Montana
Amod Choudhary, Lehman College
Constantinos Christofides, East Stroudsburg University
Kathy Clark, Edison College, Fort Myers
Wes Clark, Midlands Technical College
Jane Clary, College of Charleston
Jane Cline, Forsyth Technical Community College
Ana Carolina Corrales, Miami Dade College - Wolfson Campus
Patricia Daigle, Mount Wachusett Community College
Anthony Daniele, St. Petersburg College–Gibbs
Rosa Lee Danielson, College of DuPage
Ribhi Daoud, Sinclair Community College
Maria Davis, Indian River State College, Central
William L. Davis, University of Tennessee–Martin
Richard Dixon, Thomas Nelson Community College
Tanya Downing, Cuesta College
Scott Dressler, Villanova University
Brad Duerson, Des Moines Area Community College
Mark J. Eschenfelder, Robert Morris University
Maxwell Eseonu, Virginia State University
Michael Fenick, Broward College
Tyrone Ferdnance, Hampton University
Mary Flannery, University of Notre Dame
Jeffrey Forrest, St. Louis Community College–Florissant Valley
Richard Fowles, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
Mark Frascatore, Clarkson University
Shelby Frost, Georgia State University
Connel Fullenkamp, Duke University
Sudip Ghosh, Penn State University–Berks
Alex Gialanella, Fordham University
Daniel Giedeman, Grand Valley State University
Scott Gilbert, Southern Illinois University
James Giordano, Villanova University
Susan Glanz, St. John’s University
Lowell Glenn, Utah Valley University
Terri Gonzales, Delgado Community College
Michael Goode, Central Piedmont Community College
Paul Graf, Indiana University-Bloomington
Sheryl Hadley, Johnson County Community College
Moonsu Han, North Shore Community College
Charlie Harrington, Nova Southeastern University, Main
Virden Harrison, Modesto Junior College
Darcy Hartman, Ohio State University
Richard R. Hawkins, University of West Florida
Kim Hawtrey, Hope College
Glenn Haynes, Western Illinois University
Mark Healy, Harper College
Dennis Heiner, College of Southern Idaho
Michael Heslop, Northern Virginia Community College, Annandale
Christiana Hilmer, San Diego State University
Calvin Hoy, County College of Morris
Jesse Hoyt Hill, Tarrant County College
Jim Hubert, Seattle Central Community College
Greg W. Hunter, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Christos Ioannou, University of Minnesota–Minneapolis
Faridul Islam, Utah Valley University
Mahshid Jalilvand, University of Wisconsin–Stout
Ricot Jean, Valencia Community College–Osceola
Jonatan Jelen, City College of New York
Stephen Kaifa, County College of Morris
Brad Kamp, University of South Florida, Sarasota–Manatee
Robert Kao, Park University
Gus Karam, Pace University, Pleasantville
Kevin Kelley, Northwest Vista College
Chris Klein, Middle Tennessee State University
Barry Kotlove, Edmonds Community College
Richard Kramer, New England College
Felix Kwan, Maryville University
Ted Labay, Bishop State Community College
Alex Lancaster, Tallahassee Community College
Tina Lance, Germanna Community College–Fredericksburg
Sarah Leahy, Brookdale Community College

Yu-Feng Lee, New Mexico State University–Las Cruces Page xviii

Adam Y. C. Lei, Midwestern State University
Phillip Letting, Harrisburg Area Community College
Jim Lee, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi
Hank Lewis, Lone Star College
Brian Lynch, Lake Land College
Zagros Madjd-Sadjadi, Winston-Salem State University
Laura Maghoney, Solano Community College
Svitlana Maksymenko, University of Pittsburgh
Vincent Mangum, Grambling State University
Christine Lucy Malakar, Lorain County Community College
Benjamin Matta, New Mexico State University–Las Cruces
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Page xx
Page xxi
Page xxii
 BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface xiii Page xxiii

PART ONE
Introduction to Economics and the Economy
1 Limits, Alternatives, and Choices 1

2 The Market System and the Circular Flow 25

PART TWO
Price, Quantity, and Efficiency
3 Demand, Supply, and Market Equilibrium 45

4 Market Failures Caused by Externalities and Asymmetric Information 74

5 Public Goods, Public Choice, and Government Failure 95

PART THREE
Consumer Behavior
6 Elasticity 117

7 Utility Maximization 135

8 Behavioral Economics 154

PART FOUR
Microeconomics of Product Markets
9 Businesses and the Costs of Production 173

10 Pure Competition in the Short Run 196

11 Pure Competition in the Long Run 214

12 Pure Monopoly 228

13 Monopolistic Competition 250

14 Oligopoly and Strategic Behavior 261

15 Technology, R&D, and Efficiency 283

PART FIVE
Microeconomics of Resource Markets and Government
16 The Demand for Resources 301

17 Wage Determination 320

18 Rent, Interest, and Profit 348

19 Natural Resource and Energy Economics 365

20 Public Finance: Expenditures and Taxes 387

PART SIX
Microeconomic Issues and Policies
21 Antitrust Policy and Regulation 408

22 Agriculture: Economics and Policy 423

23 Income Inequality, Poverty, and Discrimination 439

24 Health Care 462

25 Immigration 482

PART SEVEN
International Economics

26 International Trade 500

27 The Balance of Payments, Exchange Rates, and Trade Deficits 527

28 The Economics of Developing Countries 550

Tables 570
Glossary G-1
Index I-1

Page xxiv
 CONTENTS Page xxv

List of Key Graphs ix

Preface xi

Reviewers xv

PART ONE

Introduction to Economics and the Economy 1

Chapter 1
Limits, Alternatives, and Choices 1
The Economic Perspective 2
Scarcity and Choice / Purposeful Behavior / Marginal Analysis: Comparing
Benefits and Costs
Consider This: Is Facebook Free? 2
Theories, Principles, and Models 3
Microeconomics and Macroeconomics 4
Microeconomics / Macroeconomics / Positive and Normative Economics
Individual’s Economizing Problem 5
Limited Income / Unlimited Wants / A Budget Line
Consider This: Did Zuckerberg, Seacrest, and Grande Make Bad Choices? 7
Society’s Economizing Problem 7
Scarce Resources / Resource Categories
Production Possibilities Model 8
Production Possibilities Table / Production Possibilities Curve / Law of Increasing
Opportunity Costs / Optimal Allocation
Unemployment, Growth, and the Future 11
 A Growing Economy / Present Choices and Future Possibilities / A Qualification:
International Trade
Last Word: The Marginal Starbucks 15
Chapter 1 Appendix: Graphs and Their Meanings 19

