Food Waste Management: Solving the

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Elina Närvänen
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Edited by
Elina Närvänen · Nina Mesiranta
Malla Mattila · Anna Heikkinen

Food Waste
Management
Solving the Wicked
Problem
Food Waste Management
Elina Närvänen · Nina Mesiranta ·
Malla Mattila · Anna Heikkinen
Editors

Food Waste
Management
Solving the Wicked Problem
Editors
Elina Närvänen Nina Mesiranta
Tampere University Tampere University
Tampere, Finland Tampere, Finland

Malla Mattila Anna Heikkinen

Tampere University Tampere University
Tampere, Finland Tampere, Finland

ISBN 978-3-030-20560-7 ISBN 978-3-030-20561-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20561-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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 Foreword

Food waste—as the editors and contributors to this excellent volume

demonstrate—is a wicked problem. It brings many of the tensions and
failures of existing food systems into sharp relief. Recent estimates sug-
gest that between 30 and 50% of global food production never reaches a
human stomach. At the same time, many people worldwide do not have
access to sufficient calories or nutrition on a daily basis. Consumers in
affluent nations waste almost as much food as the entire net food pro-
duction of sub-Saharan Africa. Wasting food carries significant economic
costs ($680 billion in industrialised countries and $310 billion annually
in developing countries). The environmental implications are similarly
arresting: if food waste were a country, it would be the world’s 3rd high-
est emitter of greenhouse gases after the USA and China. When food
goes to waste, so too do all of the resources (water, energy, land, labour)
that went into its production. Increasing clarity regarding these eco-
nomic, social and environmental consequences has established the issue
as a key priority for governments and their populations across the world.
It is very easy to forget that food waste was not really on the agenda
10–15 years ago. A post-war food regime of sufficiency and surplus
(at least in the Global North) had rendered it culturally and politically

v
vi      Foreword

invisible. A corollary of this is that academic perspectives on food waste

are very much in their infancy. Early studies focused on quantifying
food waste and evaluating the impacts of different solutions. These were
quickly followed by more critically engaged studies that questioned
the orthodoxy of measurement and modelling. To date, and with few
­exceptions, there has been too little interaction between these two bod-
ies of work. More generally, the literature on food waste remains some-
what disjointed. Individual studies tend to focus on a single point in the
food chain (e.g. processing, retail, final consumption) or clearly defined
geographical locations. The net result of this fragmentation is that the
development of innovative and evidence-based approaches to managing
food waste has been painfully slow.
This collection responds to these limitations and establishes exciting
new directions in food waste scholarship. By clearly and systematically
conceptualising food waste as a wicked problem, the editors present a
framework that helps move beyond the divisions that have stymied the
field thus far. Put briefly, wicked problems are characterised as uncer-
tain, as relentless and as crosscutting. Food waste clearly meets of these
criteria. Acknowledging this is an essential prerequisite for meaningful
discussion about how best to manage it. For example, critical social sci-
ence perspectives highlight the difficulty of defining precisely what food
waste is. Given the old adage of “what gets measured, gets managed”, it
is vital that these complexities are confronted. It is even more important
that embracing ambiguity and uncertainty does not give way to inertia.
No matter how food waste is defined, it still needs managing. Similarly,
the effective management of food waste requires ongoing action and
intervention. In much the same way that it is more appropriate to
talk about promoting rather than achieving sustainable development,
solutions for food waste reduction must be attuned to the processual,
dynamic and relentless nature of food waste generation. Most impor-
tantly, the contributions to this volume collectively address the crosscut-
ting nature of food waste. It cuts across points in the food chain, it cuts
across national borders, it cuts across a diverse range of stakeholders, it
cuts across a number of policy agendas, and it cuts across academic dis-
ciplines. It follows that any effort to manage food waste must cut across
the very same silos.
 Foreword     vii

There is an argument that it is precisely these characteristics—those

associated with “wicked problems”—that have driven the issue in
national and global policy arenas. The proliferation of quantitative data
concerning the extent and location of the problem has certainly focused
attention and mobilised a diverse range of stakeholders. The dynamic
and fluid nature of the problem means that it occupies a privileged posi-
tion in relation to a “perfect storm” of related issues (e.g. austerity, food
price inflation, climate change). Indeed, there is already widespread
recognition that food waste is a system-wide challenge requiring a sus-
tained and coordinated effort across disparate actors and organisations.
It may not be too hyperbolic to suggest that this is a unique oppor-
tunity, a moment in which responses to the challenges of food waste
reduction could set the standard for managing future societal transi-
tions. Regrettably, the development and implementation of concrete
and practical solutions have not been forthcoming. These remain an
urgent priority, and this book represents an important step forward. The
individual contributions to this volume are united in their solution ori-
entation. Together they provide an essential resource for researchers and
practitioners who are interested in taking cutting-edge ideas and trans-
lating them into action.

Ancoats, Manchester, UK David M. Evans

 Preface

This book Food Waste Management: Solving the Wicked Problem seeks to
find solutions to the crucial sustainability challenge of reducing food
waste. The book presents research-based solutions and practical insights
for the multifaceted food waste problem, involving environmental, eco-
nomic, social and ethical considerations.
The book is a multidisciplinary effort which was initiated by the edi-
tors as part of a three-year research project “Consumer-citizens as active
reducers of food waste” (Wastebusters) at Tampere University, Finland,
during 2016–2019. This project has studied food waste reduction from
the perspectives of consumption practices, networks of actors, meanings
and discourses as well as market solutions. This edited book covers all
these perspectives by bringing together insights from international food
waste researchers who represent various disciplines. The common thread
throughout the chapters is how the wicked problem of food waste can
be solved at various levels of society. This solution-oriented approach of
the book offers a much-needed contribution to food waste research.
The book is a valuable resource for researchers and educators in many
different fields including consumer research, sustainability research,
environmental research, food studies and business management.