Chapter 2
The Market System and the Circular Flow 25
Economic Systems 25
Laissez-Faire Capitalism / The Command System / The Market System
Characteristics of the Market System 27
Private Property / Freedom of Enterprise and Choice / Self-Interest /
Competition / Markets and Prices / Technology and Capital Goods /
Specialization / Use of Money / Active, but Limited, Government
Five Fundamental Questions 31
What Will Be Produced? / How Will the Goods and Services Be Produced? / Who
Will Get the Output? / How Will the System Accommodate Change? / How Will
the System Promote Progress?
Consider This: Bitcoin and Cheap Electrons 32
The “Invisible Hand” 34
The Demise of the Command Systems
Consider This: Korea by Night 35
The Circular Flow Model 36
Households / Businesses / Product Market / Resource Market
How the Market System Deals with Risk 38
The Profit System / Shielding Employees and Suppliers from Business Risk /
Benefits of Restricting Business Risk to Owners
Consider This: Built on Sand 39
Last Word: Hasta La Vista, Venezuela 40

PART TWO

Price, Quantity, and Efficiency 45

Chapter 3
Demand, Supply, and Market Equilibrium 45
Markets 45
Demand 46
Law of Demand / The Demand Curve / Market Demand / Changes in Demand /
Changes in Quantity Demanded
Supply 51
Law of Supply / The Supply Curve / Market Supply / Determinants of Supply /
Changes in Supply / Changes in Quantity Supplied
Market Equilibrium 54
Equilibrium Price and Quantity / Rationing Function of Prices / Efficient
Allocation
Consider This: Emergent Equilibria 56
Changes in Supply, Demand, and Equilibrium 57
Changes in Demand / Changes in Supply / Complex Cases
Consider This: Salsa and Coffee Beans 60
Application: Government-Set Prices 60
Price Ceilings on Gasoline / Rent Controls / Price Floors on Wheat
Last Word: Student Loans and Tuition Costs 63
Chapter 3 Appendix: Additional Examples of Supply and Demand 68
Consider This: Uber and Dynamic Pricing 69

Chapter 4
Market Failures Caused by Externalities and Asymmetric
Information 74
Efficiently Functioning Markets 74
Consumer Surplus / Producer Surplus / Total Surplus and Efficiency / Efficiency
Losses (Deadweight Losses)
Positive and Negative Externalities 80
Negative Externalities / Positive Externalities / Government Intervention
Consider This: The Fable of the Bees 83
Society’s Optimal Amount of Externality Reduction 86
MC, MB, and Equilibrium Quantity / Shifts of MB and MC Curves / Government’s
Role in the Economy
Consider This: Congestion Pricing 87
Asymmetric Information 87
Inadequate Buyer Information about Sellers / Inadequate Seller Information
about Buyers / Qualification
Last Word: Visible Pollution, Hidden Costs 91

Chapter 5 Page xxvi

Public Goods, Public Choice, and Government Failure 95

Public Goods 95
Characteristics of Private Goods / Public Goods Characteristics / Optimal
Quantity of a Public Good / Demand for Public Goods / Comparing MB and MC /
Cost-Benefit Analysis / Quasi-Public Goods / The Reallocation Process
Consider This: Street Entertainers 97
Public Choice Theory and Voting Paradoxes 101
Public Choice Theory / Revealing Preferences through Majority Voting / Paradox
of Voting / Median-Voter Model / Alternative Voting Mechanisms
Government Failure 107
Representative Democracy and the Principal-Agent Problem / Limited and
Bundled Choice / Bureaucracy and Inefficiency / Inefficient Regulation and
Intervention / Corruption / Imperfect Institutions
Consider This: Getting Fleeced 108
Consider This: Government, Scofflaw 110
Last Word: Should Governments Subsidize Corporate Relocations? 112

PART THREE

Consumer Behavior 117

Chapter 6
Elasticity 117
Price Elasticity of Demand 117
The Price-Elasticity Coefficient and Formula / Interpretations of E d
The Total-Revenue Test 120
Elastic Demand / Inelastic Demand / Unit Elasticity / Price Elasticity Along a
Linear Demand Curve / Price Elasticity and the Total-Revenue Curve
Determinants of Price Elasticity of Demand 123
Applications of Price Elasticity of Demand
Consider This: The Southwest Effect 125
Price Elasticity of Supply 126
Price Elasticity of Supply: The Immediate Market Period / Price Elasticity of
Supply: The Short Run / Price Elasticity of Supply: The Long Run / Applications
of Price Elasticity of Supply
Cross Elasticity and Income Elasticity of Demand 128
Cross Elasticity of Demand / Income Elasticity of Demand
Last Word: Elasticity and Pricing Power: Why Different Consumers Pay
Different Prices 131

Chapter 7
Utility Maximization 135
Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility 135
Terminology / Total Utility and Marginal Utility / Marginal Utility and Demand
Theory of Consumer Behavior 138
Consumer Choice and the Budget Constraint / Utility-Maximizing Rule /
Numerical Example / Algebraic Generalization
Consider This: There’s No Accounting for Taste 141
Utility Maximization and the Demand Curve 141
Deriving the Demand Schedule and Curve
Income and Substitution Effects 142
Applications and Extensions 142
iPads / The Diamond-Water Paradox / Cash and Noncash Gifts
 Last Word: Criminal Behavior 144
Chapter 7 Appendix: Indifference Curve Analysis 148
Consider This: Indifference Maps and Topographical Maps 151

Chapter 8
Behavioral Economics 154
Systematic Errors and the Origin of Behavioral Economics 154
Comparing Behavioral Economics with Neoclassical Economics
Our Efficient, Error-Prone Brains 156
Heuristics Are Energy Savers / Brain Modularity
Prospect Theory 160
Framing Effects and Advertising / Anchoring and Credit Card Bills / Mental
Accounting and Overpriced Warranties / The Endowment Effect and Market
Transactions / Status Quo Bias
Consider This: Rising Consumption and the Hedonic Treadmill 161
Myopia and Time Inconsistency 164
Myopia / Time Inconsistency
Consider This: A Bright Idea 164
Fairness and Self-Interest 166
Field Evidence for Fairness / Experimental Evidence for Fairness
Last Word: The Behavioral Insights Team 169

PART FOUR

Microeconomics of Product Markets 173

Chapter 9
Businesses and the Costs of Production 173
Economic Costs 173
Explicit and Implicit Costs / Accounting Profit and Normal Profit / Economic
Profit / Short Run and Long Run
Short-Run Production Relationships 176
Law of Diminishing Returns
Short-Run Production Costs 178
Fixed, Variable, and Total Costs / Per-Unit, or Average, Costs / Marginal Cost /
Shifts of the Cost Curves
Consider This: Ignoring Sunk Costs 182
Long-Run Production Costs 185
Firm Size and Costs / The Long-Run Cost Curve / Economies and Diseconomies
of Scale / Minimum Efficient Scale and Industry Structure
Applications and Illustrations 190
Rising Gasoline Prices / The Verson Stamping Machine / Successful Start-Up
Firms / Aircraft and Concrete Plants
Last Word: 3-D Printers 191