ix
x      Preface

Furthermore, it provides insights and implications for policymakers,

business developers, managers and executives, environmental design-
ers, sustainability consulting agencies as well as social movement activ-
ists and influencers… and for all those interested in addressing this
problem.
The introductory chapter presents a framework for this book. The
book is arranged into four parts. The first part focuses on changing the
behaviour of actors at distribution and consumption levels. The second
part examines how actors and activities are connected within systems.
The third part focuses on how sociocultural meanings are constituted.
The final part showcases innovative, practical solutions to food waste
reduction.
As editors, we would like to acknowledge and warmly thank a num-
ber of people for their input in this book project. First, we thank all
the authors for their valuable contributions to this book. Your effort
and cooperation as authors and peer reviewers have enabled this book
to provide such varied and inspiring perspectives to the problem of
food waste. We are also grateful to Professor David Evans for his sup-
port to this project and for his insightful foreword. We also wish to
thank a number of colleagues who helped us as invited reviewers: Maria
Antikainen, Minna Autio, Ciara Beausang, Marie Hebrok, Hanna-Mari
Ikonen, Ari Jokinen, Marjo Siltaoja, Krista Willman and Mika Yrjölä.
We are also thankful for the two research assistants, doctoral students
Outi Koskinen and Taru Lehtokunnas, who helped us in technicalities
and other issues assigned to them during this project. Janice Rayment at
Roundhouse Indexing has provided her expertise in indexing the book
for which we are also thankful.
Further, we are thankful to Editor Madeleine Holder and Editorial
Assistant Gabriel Everington at Palgrave Macmillan for providing us
help in all kinds of questions throughout the publication process. We
are also indebted to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive sug-
gestions for our book proposal. Their encouraging comments helped us
to structure our ideas towards the final book.
Finally, we want to thank the Emil Aaltonen Foundation for pro-
viding financial support for our “Wastebusters” research project during
2016–2019 as well as the Finnish Foundation for Economic Education
 Preface     xi

for supporting this book project. We are thankful for the Faculty of
Management and Business at the Tampere University, Finland, for pro-
viding us facilities for executing the research project. We also express
our gratitude to our colleagues for their help and guidance in finalising
this book.

Tampere, Finland Elina Närvänen

March 2019 Nina Mesiranta
Malla Mattila
Anna Heikkinen
 Contents

1 Introduction: A Framework for Managing Food Waste 1

Elina Närvänen, Nina Mesiranta, Malla Mattila
and Anna Heikkinen

Part I Changing the Behaviour of Actors at Distribution

and Consumption Levels

2 Household Food Waste—How to Avoid It?

An Integrative Review 27
Lisanne van Geffen, Erica van Herpen and Hans van Trijp

3 Nudging in Food Waste Management:

Where Sustainability Meets Cost-Effectiveness 57
Anna de Visser-Amundson and Mirella Kleijnen

4 Managerial Practices of Reducing Food Waste

in Supermarkets 89
Christine Moser

xiii
xiv      Contents

Part II Connecting Actors and Activities Within Systems

5 The Evolution of the German Anti-food Waste

Movement: Turning Sustainable Ideas into Business 115
Johanna F. Gollnhofer and Daniel Boller

6 Distributed Agency in Food Waste—A Focus

on Non-human Actors in Retail Setting 141
Lotta Alhonnoro, Hanna Leipämaa-Leskinen
and Henna Syrjälä

7 Between Kitchen Sink and City Sewer:

A Socio-Ecological Approach to Food Waste
in Environmental Design 169
Ellen Burke and N. Claire Napawan

8 Creating Resilient Interventions to Food Waste:

Aligning and Leveraging Systems and Design Thinking 193
Danielle Lake, Amy McFarland and Jody Vogelzang

Part III Constituting Sociocultural Meanings

9 Assumptions About Consumers in Food Waste

Campaigns: A Visual Analysis 225
Ulla-Maija Sutinen

10 From Scarcity to Abundance: Food Waste Themes

and Virtues in Agrarian and Mature Consumer Society 257
Outi Uusitalo and Tuomo Takala

11 Mobilising Consumers for Food Waste Reduction

in Finnish Media Discourse 289
Liia-Maria Raippalinna
 Contents     xv

Part IV Innovating Practical Solutions

12 Insect-Based Bioconversion: Value from Food Waste 321

Trevor M. Fowles and Christian Nansen

13 Gleaning: Turning Food Waste at Farms

into Marketable Products 347
Christine M. Kowalczyk, Brian J. Taillon and Laura Hearn

14 Exploring Food Waste Reducing Apps—A Business

Model Lens 367
Fabio de Almeida Oroski

15 ECOWASTE4FOOD Project: Cases for Food Waste

Reduction at City and Regional Levels in the EU 389
Samuel Féret

16 From Measurement to Management: Food Waste

in the Finnish Food Chain 415
Hanna Hartikainen, Inkeri Riipi, Juha-Matti Katajajuuri
and Kirsi Silvennoinen

Index 441
 Notes on Contributors

Lotta Alhonnoro, M.Sc. (Economics) is finishing her doctoral degree

in Marketing in the School of Marketing and Communication at the
University of Vaasa, Finland. Her dissertation focuses on food waste,
building on practice research and actor-network theory to understand
the complex network of food waste. She has published various articles,
including a book chapter on retail food waste in the book Seven Deadly
Sins in Consumption (published by Edward Elgar Publishing).
Daniel Boller is doctoral student in marketing at the University of
St. Gallen, at the Institute for Customer Insight, Switzerland, and vis-
iting student researcher at Stanford Graduate School of Business, USA.
His research is primarily concerned with consumer decision-making in
computer-mediated environment.
Ellen Burke is Assistant Professor in the Department of Landscape
Architecture at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, USA. She designs and
writes on resilience and regeneration in urban contexts, including food
systems, novel ecologies, landscape performance technologies, and
community-based environmental justice projects. She has published
articles on sustainable food systems in Landscape Research, and the