Chapter 10 Page xxvii

Pure Competition in the Short Run 196

Four Market Models 196
Pure Competition: Characteristics and Occurrence 197
Demand as Seen by a Purely Competitive Seller 198
Perfectly Elastic Demand / Average, Total, and Marginal Revenue
Profit Maximization in the Short Run: Total-Revenue–Total-Cost
Approach 199
Profit Maximization in the Short Run: Marginal-Revenue–Marginal-Cost
Approach 200
Profit-Maximizing Case / Loss-Minimizing Case / Shutdown Case
Marginal Cost and Short-Run Supply 206
Generalized Depiction / Changes in Supply / Firm and Industry: Equilibrium
Price
Consider This: The “Still There” Motel 207
Last Word: Raiders of the Fixed Costs 210
Another random document with
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a prayer but chiefly ecstatic description of his power, the worshipper
is really endeavouring to charge himself with higher religious magic
by this outpouring. In fact, here and elsewhere, a magic origin for the
practice of theologic exegesis may be obscurely traced; narrative
might acquire an apotropaeic effect; thus tablets containing the
narrative of the achievements of the plague-god, hung up before the
houses, could avert pestilence,296.2 or, again, the reading aloud the
tablet narrating the victory of Shamash and Ramman over the seven
demons who attacked the moon-god Sin served to defeat the seven
demons by the same sympathetic magic as would be worked by a
dramatic representation of that event.296.3
There is no record or hint that the Hellenes recited hymns to
Demeter or wrote up passages of Homer to avert demons.
It belongs to the magic use of formulae that minute exactness in
respect of every syllable is necessary to the power of the spell or the
spell-prayer. An Assyrian king who is consulting the sun-god
concerning success in a war with which he is threatened, prays that
the ritual which the enemy may be employing may go wrong and fail;
and in this context occurs the curious petition, “May the lips of the
priest’s son hurry and stumble over a word.”297.1 The idea seems to
be that a single slip in the ritual-formulae destroyed their whole
value; and such a view belongs to magic rather than to religion.
Now it is probable that in his earliest mental stage the Hellene had
been in bondage to the religious magic of sacred formulae and
sacred names; and as a tradition of that stage, the divine epithet
whereby he appealed to his deities according to his needs retained
always for him a mysterious potency; but otherwise we have no
proof that he worked word-magic by means of his sacred texts.
Babylonian sorcery, whether legitimate or illegitimate, was
intended to work upon or through demons; and its familiarity with the
names and special qualities of demons is its peculiar mark. In the
ritual of exorcism of the demons, idols play a prominent and often
singular rôle. The following performance is probably unique: in the
exorcism of disease two idols, male and female, were set up before
the sick man, then the evil spirits of sickness are invited thus: “Oh ye
all wicked, all evil, who pursue so-and-so, if thou art male, here is thy
wife; if thou art female, here is thy husband.”297.2 The intent of the
exorciser seems to be to attract the demon of disease, of whose sex
he is not sure, into one or the other of these images, and he lures it
by amorous enticement into the figure of opposite sex to its own;
having got the demon into the image, he doubtless takes it out and
burns or buries it. Or the evil spirit may be attracted from the patient
by means of its own image placed near him. One document
prescribes various images of bestial form, all of which are to be
taken by night to the bank of the river, probably that they may be
thrown in and carry the impurity of sickness away.298.1 Another
shows us how to deal with Labartu, the daughter of Anu;298.2 her
image, made of clay, is placed above the head of the sick man, so as
to draw her or her power out from him; it is then taken out, slain, and
buried. And this exorcism is all the more notable because Labartu is
rather an evil goddess than a mere demon, being styled in another
text “August lady,” “Mistress of the dark-haired men.”298.3 Such
magical drama, in which the demon-image might be slain to annul its
potency, seems characteristically Babylonian: it entered also into the
ritual of the high gods. For, at the feast of the New Year, when Nebo
arrived from Borsippa, two images are brought before him and in his
presence decapitated with the sword. Dr. Langdon interprets
them298.4 as representing probably “the demons who aided the
dragon in her fight with Marduk; they are the captive gods of
darkness which ends with the Equinox.” This is dramatic magic
helpful to the gods.
The elaboration of exorcism must have led to a minuter articulation
of the demon-world; the exorciser is most anxious to know and
discover all about his unseen foes: he gives them a name, a sex if
possible, and a number: he says of the powerful storm-demons Utuk
“they are seven, they are seven, they are neither male nor female,
they take no wife and beget no children;”299.1 for knowledge of the
name or nature of the personality gives magic power.
Many of these examples, which might easily be multiplied, show
us magic applied to private but beneficent purposes, the healing of
disease, the exorcism of spirits of moral and physical evil. It was also
in vogue for national purposes—for instance, for the destruction of
the enemies of the king; one of our documents describes such a
process as the making of a tallow-image of the enemy of the king
and binding his face with a cord, so as to render the living foe
impotent of will and speech.299.2
We have already noticed that the Babylonian gods themselves
work magic, and that it was also worked on behalf of the gods.299.3
And in the ritual-records much that might be interpreted as religion
may find its truer account from the other point of view; for instance,
the ritual of placing by the bedside of a sick man the image of Nergal
or those of the “twins who overthrow the wicked Gallu”299.4 might
appear at first sight as a religious appeal to the deities to come to his
aid; but as in form it is exactly similar to the use made on the same
occasion, as noted above, of the images of demons, we may rather
suppose that the intention was magical in this act also, and that the
divine idols were supposed to combat the demon of sickness by their
magical influence. Or, again, in part of the ritual of exorcism we find
acts that bear the semblance of sacrifice, such as throwing onions
and dates into the fire; but they were charged with a curse before
thrown, and the act is more naturally interpreted as a magic
transference of evil.300.1
For the purpose of the exorcism, to deliver a “banned” person, the
high god, Marduk or another, might be called in; but Marduk also
works the effect by magic: a rope is woven by Ishtar’s maidens,
which Marduk (or his priest) turns round the head of the sufferer,
then breaks it through and throws it out into the desert.300.2 This
looks like symbolic magic; the knotted rope represents the ban,
which is then broken and thrown away.
There are many features in these methods of exorcism, such as
the apotropaeic use of idols, that are common to other peoples at a
certain stage of culture; there remains much also that seems
peculiar to Babylon.
But what is uniquely characteristic of this Mesopotamian people,
and at the same time most un-Hellenic, is the all-pervading
atmosphere of magic, which colours their view of life and their theory
of the visible and invisible world. Babylonia, at least, was the one
salient exception to the historic induction that a distinguished
writer300.3 has recently sanctioned—“religion once firmly established
invariably seeks to exclude magic; and the priest does his best to
discredit the magician.” The psalmody of Babylon, with its occasional
outbursts of inspiration and its gleams of spiritual insight, would have
appealed to an Isaiah; its magic would have appealed to many a
modern African. The Babylonian prophet does not frown on it; the
high gods accept it, the priest is its skilled and beneficent
practitioner. And at no other point, perhaps, is the contrast between
the Hellenic and the Mesopotamian religions so glaring as at this.
This comparison of Eastern and Western ritual may close with
some observations on another religious function that may be of
some value for the question of early ethnic influence.
It has been remarked that divination played an important, perhaps
a dominant part in the Babylonian ritual of sacrifice, divination, that
is, by inspection of the victim’s entrails, especially the liver; and that
this method was adopted in Greece only in the later centuries.301.1
But there are other salient differences between the Babylonian and
the more ancient mantic art of Hellas.301.2 Another method much in
vogue in the former was a curious mode of divining by mixing oil and
water and watching the movements and behaviour of the two
liquids.301.3 The first and only indication of a similar practice in Hellas
is a passage in the Agamemnon of Æschylus, of which the true
meaning has hitherto escaped the interpreters.301.4 And here, as
usual, an obvious example of Mesopotamian influence on Hellenic
custom belongs only to a late epoch. It is also true that the ancient
divination of the two peoples agreed in certain respects, namely, in
that both used, like most communities at a certain stage of culture,
the auguries of birds and the revelations of dreams. As regards the
facts relating to the former, we know more about Greece than at
present about Babylon. But in the matter of dream-oracles, it is
manifest that the Hellenic phenomena are entirely independent of
Mesopotamian fashion. The Assyrian and Babylonian documents
reveal the fashion of dream-prophecy in its simplest and highest
form: the high deity of his own pleasure sends a dream, and the
divining priest or skilled interpreter interprets it. No hint has so far
been detected of that artificial method of provoking prophetic dreams
by “incubation” or ἐγκοίμησις, the fashion of laying oneself down in
some sacred shrine and sleeping with one’s ear to the ground, that
was much in vogue in ancient Hellas and still survives in parts of the
modern Greek world and which may be regarded as an immemorial
tradition. In this divination, the divine spokesman was the power of
the underworld. And this was the most important difference between
the Western and the Eastern society in respect of the divine agency.
In an early period of Hellenic history that may be called pre-Apolline,
the earth-mother was conspicuously oracular by the vehicle of
dreams; and this power of hers was generally shared by the nether
god and buried heroes. Nor could the religion of Apollo suppress this
“chthonian” divination. But in Mesopotamia the earth-powers and the
nether world have no part or lot in this matter. It is almost the
prerogative of Shamash, the sun-god, though Adad is sometimes
associated with him;302.1 both being designated as “Bēlē-Biri” or
“Lords of Oracles.”303.1
Another remarkable distinction is the fact that the ecstatic or
enthusiastic form of prophecy, that of the Shaman or Pythoness
possessed and maddened by the inworking spirit of god, is not found
in the Babylonian record, which only attests the cool and scientific
method of interpreting by signs and dreams and the stars. Perhaps
Mesopotamia from the third millennium onward was too civilised to
admit the mad prophet and prophetess to its counsels. But such
characters were attached to certain Anatolian cults, especially to
those of Kybele,303.2 and also to the Syrian goddess at
Hierapolis;303.3 we have evidence of them also in a record of the
Cretan Phaistos in the service of the Great Mother.303.4 Some
scholars have supposed that prophetic ecstasy was only a late
phenomenon in Hellas, because Homer is silent about it. But there
are reasons for suspecting that demoniac possession was
occasionally found in the pre-Homeric divination of Hellas,303.5 an
inheritance perhaps from the pre-Hellenic period.
In any case, the theory that primitive Hellas was indebted to
Babylonia for its divination-system is strongly repugnant to the facts.
 CHAPTER XIV.
Summary of Results.