xvii
xviii      Notes on Contributors

Avery Review and her research investigations have been funded by

ArtPlace America and the Landscape Architecture Foundation.
Fabio de Almeida Oroski is Full Professor and Researcher at the
Postgraduate and Graduate Programs in Food, Chemical and Biochemical
Engineering at School of Chemistry of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. His main research topics are food waste reduction and valorisation;
sustainable sociotechnical transitions focusing on bioeconomy; technologi-
cal innovation management and business model innovation studies.
Anna de Visser-Amundson is Doctorate Candidate at the Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam, School of Business and Economics, the
Netherlands, and a Research Fellow in Marketing at Hotelschool The
Hague, the Netherlands. Her current research focuses on nudging to
reduce food waste and the marketing of “rescued-based” food as one
of the solutions to reduce food waste. Her work has been published in
the Journal of Tourism Futures, Hospitality Management and Hospitality
Technology and in numerous conference proceedings.
Samuel Féret is senior project manager at CIHEAM-IAMM
(International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies)
in Montpellier, France. He coordinated the ECOWASTE4FOOD pro-
ject in 2017–2018 which aims at supporting eco-innovations that con-
tribute to prevent food waste at city and regional levels. Samuel Féret
has an extensive experience in EU networks and policies dedicated to
agriculture, rural development and interactive innovation. He has a
postgraduate degree in sociology, innovation and risks.
Trevor M. Fowles is Ph.D. student in the Department of Entomology
and Nematology at University of California, Davis, USA, who special-
ises on insect breeding, bioconversion of industrial food wastes and use
of secondary insect-derived compounds. He completed a bachelor’s in
biology at San Diego State University in 2011 before joining Campbell’s
Tomatoes Seed Breeding Division, where he bred tomatoes, peppers and
other row crops.
Johanna F. Gollnhofer is Associate Professor at the University of
St. Gallen, Switzerland. Her research is mainly located in the area
of food waste from theoretical and practical perspectives. Her work
 Notes on Contributors     xix

is published in the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Journal of

Marketing Management and the Journal of Macromarketing.
Hanna Hartikainen, M.Sc. from Luke, Natural Resources Institute
Finland, is experienced in quantitative and qualitative data collec-
tion methods and analysis. Her main fields of expertise are food
waste and the environmental impacts of food. She is currently focus-
ing her research on mechanisms that boost sustainable consumption
and production, especially collaborative methods, service design and
communication.
Laura Hearn is co-founder of Glean LLC, an innovative, agricultural
start-up focused on creating sustainable, simple and honest label foods
out of fresh fruits and vegetables. Her prior experience includes serving
as the marketing director for Nash Produce, one of the largest cucum-
ber and sweet potato processing facilities in the USA. She is a graduate
of the College of Management at North Carolina State University in
Raleigh, NC, USA.
Anna Heikkinen, Ph.D. is University Lecturer of Management and
Organisations at the Faculty of Management and Business, Tampere
University, Finland. Her research interests include sustainable develop-
ment in and around organisations, urban nature and discourse analy-
sis. Her work has been published in edited volumes and international
journals, such as Journal of Business Ethics, Business Communication
Quarterly and International Journal of Knowledge Management Studies.
She has also co-edited this book.
Juha-Matti Katajajuuri, M.Sc. is Senior Scientist at Luke, Natural
Resources Institute Finland. He has expertise in several areas, especially
in sustainable and responsible production and consumption, the circu-
lar economy related to the food system and food waste, and assessment
of the environmental impacts of food and packaging systems.
Mirella Kleijnen is Full Professor in Customer Experience
Management at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, School of Business
and Economics, the Netherlands. Her current research interests include
adoption versus resistance towards innovation, customer experience
management, digital marketing and more recently health marketing.
xx      Notes on Contributors

Her work has been published in several academic journals, among

which Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Services
Research, International Journal of Management Reviews, Journal of
Interactive Marketing and Journal of Retailing.
Christine M. Kowalczyk holds a Ph.D. from the University of Memphis
and is Associate Professor of Marketing and Supply Chain Management
at the College of Business at East Carolina University in Greenville, NC,
USA. Her research focuses on branding, celebrities and non-traditional
advertising as well as the impact of public policy on these topics.
Danielle Lake is the Director of Design Thinking and Associate
Professor at Elon University, USA. Her scholarship bridges research
on design thinking and wicked problems with the public engagement
movement, seeking methods that foster more inclusive, just, and resil-
ient individuals and communities. These commitments have led to
cross-institutional research examining the challenges of place-based col-
laborative engagement projects surrounding issues of food justice, crime
and community, and educational attainment. She is the recipient of the
John Saltmarsh Award for Emerging Leaders in Civic Engagement and
the John Lachs award for Public Philosophy.
Hanna Leipämaa-Leskinen holds a Ph.D. in Marketing and is
Associate Professor in the School of Marketing and Communication
at the University of Vaasa, Finland. Her research interests focus on cul-
tural consumer research, food-related consumption and sustainable
consumption. She has published, for example, in Journal of Consumer
Culture, Research in Consumer Behavior: Consumer Culture Theory and
Qualitative Market Research. She has co-edited the book Seven Deadly
Sins in Consumption (published by Edward Elgar Publishing).
Malla Mattila, Ph.D. currently works as University Instructor
(Master’s Degree Programme in Leadership for Change) at the
Faculty of Management and Business, Tampere University, Finland.
Her research interests include food waste reduction, sociomateri-
ality, sustainable business models, and networked innovation and
commercialisation processes. She has published her research in such
scholarly periodicals as Time & Society, Journal of Cleaner Production,
 Notes on Contributors     xxi

IMP Journal and International Journal of Entrepreneurship and

Innovation Management. She has also co-edited this book.
Amy McFarland is Assistant Professor of Food and Agriculture in the
Meijer Honors College of Grand Valley State University, USA, jointly
appointment in Environmental Studies. She has an interdisciplinary
academic background with a Ph.D. in horticulture and researches
­sociocultural influences on and from agriculture and the environment.
She works closely with students and faculty from across the univer-
sity to create a learning laboratory at the student farm, the Sustainable
Agriculture Project where students apply skills learned in the classroom.
Nina Mesiranta, Ph.D. is currently Postdoctoral Researcher in the
Wastebusters research project focusing on food waste reduction at the
Faculty of Management and Business, Tampere University, Finland.
Her research interests are also related to interpretive consumer research,
especially consumer online shopping experiences and social media.
She has published, for instance, in Journal of Cleaner Production, Time
& Society, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services and Advances in Consumer Research. She
has also co-edited this book.
Christine Moser is Assistant Professor of Organization Sciences at the
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands. In her research, she is
among others interested in how food (waste) is organised. She studies cor-
porate social responsibility and offline and online collaboration and knowl-
edge sharing. Her research has been published among others in New Media
and Society, Research in the Sociology of Organizations and Information
Systems Journal. She is a guest editor for Organization Studies and has
recently co-edited a volume of Research in the Sociology of Organization.
Elina Närvänen, Ph.D. is University Lecturer of Marketing at the
Faculty of Management and Business, Tampere University, Finland. She
is the leader of the Wastebusters research project, focused on the reduc-
tion of food waste (2016–2019). Her research interests are related to
consumer research, particularly from a sociocultural perspective. She has
studied consumption and brand communities, sustainable consumption
practices, food consumption and qualitative research methodologies.
xxii      Notes on Contributors

Her research has been published in, for example, Journal of Cleaner
Production, Journal of Service Management, European Journal of Marketing
and Consumption Markets & Culture. She has also co-edited this book.
Christian Nansen is Associate Professor in the Department of
Entomology and Nematology, at University of California, Davis,
USA. He specialises in applied insect ecology, IPM and remote sens-
ing. Nansen completed his Ph.D. in Zoology at the University of
Copenhagen, Denmark, before joining the UC Davis faculty in 2014.
He has also held faculty positions at Texas A&M, Texas Tech and most
recently at the University of Western Australia.
N. Claire Napawan is Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture +
Environmental Design at the University of California, Davis, USA. Her
research focuses on urban public open spaces and their contribution to
urban resilience, including the development of new techniques for inte-
grating urban communities with their built environments. She has pub-
lished articles on sustainable food systems in Spaces and Flows: Journal
of Urban and Extra-Urban Studies, Landscape Research and Journal of
Urbanism. In 2015, she was awarded the top honour of Vanguard by Next
City, a non-profit organisation tasked with promoting sustainable cities.
Liia-Maria Raippalinna, M.A. is Ph.D. student of Ethnology and
Anthropology at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Her doctoral dis-
sertation investigates food waste reduction and consumer responsibility
in Finnish media discourse and among consumer-citizens. Interested
in environmental issues, she is a member of the School of Resource
Wisdom, University of Jyväskylä.
Inkeri Riipi, M.Sc. is from Luke, Natural Resources Institute Finland.
Her area of expertise includes qualitative data collection and participatory
methods. She has experience in sustainable and responsible food produc-
tion and consumption, food waste and environmental management.
Kirsi Silvennoinen, M.Sc. is from Luke, Natural Resources Institute
Finland. Her field of expertise is the ecology of food systems, and she is
currently finalising her Ph.D. concerning food waste in households and
the hospitality sector.
 Notes on Contributors     xxiii

Ulla-Maija Sutinen is Doctoral Researcher and University Instructor

at the Faculty of Management and Business at Tampere University,
Finland. Her research interests revolve around interpretive consumer
research, sustainable consumption and social marketing, which are
also the main themes of her doctoral dissertation. Her work has been
published in Journal of Cleaner Production, Time & Society and The
International Review of Retail Distribution and Consumer Research.
Henna Syrjälä works as Assistant Professor in the School of Marketing
and Communication, University of Vaasa, Finland, and holds the title
of Adjunct Professor at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research
focuses on cultural and transformative consumer research. She has
published in Journal of Business Research, Journal of Consumer Culture
and Research in Consumer Behavior: Consumer Culture Theory. She has
co-edited the books Seven Deadly Sins in Consumption (Edward Elgar
Publishing) and Multifaceted Autoethnography (Nova Science Publishing).
Brian J. Taillon holds a Ph.D. from New Mexico State University,
USA, and is Assistant Professor of Marketing and Supply Chain
Management at the College of Business at East Carolina University in
Greenville, NC, USA. His research interests include marketing commu-
nications, consumer behaviour and retailing. He is especially interested
in consumer responses to mental imagery in advertising.
Tuomo Takala, Ph.D. is Professor of Management and Leadership at
the Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics, Finland.
Professor Takala conducts research by using qualitative research meth-
ods. One of his current projects is “Power of charisma and storytell-
ing”. In his research, he also focuses on business ethics and corporate
responsibility.
Outi Uusitalo, Ph.D. is Professor of Marketing at the Jyväskylä
University School of Business and Economics, Finland. Her current
research delves into consumer behaviour, sustainable marketing and
consumption, services marketing and management, places and spaces
of consumption, and consumers’ financial well-being. She is leading the
Sustainable Business Research Group at the University of Jyväskylä.
xxiv      Notes on Contributors

Lisanne van Geffen is Ph.D. at the Marketing and Consumer

Behaviour Group of Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Her
research focus lies on understanding the mechanisms behind avoidable
food waste in households. She takes an inclusive perspective by focusing
on individual, social and societal factors driving food waste.
Erica van Herpen is Associate Professor at the Marketing and Consumer
Behaviour Group of Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Her
research focuses on consumer evaluation, use of and choice from (food)
assortments. She examines consumer decisions in retail settings, studying
how the presentation of products and of the store itself affect consumer
behaviour, and how consumers can be stimulated to buy more healthful
and/or more sustainable products. Additionally, her research centres on
how household practices regarding the food assortment at home influence
food waste.
Hans van Trijp is Chair and Full Professor of Marketing and
Consumer Behaviour at Wageningen University in the Netherlands.
He received his Ph.D. in Marketing at Wageningen University and has
combined his job in Academia with an affiliation in food industry for
many years. His research focuses on marketing and consumer behav-
iour, primarily from a “social” marketing perspective, namely how these
insights can be used and extended to the case of consumption and pro-
duction of healthy and sustainable products.
Jody Vogelzang is Assistant Professor at Grand Valley State University,
USA, and a registered dietitian with a Ph.D. in health services and a
specialisation in community health. Her research focuses on the com-
plexity of poverty, specifically as it manifests in food insecurity and hun-
ger. She has been involved in Design Thinking at Grand Valley State
University for the past three years and has presented at national confer-
ences on the adaptability of this process in solving multi-layered com-
plex problems. Vogelzang is the recipient of the Excellence in Practice
Award in Public Health Nutrition from the Academy of Nutrition and
Dietetics.
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Framework for solving the wicked problem of food waste 6
Fig. 2.1 Household food management. Dashed lines indicate food
movement between stages, solid lines indicate waste 29
Fig. 3.1 Social norms nudges (Study A) 71
Fig. 3.2 Average food wasted per day during the experiment
(Study A) 72
Fig. 3.3 Average food wasted per day of the week during
the experiment (Study A) 73
Fig. 3.4 Daily food wastage (Study A) 74
Fig. 3.5 Pre-commitment nudge (Study B) 76
Fig. 3.6 Reminder smileys (Study B) 77
Fig. 3.7 Average food wasted per day during the experiment
(Study B) 78
Fig. 3.8 Average food wasted per day of the week during
the experiment (Study B) 79
Fig. 3.9 Daily food wastage (Study B) 80
Fig. 5.1 Google search request for ‘dumpster diving’
(own composition) 124
Fig. 6.1 Bread packages marked with discount sticker
buried underneath new products 154
Fig. 6.2 The waste trolley 160