This comparative exposition of the Sumerian-Babylonian and the

most complex and developed pre-Christian religion of Europe cannot
claim to be complete or at any point finally decisive, but it may at
least have helped to reveal the high value and interest of these
phenomena for the workers in this broad field of inquiry. This was
one of the main objects of this course. The other was the discussion
of a question of religious ethnology, concerning the possible
influence of Mesopotamia on the earliest development of Hellenic
religion. The verdict must still remain an open one, awaiting the light
of the new evidence that the future will gather. But the evidence at
present available—and it may be hoped that none of first importance
has been missed—constrains us to a negative answer or at least a
negative attitude of mind.
Confining ourselves generally to the second millennium B.C., we
have surveyed the religions of the adjacent peoples between the
valley of the Euphrates and the western shores of the Aegean; and
have observed that morphologically they are generally on the same
plane of polytheism, but that those of Mesopotamia and Hellas
reveal inner differences, striking and vital enough to be serious
stumbling-blocks to a theory of affiliation. These differences concern
the personality of the divinities and their relations to the various parts
of the world of nature; the most salient being the different attitude of
the two peoples to the divine luminaries of heaven and to the
chthonian powers of the lower world. They concern the cosmogonies
of East and West, their views of the creation of the world, and the
origin of man; on these matters, certain myths which are easily
diffused do not appear to have reached Hellas in this early period.
They concern the religious temperaments of the Babylonian and
Hellene, which appear as separate as the opposite points of the
pole; the rapturous fanatic and self-abasing spirit of the East
contrasting vividly with the coolness, civic sobriety, and self-
confidence of the West. They concern the eschatologic ideas of the
two peoples: the cult of the dead and some idea of a posthumous
judgment being found in early Hellas, while the former was rare, and
the latter is scarcely discoverable, in Mesopotamia. They concern,
finally, the ritual; and here the salient points of contrast are the
different views of the sacrifice, of the sacrificial victim, and the
sacrificial blood; the different methods of purification and the
expulsion of sin; the ritual of sorrow associated with the death of the
god, so powerful in Babylonia and so insignificant (by comparison) in
Hellas; the un-Hellenic Mylitta-rite, and the service of the
“hierodoulai”; and, to conclude with the most vital difference of all,
the manifestations of magic and its relation to the national religions,
so complex, so pregnant for thought and faith, and so dominant in
Mesopotamia; on the other hand, so insignificant and unobtrusive in
Hellas.
Two other points have been incidentally noticed in our general
survey, but it is well in a final summing up to emphasise their great
importance as negative evidence. The first concerns the higher
history of European religion: the establishment of religious mysteries,
a phenomenon of dateless antiquity, and of powerful working in
Hellenic and Aegean society, has not yet been discovered in the
Mesopotamian culture. The second is a small point that concerns
commerce and the trivialities of ritual: the use of incense, universal
from immemorial times in Mesopotamia, and proved by the earliest
documents, begins in Greece not earlier than the eighth century B.C.
This little product, afterwards everywhere in great demand, for it is
pleasant to the sense, soothing to the mind, and among the
harmless amenities of worship, was much easier to import than
Babylonian theology or more complex ritual. It might have come
without these, but they could scarcely have come without it. Yet it did
not come to Hellenic shores in the second millennium. And this
trifling negative fact is worth a volume of the higher criticism for the
decision of our question.
Those who still cling to the faith that Babylonia was the centre
whence emanated much Mediterranean religion, may urge that the
negative value of the facts exposed above may be destroyed by
future discoveries. This is true, but our preliminary hypotheses
should be framed on the facts that are already known. Or they may
urge that the generic resemblances of the two religious systems with
which we have been mainly concerned are also great. But, as has
been observed, the same generic resemblance exists between
Greek and Vedic polytheism. And for the question of religious origin
general resemblances are far less decisive than specific points of
identity, such, for instance, as the identity of divine names or of some
peculiar divine attribute. Later we can trace the migrations of Isis and
Mithras throughout Europe by their names or by the sistrum or by the
type of the fallen bull, of the Hittite god Teschub in the Graeco-
Roman guise of Jupiter Dolichenos as far as Hungary, perhaps as
far as Scandinavia, by the attribute of the hammer. It is just this sort
of evidence of any trace of Babylonian influence that is lacking
among the records of early Greece. No single Babylonian name is
recognisable in its religious or mythologic nomenclature; just as no
characteristically Babylonian fashion is found in its ritual or in the
appurtenances of its religion. This well accords with what is already
known of the Mediterranean history of the second millennium. For
long centuries the Hittite empire was a barrier between the
Babylonian power and the coastlands of Asia Minor.
So far, then, as our knowledge goes at present, there is no reason
for believing that nascent Hellenism, wherever else arose the
streams that nourished its spiritual life, was fertilised by the deep
springs of Babylonian religion or theosophy.
 INDEX OF NAMES AND
SUBJECTS.
Adad (Ramman), 62, 101-102, 142, 143.
Adonis, 251, 255, 273-274.
Alilat, 44.
Allatu, 57, 206, 218.
Aniconic worship, 225-230.
Animism, 43.
Anthropomorphism, in Greece, 10-12, 75-80; in Mesopotamia, 51-
52, 55-57; in Canaan, 57-58; in Hittite religion, 60-61; in Phrygia,
63-64; in Crete, 64-75.
Aphrodite, Cretan-Mycenaean, 96; in Cyprus, 261; Ourania, 272-
273.
Apollo, 49, 295; theory of Lycian origin, 90; Agyieus, 136; Delphinios,
291; Lykeios, 76.
Arabian divinities, 85, 263.
Aramaic divinities, 85.
Artemis, of Brauron, 244; in Cilicia, 89; at Ephesos, 91; aboriginal
Mediterranean goddess, 96.
Aryan migration into Greece, 34.
Asshur, 58, 225.
Astarte, 57, 58, 59, 86, 107.