xxv
xxvi      List of Figures

Fig. 7.1 Residential sanitary sewer overflows in San Jose,

2009–2011 (Image created by Brett Snyder
and N. Claire Napawan on behalf of the City
of San Jose 2014–2015 and used here with permission
of the copyright owners) 182
Fig. 7.2 Community co-designed graphics, illustrating
connections between kitchens and city infrastructure
(Image created by Brett Snyder and N. Claire Napawan
on behalf of the City of San Jose 2014–2015
and used here with permission of the copyright owners) 184
Fig. 7.3 Social media content related to #FOGWASTE
(Image created by Brett Snyder and N. Claire Napawan
on behalf of the City of San Jose 2014–2015
and used here with permission of the copyright owners) 185
Fig. 8.1 Design thinking process 205
Fig. 9.1 Phases of data generation 233
Fig. 9.2 Economical consumer: A mock-up campaign poster
(illustration by Kaisa Eskola) 238
Fig. 9.3 Environmental consumer: A mock-up campaign poster
(illustration by Kaisa Eskola) 240
Fig. 9.4 Ethical consumer: A mock-up campaign poster
(illustration by Kaisa Eskola) 241
Fig. 9.5 Childlike consumer: A mock-up campaign poster
(illustration by Kaisa Eskola) 244
Fig. 9.6 Uninformed consumer: A mock-up campaign poster
(illustration by Kaisa Eskola) 245
Fig. 9.7 Active consumer: A mock-up campaign poster
(illustration by Kaisa Eskola) 246
Fig. 11.1 Number of articles featuring the discourses
of consumer mobilisation 297
Fig. 12.1 Two adult black Soldier flies. Adults live only a couple
of weeks, while they mate and lay eggs (a). Black soldier
fly larvae on restaurant waste (b). Once growing
to their full size, larvae exhibit self-extraction
behaviours and move away from their food source 325
 List of Figures     xxvii

Fig. 12.2 Typical business process for insect-based bioconversion

of food waste. Note that value can be extracted from both
the elimination of waste and downstream materials, such
as insect protein (biomass), oils, frass, and pharmaceutical
ingredients (Image is modified from an original design by
www.eawag.ch/ and licensed under CC BY 2.0.) 330
Fig. 12.3 Representative process for production of insect biodiesel 334
Fig. 14.1 A group of proposed questions about type of organisation
and business model components 373
Fig. 14.2 Four business model types of food waste reducing apps 384
Fig. 15.1 Food waste innovations matrix (Source Ecowaste4food) 397
Fig. 15.2 Microwave vacuum dryer at MicroFood company
(Credit S. Féret) 401
Fig. 15.3 A.S.O.P. “Dimitra” facilities in Velventos (Credit S. Féret) 403
Fig. 15.4 Meal tray at Avignon hospital (Credit S. Féret) 405
Fig. 15.5 Waste sorting in a Catalan school canteen (Credit Waste
Agency of Catalonia) 407
Fig. 16.1 Quality standard for food waste data collection in Finland 419
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Potential interventions against household food waste 38

Table 3.1 Models of behavioural change 63
Table 5.1 Businesses that incorporate the anti-food waste idea 129
Table 9.1 Description of data 235
Table 9.2 Assumptions related to orientation 242
Table 9.3 Assumptions related to agency 247
Table 10.1 Summary of data 268
Table 10.2 Changing themes and virtues of food waste
in different times 279
Table 12.1 Some insects used for bioconversion, the different
wastes that they can be fed, and the final products 326
Table 12.2 Examples of insect bioconversion companies. Reduction
rates estimated from a Feed Conversion Ratio of 1.7
and 68% moisture content of extracted larvae 331
Table 14.1 Brief description of selected food waste reducing apps 375
Table 15.1 Cases for food waste reduction 399
Table 16.1 List of what needs to be considered in future
questionnaires (Luke 2018b; Joensuu et al., forthcoming) 425
Table 16.2 Data collection methods and the desired sample
sizes for each step of the food chain 434

xxix
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ARTICLE L.
When the agents and counsel of the parties have submitted
all explanations and evidence in support of their case, the
President pronounces the discussion closed.

ARTICLE LI.
The deliberations of the Tribunal take place in private.
Every decision is taken by a majority of members of the
Tribunal. The refusal of a member to vote must be recorded
in the "procès-verbal."

ARTICLE LII.
The award, given by a majority of votes, is accompanied by
a statement of reasons. It is drawn up in writing and
signed by each member of the Tribunal. Those members who
are in the minority may record their dissent when signing.

ARTICLE LIII.
The award is read out at a public meeting of the Tribunal,
the agents and counsel of the parties being present, or
duly summoned to attend.

{359}

ARTICLE LIV.
The award, duly pronounced and notified to the agents of
the parties at variance, puts an end to the dispute
definitely and without appeal.

ARTICLE LV.
The parties can reserve in the "Compromis" the right to
demand the revision of the award. In this case, and unless
there be an agreement to the contrary, the demand must be
addressed to the Tribunal which pronounced the award. It
can only be made on the ground of the discovery of some new
fact calculated to exercise a decisive influence on the
award, and which, at the time the discussion was closed,
 was unknown to the Tribunal and to the party demanding the
revision. Proceedings for revision can only be instituted
by a decision of the Tribunal expressly recording the
existence of the new fact, recognizing in it the character
described in the foregoing paragraph, and declaring the
demand admissible on this ground. The "Compromis" fixes the
period within which the demand for revision must be made.

ARTICLE LVI.
The award is only binding on the parties who concluded the
"Compromis." When there is a question of interpreting a
Convention to which Powers other than those concerned in
the dispute are parties, the latter notify to the former
the "Compromis" they have concluded. Each of these Powers
has the right to intervene in the case. If one or more of
them avail themselves of this right, the interpretation
contained in the award is equally binding on them.

ARTICLE LVII.
Each party pays its own expenses and an equal share of
those of the Tribunal.

General Provisions.

ARTICLE LVIII.
The present Convention shall be ratified as speedily as
possible. The ratification shall be deposited at The Hague.
A "procès-verbal" shall be drawn up recording the receipt
of each ratification, and a copy duly certified shall be
sent, through the diplomatic channel, to all the Powers who
were represented at the International Peace Conference at
The Hague.

ARTICLE LIX.
The non-Signatory Powers who were represented at the
International Peace Conference can adhere to the present
Convention. For this purpose they must make known their
adhesion to the Contracting Powers by a written
notification addressed to the Netherland Government, and
communicated by it to all the other Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE LX.
The conditions on which the Powers who were not represented
at the International Peace Conference can adhere to the
present Convention shall form the subject of a subsequent
Agreement among the Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE LXI.
In the event of one of the High Contracting Parties
denouncing the present Convention, this denunciation would
not take effect until a year after its notification made in
writing to the Netherland Government, and by it
communicated at once to all the other Contracting Powers.
This denunciation shall on]y affect the notifying Power. In
faith of which the Plenipotentiaries have signed the
present Convention and affixed their seals to it. Done at
The Hague, the 29th July, 1899, in a single copy, which
shall remain in the archives of the Netherland Government,
and copies of it, duly certified, be sent through the
diplomatic channel to the Contracting Powers.
United States, 56th Congress,
1st Session., Senate Document 159.

PEACE CONFERENCE:
The Permanent Court of Arbitration.

The following is the membership of the Permanent Court of

Arbitration, as finally organized, in January, 1901, and
announced to be prepared for the consideration of any
international dispute that may be submitted to it. Fifteen of
the greater nations of the world are represented in this most
august tribunal that has ever sat for judgment of the disputes
of men:

Austria-Hungary.

His Excellency Count Frederic Schonborn, LL. D., president

of the Imperial Royal Court of Administrative Justice,
former Austrian Minister of Justice, member of the House of
Lords of the Austrian Parliament, etc.

His Excellency Mr. D. de Szilagyi, ex-Minister of Justice,

member of the House of Deputies of the Hungarian
Parliament.

Count Albert Apponyi, member of the Chamber of Magnates and

of the Chamber of Deputies of the Hungarian Parliament,
etc.

Mr. Henri Lammasch, LL. D., member of the House of Lords of

the Austrian Parliament, etc.

Belgium.

His Excellency Mr. Beernaert, Minister of State, member of

the Chamber of Representatives, etc.
 His Excellency Baron Lambermont, Minister of State, Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Secretary-General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The Chevalier Descamps, Senator.

Mr. Rolin Jacquemyns, ex-Minister of the Interior.

Denmark.

Professor H. Matzen, LL. D., Professor of the Copenhagen

University, Counsellor Extraordinary of the Supreme Court,
President of the Landsthing.

France.

M. Leon Bourgeois, Deputy, ex-President of the Cabinet

Council, ex-Minister for Foreign Affairs.

M. de Laboulaye, ex-Ambassador.

Baron Destournelles de Constant, Minister Plenipotentiary,

Deputy.

M. Louis Renault, Minister Plenipotentiary, Professor in

the Faculty of Law at Paris, Law Office of the Department
of Foreign Affairs.

Germany.

His Excellency Mr. Bingner, LL. D., Privy Councillor,

Senate President of the Imperial High Court at Leipsic.

Mr. von Frantzius, Privy Councillor, Solicitor of the

Department of Foreign Affairs at Berlin.
 Mr. von Martitz, LL. D., Associate Justice of the Superior
Court of Administrative Justice in Prussia, Professor of
Law at the Berlin University.

Mr. von Bar, LL. D., Judicial Privy Councillor, Professor

of Law at the Göttingen University.

Great Britain.

His Excellency the Right Honorable Lord Pauncefote of

Preston, G. C. B., G. C. M. G., Privy Councillor,
Ambassador at Washington.

The Right Honorable Sir Edward Baldwin Malet,

ex-Ambassador.

The Right Honorable Sir Edward Fry, member of the Privy

Council, Q. C.

Professor John Westlake, LL. D., Q. C.

Italy.

His Excellency Count Constantin Nigra, Senator of the

Kingdom, Ambassador at Vienna.

His Excellency Commander Jean Baptiste Pagano

Guarnaschelli, Senator of the Kingdom, First President of
the Court of Cassation at Rome.

His Excellency Count Tornielli Brusati di Vergano, Senator

of the Kingdom, Ambassador at Paris.

Commander Joseph Zanardelli, Attorney at Law, Deputy to the

National Parliament.

{360}
Japan.
Mr. Motono, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary at Brussels.

Mr. H. Willard Denison, Law Officer of the Minister for

Foreign Affairs at Tokio.

Netherlands.
Mr. T. M. C. Asser, LL. D., member of the Council of
State, ex-Professor of the University of Amsterdam.

Mr. F. B. Coninck Liefsting, LL. D.,

President of the Court of Cassation.

Jonkheer A. F. de Savornin Lohman, LL. D.,

ex-Minister of the Interior, ex-Professor of the Free
University of Amsterdam, member of the Lower House of the
States-General.

Jonkheer G. L. M. H. Ruis de Beerenbrouck,

ex-Minister of Justice, Commissioner of the Queen in the
Province of Limbourg.

Portugal.
Count de Macedo, Peer of the Realm,
ex-Minister of Marine and Colonies, Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary at Madrid.

Rumania.
Mr. Theodore Rosetti, Senator,
ex-President of the High Court of Cassation and Justice.

Mr. Jean Kalindero, Administrator of the Crown Domain,

ex-Judge of the High Court of Cassation and Justice.

Mr. Eugene Statsco,

 ex-President of the Senate, ex-Minister of Justice and
Foreign Affairs.

Mr. Jean N. Lahovari, Deputy, ex-Envoy Extraordinary and

Minister Plenipotentiary, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Russia.
Mr. N. V. Mouravieff, Minister of Justice, Active Privy
Councillor, Secretary of State of His Majesty the Emperor.

Mr. C. P. Pobedonostzeff, Attorney-General of the Most

Holy Synod, Active Privy Councillor, Secretary of State of
His Majesty the Emperor.

Mr. E. V. Frisch,
President of the Department of Legislation of the Imperial
Council, Active Privy Councillor, Secretary of State of His
Majesty the Emperor.

Mr. de Martens, Privy Councillor,

permanent member of the Council of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs.

Spain.
His Excellency the Duke of Tetuan,
ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Senator of the Kingdom,
Grandee of Spain.

Mr. Bienvenido Oliver,

Director-General of the Ministry of Justice, ex-Delegate of
Spain to the Conference on Private International Law at The
Hague.