Astral cults, in Mesopotamia, 102; in Greece, 111-114.
Atargatis (Derketo), 57.
Athena, aboriginal Mediterranean goddess, 96.
Athtar, Arabian deity, 85, 263.
Attar, in Arabia, 168.
Attis, 91, 254-258, 266; Παπαῖος, 95.
Axe-cult, in Crete, 70, 93.
Baalbec, 273-274.
Baptism, 284.
Bau, Babylonian goddess, 263.
Belit, Babylonian goddess, 83, 84, 104.
Birds, cult of, 63, 69-73.
Boghaz-Keui, reliefs of, 47, 60, 125; cuneiform texts at, 61.
Borrowing, tests of, in religion, 37.
Boundaries, sanctity of, 127-128.
Bouphonia, in Attica, 237-238.
Britomartis, 170.
Bull, Hittite worship of, 252-253.
Burial-customs, 208-210.
Byblos, Adonis-rites at, 273-274.
Chemosh, of Moab, 59, 86.
Cilicia, Assyrian conquests in, 35 (vide Typhoeus).
Cities, religious origin of, 118.
Communion-service with dead, 209.
Confessional-service in Mesopotamia, 151, 288.
Convent-system in Mesopotamia, 268-269.
Cook, Mr., 66, 69, 73.
Cosmogonies, 179-182.
Courtesans, sacred, 269-283.
Cowley, Dr., 90.
Creation of man, 184-185.
Cyprus, religious prostitution in, 273-274.
Days, sacred character of, 293-295.
Dead, worship of, 122, 210, 211, 213; tendance of, 211, 212;
evocation of, 214-215.
Death of deity, 27-28, 238-240, 249-263.
Demeter, 80.
Demonology, 154, 206-208, 297-300.
Dionysos, 239-240; marriage with Queen-Archon, 267.
Divination, through sacrifice, 248-249, 301-302; ecstatic, 303.
Dualism, 19, 158.
Ea, Babylonian god, 53, 102, 117, 121.
Eagle, Hittite worship of, 63.
Earth, divinity of, in Mesopotamia, 103; in Greece, 114.
Enlil, Babylonian god, 59, 103-104, 142.
Eros, cosmic principle, 181.
Eschatology, 204-220.
Esmun, Phoenician god, 57.
Eunostos, Tanagran vegetation-hero, 262.
Eunuchs, in Phrygian religion, 92, 256-258.
Euyuk, relief at, 61.
Evans, Sir Arthur, 17, 30, 64, 69-71, 73-74, 91, 97, 211, 227.
Evil gods, 19, 142-143.
Faith, not a religious virtue in Greece, 23-24.
Fanaticism, in Mesopotamia, 197-203.
Fassirlir, Lion-goddess at, 88.
Father-god, 48, 95.
Fetichism, 225-228.
Fire-god, in Greece and Babylon, 146-147, 285.
Fire-purification, 285-286.
Frazer, Dr., 17, 60, 79, 89, 257 n. 1, 277, 282.
Functional deities (Sondergötter), 110, 133.
Goddess-worship, importance of, 5, 81-82; in Mesopotamia, 17, 82-
84; among Western Semites, 85-86; Hittites, 87-88; on Asia-
Minor coast, 88-91; in Crete, 92-94; Aryan tradition of, 94-96; in
early Greece, 96-98.
Hammer, sacred Hittite symbol, 63.
Hammurabi, code of, 129-132, 212.
Harpalyke, legend of, 239.
Harrison, Miss Jane, 67, 69-70.
Hartland, Mr. Sidney, 271 n. 1, 280-281.
Hearth-worship, 132-133.
Helios, at Tyre and Palmyra, 107; in Greece, 110-111.
Hell, Babylonian conception of, 205-206.
Hera, ? Aryan-Hellenic, 96; βοῶπις, 76.
Hierodoulai, 272.
Hittite ethnology, 36.
Hogarth, Dr., 74.
Homicide, Babylonian laws concerning, 129-130; Hellenic religious
feeling about, 138-140; purification from, 287-288.
Hyakinthos, 262.
Ibriz, Hittite monument at, 47.
Idolatry, in Greece, 12-13, 228.
Incense, 231-232, 306.
Incest, Babylonian laws concerning, 131.
Incubation, divination by, 302.
Ira, goddess of plague, 143.
Ishtar, 55, 83, 103, 120, 142, 164-167; descent of, 204, 208.
Jastrow, Prof., 37, 58.
Katharsis, Homeric, 289-291.
Kingship, divine character of, in Mesopotamia, 119, 122-123; among
Western Semites, 123; among Hittites, 124-125; in Phrygia, 125;
in Crete, 125-126; in Greece, 126-127.
Knots, magic use of, 300.
Kybele, 63, 91-92, 109, 170, 226.
Labartu, demon-goddess, 298.
Langdon, Dr., 56, 205 n. 1, 296, 298.
Leto ? Lycian origin of, 89-90.
Leukothea, 261.
Linos, 197, 262.
Lion-divinity, Phrygian Hittite Mesopotamian type, 62-63.
Lykaon, Arcadian sacrifice of, 239.
Ma, Anatolian goddess, 169, 272.
Magic, in Greece, 158, 176-179, 292-293; in Babylon, 291-301.
Male deity, predominant among Semites, 85-86; at Olba and Tarsos
and in Lycia, 89.
Mannhardt, 276.
Marduk, 103, 120, 265.
Marriage of god and goddess, 263-268; marriage ceremonies in
Babylon, 134.
Mercy, attribute of divinity, 158-160.
Minotaur, 74, 266-267.
Mitani inscriptions, 46.
Monotheism, 187-189.
Monsters, in Cretan art, 74-75.
Moon-worship, Semitic, 85; Hellenic, 112.
Morality and religion, 20.
Mylitta, rites of, 269-271.
Nature-worship, 40-41, 97; in Mesopotamia, 99-106; West-Semitic,
106-107; Hittite, 108; Hellenic, 110-114.
Nebo, 52, 102, 119, 121, 188.
Nergal, 101, 142.
Νηφάλια, wineless offerings, 112.
Ninib, 101, 117, 127, 263.
Ninlil, 84.
Ninni, relief of, 52.
Nusku, 117.
Omnipotence, divine attribute, 173-175.
Orotal, Arabian deity, 44.
Pan-Babylonism, 30-33.
Pantheism, 161-162.
Perjury, 147-149.
Personal religion, 191-196.
Pessimism, in Babylonian hymns, 155.
Petrie, Professor, 223.
Phallic cults, 228-230.
Phratric system, religious sanction of, in Greece, 138; non-existent
(?) in Mesopotamia, 138.
Poseidon, 146.
Punishment, posthumous, 215-216.
Purification, 155-158, 282-291.
Purity, 163-172.
Qadistu, meaning of, 269.
Ramman, vide Adad.
Ramsay, Sir William, 117, 170, 273, 277.
Rewards, posthumous, 216-218.
Sacrament, 25-26, 236-242, 250.
Sacrifice, theory of, 24-26, 235-236, 240-242; bloodless, 230-231;
chthonian, 233; human, 244-246; at oath-taking, 247-248;
“sober,” 231-232; vicarious, 242-244.
Sandon, 252-253.
Sayce, Professor, 169, 253.
Scapegoat, 247.
Science, relation to religion, in Greece and Mesopotamia, 23.
Sentimentality, in Babylonian religion, 196-197.
Sex, confusion of, 58-60.
Shamash, Babylonian sun-god, 99, 100, 120-121, 127, 142, 208,
302.
Sin, Babylonian moon-god, 99, 100.
Sin, non-moral ideas of, 152-154.
Sinjerli, relief at, 61.
Smith, Prof. Robertson, 25, 226, 235, 238, 241.
Snake-goddess, in Crete, 64-65; snake-cult, 78.
Tammuz, 105-106, 219-220, 242, 250-263.
Tanit, Carthaginian goddess, 168.
Taurobolion, 253.
Temples, erection of, 223-225; deification of, 225.
Teshup, Hittite god, 46, 62.
Teukridai, at Olba, 89.
Theanthropic animal, 77-78.
Theism, 7-9, 40-49.
Theriomorphism, in Egypt, 15; in Mesopotamia, 14, 52-55; in other
Semitic communities, 57-58; Hittite, 60-62; in Crete, 66-75; in
Greece, 75-80.
Tiâmat, in Babylonian cosmogony, 181.
Tiele, Professor, 40, 42, 81, 199.
Tralles, religious prostitutes at, 275.
Trinities, 185-187.
Truthfulness, religious virtue, 148.
Typhoeus, legend of, 182-183.
Van Gennep, 279.
Ver Sacrum, in Greece, 137.
Virgin-goddesses, not found among Aryans, 95; Mediterranean, 96.
Virginity, sacrifice of, 269-281.
Virgin-Mother, idea of, 166-171.
Westermarck, Professor, 41 n. 1, 278.
Wilde, Dr., 1.
Word, mystic value of, 15, 56, 57, 176-179, 295-297.
Worship, ambiguity in term, 67, 77.
Zeus, 49; grave of, in Crete, 93, 259-260; Herkeios, 149-150; Horios,
152; Kouros, 259; Panamaros in Caria, 90; Polieus, 238;
Thunderer in Bithynia, 95.
 ENDNOTES