Dr. Manuel Torres Campos,

Professor of international law at the University of
Grenada, associate member of the Institute of International
Law.
Sweden and Norway.
Mr. S. R D. K. D'Olivecrona,
member of the International Law Institute, ex-Associate
Justice of the Supreme Court of the Kingdom of Sweden,
Doctor of Laws and Letters at Stockholm.

Mr. G. Gram,
ex-Minister of State of Norway, Governor of the Province of
Hamar, Norway.

United States.
Mr. Benjamin Harrison,
ex-President of the United States.

Mr. Melville W. Fuller,

Chief Justice of the United States.

Mr. John W. Griggs,

Attorney-General of the United States.

Mr. George Gray,

United States Circuit Judge.
First Secretary of the Court

J. J. Rochussen.
Second Secretary of the Court

Jonkheer W. Roell.

The Administrative Council consists of the Minister of Foreign

Affairs of the Netherlands and the diplomatic representatives
at The Hague of the ratifying Powers.

Secretary-General
Mr. R Melvil, Baron Van Leyden,
Judge of the District Court of Utrecht and a member of the
 First Chamber of the States-General.

PEACE CONFERENCE:
Convention with respect to the Laws and Customs of
War on Land.

ARTICLE I.
The High Contracting Parties shall issue instructions to their
armed land forces, which shall be in conformity with the
"Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land"
annexed to the present Convention.

ARTICLE II.
The provisions contained in the Regulations mentioned in
Article I. are only binding on the Contracting Powers, in case
of war between two or more of them. These provisions shall
cease to be binding from the time when, in a war between
Contracting Powers, a non-Contracting Power joins one of the
belligerents.

ARTICLE III.
The present Convention shall be ratified as speedily as
possible. The ratifications shall be deposited at The Hague. A
"procès-verbal" shall be drawn up recording the receipt of
each ratification, and a copy, duly certified, shall be sent
through the diplomatic channel, to all the Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE IV.
Non-Signatory Powers are allowed to adhere to the present
Convention. For this purpose they must make their adhesion
known to the Contracting Powers by means of a written
notification addressed to the Netherland Government, and by it
communicated to all the other Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE V.
In the event of one of the High Contracting Parties denouncing
 the present Convention, such denunciation would not take
effect until a year after the written notification made to the
Nethterland Government, and by it at once communicated to all
the other Contracting Powers. This denunciation shall affect
only the notifying Power.

In faith of which the Plenipotentiaries have signed the

present Convention and affixed their seals thereto.

[Signed by representatives of Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Mexico,

France, Greece, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal,
Roumania, Russia, Siam, Sweden and Norway, and Bulgaria.]

REGULATIONS.

SECTION I.
On Belligerents.

CHAPTER I.
On the qualifications of Belligerents.

ARTICLE I.
The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies,
but also to militia and volunteer corps, fulfilling the
following conditions:

1. To be commanded by a person responsible for his

subordinates;

2. To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at a

distance;

3. To carry arms openly; and,

4. To conduct their operations in accordance with the laws

and customs of war. In countries where militia or volunteer
corps constitute the army, or form part of it, they are
 included under the denomination "army."

ARTICLE II.
The population of a territory which has not been occupied who,
on the enemy's approach, spontaneously take up arms to resist
the invading troops without having time to organize themselves
in accordance with Article I, shall be regarded a belligerent,
if they respect the laws and customs of war.

ARTICLE III.
The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of
combatants and non-combatants. In case of capture by the enemy
both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war.

{361}

CHAPTER II.
On Prisoners of War.

ARTICLE IV.
Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile Government,
but not in that of the individuals or corps who captured them.
They must be humanely treated. All their personal belongings,
except arms, horses, and military papers remain their
property.

ARTICLE V.
Prisoners of war may be interned in a town, fortress, camp, or
any other locality, and bound not to go beyond certain fixed
limits; but they can only be confined as an indispensable
measure of safety.

ARTICLE VI.
The State may utilize the labour of prisoners of war according
to their rank and aptitude. Their tasks shall not be
excessive, and shall have nothing to do with the military
operations. Prisoners may be authorized to work for the Public
Service, for private persons, or on their own account. Work
done for the State shall be paid for according to the tariffs
in force for soldiers of the national army employed on similar
tasks. When the work is for other branches of the Public
Service or for private persons, the conditions shall be
settled in agreement with the military authorities. The wages
of the prisoners shall go towards improving their position,
and the balance shall be paid them at the time of their
release, after deducting the cost of their maintenance.

ARTICLE VII.
The Government into whose hands prisoners of war have fallen
is bound to maintain them. Failing a special agreement between
the belligerents, prisoners of war shall be treated as regards
food, quarters, and clothing, on the same footing as the
troops of the Government which has captured them.

ARTICLE VIII.
Prisoners of war shall be subject to the laws, regulations,
and orders in force in the army of the State into whose hands
they have fallen. Any act of insubordination warrants the
adoption, as regards them, of such measures of severity as may
be necessary. Escaped prisoners, recaptured before they have
succeeded in rejoining their army, or before quitting the
territory occupied by the army that captured them, are liable
to disciplinary punishment. Prisoners who, after succeeding in
escaping, are again taken prisoners, are not liable to any
punishment for the previous flight.

ARTICLE IX.
Every prisoner of war, if questioned, is bound to declare his
true name and rank, and if he disregards this rule, he is
liable to a curtailment of the advantages accorded to the
prisoners of war of his class.

ARTICLE X.
Prisoners of war may be set at liberty on parole if the laws
of their country authorize it, and, in such a case, they are
bound, on their personal honour, scrupulously to fulfil, both
as regards their own Government and the Government by whom
they were made prisoners, the engagements they have
contracted. In such cases, their own Government shall not
require of nor accept from them any service incompatible with
the parole given.

ARTICLE XI.
A prisoner of war cannot be forced to accept his liberty on
parole; similarly the hostile Government is not obliged to
assent to the prisoner's request to be set at liberty on
parole.

ARTICLE XII.
Any prisoner of war, who is liberated on parole and
recaptured, bearing arms against the Government to whom he had
pledged his honour, or against the allies of that Government,
forfeits his right to be treated as a prisoner of war, and can
be brought before the Courts.

ARTICLE XIII.
Individuals who follow an army without directly belonging to
it, such as newspaper correspondents and reporters, sutlers,
contractors, who fall into the enemy's hands, and whom the
latter think fit to detain, have a right to be treated as
prisoners of war, provided they can produce a certificate from
the military authorities of the army they were accompanying.