CHAPTER I NOTES
11.1 I am aware that there are exceptions to this principle, which I
propose to consider in a future course; no single formula can ever
sum up all the phenomena of a complex religion.
14.1 Vide Langdon, in Transactions of Congress of the History of
Religions, 1908, vol. i. p. 251.
15.1 P. 382, C.
15.2 Vide Petrie, in Transactions of Congress of the History of
Religions, 1908, vol. i. p. 192.
17.1 Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, 1904.
17.2 Vide Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens u. Assyriens, vol. i. p. 545.
20.1 Vide my Evolution of Religion, pp. 139-152.
21.1 1. 132.
25.1 Transactions of Congress of History of Religions, 1908, vol. i.
p. 192.
25.2 Hibbert Journal, 1904, “Sacrificial Communion in Greek
Religion.”
 CHAPTER II NOTES
31.1 Vide the critical remarks on such a view by Prof. Jastrow in
Transactions of the Third International Congress of the History of
Religions, vol. i. pp. 234-237.
34.1 Vide Annual of the British School, 1909, 1910.
35.1 Vide Zimmern, Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament

(K.A.T.)3, pp. 37-38.

 CHAPTER III NOTES
40.1 Vide supra, p. 9.
41.1 Westermarck maintains the view in his Origin and
Development of Moral Ideas, pp. 663-664, that in many savage
religions the gods have no concern with ordinary morality; but the
statistics he gives need careful testing.
42.1 Op. cit., p. 170; as far as I know, only one fact might be cited in
support of Tiele’s view, a fact mentioned by Jastrow, op. cit., p. 52,
that the ideogram of Enlil, the god of Nippur, signifies Lord-Daimon
(Lil = Daimon); but we might equally well interpret it “Lord of Winds.”
42.2 Vide Hüsing, Der Zagros und seine Völker, p. 16.
43.1 Vide Plate in Winckler, “Die Gesetze Hammurabi,” in Der Alte
Orient, 1906.
43.2 Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art, Assyrie, p. 109, fig. 29
(Roscher, Lexikon, ii. p. 2358).
44.1 3, 8.
45.1 Messerschmidt, Die Hettiter, p. 9; Stanley Cook, Religion of
Ancient Palestine, p. 73.
45.2 So Cook, op. cit., p. 73, who interprets her as Astarte.
45.3 Winckler, Tel-El-Amarna Letters, 17.
46.1 Vide Winckler, Mittheil des deutsch. Orientgesellsch., 1907,
No. 35.
46.2 Winckler, Die Völker Vorderasiens, p. 21; Messerschmidt, op.
cit., p. 5; Kennedy, Journ. Royal Asiat. Soc., 1909, p. 1110, declares
that their language has been proved to belong to the Ural-Altaic
group and to be akin to Vannic.
46.3 Vide Messerschmidt, p. 25 (plate); Von Oppenheim, Der Tel-
Halaf und die verschleierte Gottin, p. 17, publishes a somewhat
similar figure holding a kind of club.
47.1 Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art, iv. p. 354 (fig.).
47.2 Vide Garstang, The Land of the Hittites, pl. lxiii.-lxxi.;
Messerschmidt, op. cit., pp. 26-27.
 48.1 e.g. Outlines of Greek Religion, by R. Karsten, p. 6.
48.2 Vide supra, p. 46; cf. E. Meyer, Das erste Auftreten der Arier in
der Geschichte in Sitzungsb. d. konigl. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch.,
1908, pp. 14 seq.
 CHAPTER IV NOTES
52.1 Vide supra, p. 43.
52.2 Vide supra, p. 43.
52.3 Vide Roscher, Lexikon, vol. iii. p. 48, s.v. “Nebo.”
52.4 Vide Roscher, op. cit., iii. p. 67 (Mitth. aus dem Orient.
Sammlung. zu Berlin, Heft xi. p. 23).
52.5 Monuments of Nineveh, i. p. 65 (Roscher, op. cit., ii. p. 2350).
52.6 P. 43.
52.7 Roscher, op. cit., vol. iv. p. 29.
53.1 Roscher, op. cit., iii. p. 254-255.
53.2 Schrader, Keil. Bibl., ii. p. 141.
53.3 Frag. Hist. Graec., ii. p. 496. Frag. 1, 3.
53.4 Nineveh and Babylon, pl. vi. (Roscher, op. cit., iii. p. 580).
54.1 Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, fig. 2. Roscher, op. cit., iii. p.
580.
54.2 In the Amer. Journ. Archael., 1887, pp. 59-60, Frothingham
cites examples from Assyrian cylinders of birds on pillars or altar with
worshippers approaching: one of these shows us a seated god in
front of the bird (pl. vii. 1); on another, a warrior approaches a
tabernacle, within which is a horse’s head on an altar, and near it a
bird on a column (pl. vii. 2; cf. the boundary-stone of
Nebuchadnezzar I., published by Miss Harrison, Trans. Congr. Hist.
Rel., 1908, vol. ii. p. 158); we find also a winged genius adoring an
altar on which is a cock. But cocks and other birds were sacrificial
animals in Babylonian ritual, and might be interpreted in all these
cases as mere temporary embodiments of the divinity’s power; the
human-shaped divinity is once represented by the side of the bird,
and might always have been imagined as present though unseen.
55.1 Roscher, Lexikon, iii. p. 268.
55.2 Vide chapter i. pp. 14-15.
56.1 Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, p. 127.
56.2 Schrader, Keilinsch. Bibl., ii. pp. 79, 83.
 56.3 Op. cit., p. xix.
57.1 Langdon, op. cit., p. 159, n. 18. Compare with this the
personification of abstract ideas; the children of Shamash are Justice
(Kettu) and Law (Mésaru), and remain impersonal agencies, unlike
the Greek Θέμις. A deified Righteousness (sedek) has been inferred
from personal names that occur in the Amarna documents; vide
Cook, Palestine, p. 93.
57.2 Vide his article on “Eschmun-Asklepios,” in Orient. Stud. zu
Th. Nöldeke am 70ten Geburtstag gewidmet: the proofs are doubtful,
but snake-worship in Phoenicia is attested by Sanchuniathon, Eus.
Praep. Ev., 1, 10, 46.
57.3 Cook, Religion of Ancient Palestine, pp. 30-31.
58.1 Praep. Ev., 1, 10, 31. Glaser, Mittheilungen uber einige
Sabaeische Inschriften, p. 3-4, gives reasons for affirming the
worship of black bulls in heathen Arabia; but it is not clear in what
relation these stood to the high personal divinities.
58.2 Op. cit., p. 545.
59.1 Langdon, op. cit., p. 223.
59.2 Zimmern, Babyl. Hymn. w. Gebete, p. 11.
59.3 C. I. Sem., 250.
60.1 For references, vide my Cults of the Greek States, vol. ii.,
“Aphrodite,” R. 113a.
60.2 Vide Head, Hist. Num., p. 586.
61.1 Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art, iv. fig. 329; cf. Garstang, op.
cit., p. 256.
61.2 Supra, p 43.
61.3 Messerschmidt, op. cit., p. 23.
61.4 Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc., 1909, p. 971.
62.1 Luschan, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, Heft iii. Taf. 42, 43; cf.
Garstang, op. cit., p. 274.
62.2 Vide Roscher, op. cit., iii., s.v. “Ramman.”
62.3 Perrot et Chipiez, op. cit., iv. p. 549, fig. 276; cf. fig. 278.