ARTICLE XIV.
A Bureau for information relative to prisoners of war is
instituted, on the commencement of hostilities, in each of the
belligerent States and, when necessary, in the neutral
countries on whose territory belligerents have been received.
This Bureau is intended to answer all inquiries about
prisoners of war, and is furnished by the various services
concerned with all the necessary information to enable it to
keep an individual return for each prisoner of war. It is kept
informed of internments and changes, as well as of admissions
into hospital and deaths. It is also the duty of the
Information Bureau to receive and collect all objects of
personal use, valuables, letters, &c., found on the
battlefields or left by prisoners who have died in hospital or
ambulance, and to transmit them to those interested.

ARTICLE XV.
Relief Societies for prisoners of war, which are regularly
constituted in accordance with the law of the country with the
object of serving as the intermediary for charity, shall
receive from the belligerents for themselves and their duly
accredited agents every facility, within the bounds of
military requirements and Administrative Regulations, for the
effective accomplishment of their humane task. Delegates of
these Societies may be admitted to the places of internment
for the distribution of relief, as also to the halting places
of repatriated prisoners, if furnished with a personal permit
by the military authorities, and on giving an engagement in
writing to comply with all their Regulations for order and
police.

ARTICLE XVI.
The Information Bureau shall have the privilege of free
postage. Letters, money orders, and valuables, as well as
postal parcels destined for the prisoners of war or despatched
by them, shall be free of all postal duties, both in the
countries of origin and destination, as well as in those they
pass through. Gifts and relief in kind for prisoners of war
shall be admitted free of all duties of entry and others, as
well as of payments for carriage by the Government rail ways.

ARTICLE XVII.
Officers taken prisoners may receive, if necessary, the full
pay allowed them in this position by their country's
regulations, the amount to be repaid by their Government.
 ARTICLE XVIII.
Prisoners of war shall enjoy every latitude in the exercise of
their religion, including attendance at their own church
services, provided only they comply with the regulations for
order and police issued by the military authorities.

ARTICLE XIX.
The wills of prisoners of war are received or drawn up on the
same conditions as for soldiers of the national army. The same
rules shall be observed regarding death certificates, as well as
for the burial of prisoners of war, due regard being paid to
their grade and rank.

{362}

ARTICLE XX.
After the conclusion of peace, the repatriation of prisoners
of war shall take place as speedily as possible.

CHAPTER III.
On the Sick and Wounded.

ARTICLE XXI.
The obligations of belligerents with regard to the sick and
wounded are governed by the Geneva Convention of the 22d
August, 1864, subject to any modifications which may be
introduced into it.

SECTION II.
On Hostilities.

CHAPTER I.
On means of injuring the Enemy, Sieges: and Bombardments.

ARTICLE XXII.
The right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the enemy
is not unlimited.

ARTICLE XXIII.
Besides the prohibitions provided
by special Conventions, it is especially prohibited:

(a.) To employ poison or poisoned arms;

(b.) To kill or wound treacherously individuals belonging

to the hostile nation or army;

(c.) To kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down arms,

or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at
discretion;

(d.) To declare that no quarter will be given;

(e.) To employ arms, projectiles, or material of a nature

to cause superfluous injury;

(f.) To make improper use of a flag of truce, the national

flag, or military ensigns and the enemy's uniform, as well
as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention;

(g.) To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such

destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the
necessities of war.

ARTICLE XXIV.
Ruses of war and the employment of methods necessary to obtain
information about the enemy and the country, are considered
allowable.

ARTICLE XXV.
The attack or bombardment of towns, villages, habitations or
buildings which are not defended, is prohibited.
ARTICLE XXVI.
The Commander of an attacking force, before commencing a
bombardment, except in the case of an assault, should do all
he can to warn the authorities.

ARTICLE XXVII.
In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps should be taken
to spare as far as possible edifices devoted to religion, art,
science, and charity, hospitals, and places where the sick and
wounded are collected, provided they are not used at the same
time for military purposes. The besieged should indicate these
buildings or places by some particular and visible signs,
which should previously be notified to the assailants.

ARTICLE XXVIII.
The pillage of a town or place, even when taken by assault, is
prohibited.

CHAPTER II.
On Spies.

ARTICLE XXIX.
An individual can only be considered a spy if, acting
clandestinely, or on false pretences, he obtains, or seeks to
obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent,
with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party.
Thus, soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated into the
zone of operations of a hostile army to obtain information are
not considered spies. Similarly, the following are not
considered spies: soldiers or civilians, carrying out their
mission openly, charged with the delivery of despatches
destined either for their own army or for that of the enemy.
To this class belong likewise individuals sent in balloons to
deliver despatches, and generally to maintain communication
between the various parts of an army or a territory.

ARTICLE XXX.
A spy taken in the act cannot be punished without previous
trial.

ARTICLE XXXI.
A spy who, after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is
subsequently captured by the enemy, is treated as a prisoner
of war, and incurs no responsibility for his previous acts of
espionage.

CHAPTER III.
On Flags of Truce.

ARTICLE XXXII.
An individual is considered as bearing a flag of truce who is
authorized by one of the belligerents to enter into
communication with the other, and who carries a white flag. He
has a right to inviolability, as well as the trumpeter,
bugler, or drummer, the flag-bearer, and the interpreter who
may accompany him.

ARTICLE XXXIII.
The Chief to whom a flag of truce is sent is not obliged to
receive it in all circumstances. He can take all steps
necessary to prevent the envoy taking advantage of his mission
to obtain information. In case of abuse, he has the right to
detain the envoy temporarily.

ARTICLE XXXIV.
The envoy loses his rights of inviolability if it is proved
beyond doubt that he has taken advantage of his privileged
position to provoke or commit an act of treachery.

CHAPTER IV.
On Capitulations.

ARTICLE XXXV.
Capitulations agreed on between the Contracting Parties must
be in accordance with the rules of military honour. When once
settled, they must be scrupulously observed by both the
parties.

CHAPTER V.
On Armistices.

ARTICLE XXXVI.
An armistice suspends military operations by mutual agreement
between the belligerent parties. If its duration is not fixed,
the belligerent parties can resume operations at any time,
provided always the enemy is warned within the time agreed
upon, in accordance with the terms of the armistice.

ARTICLE XXXVII.
An armistice may be general or local. The first suspends all
military operations of the belligerent States; the second,
only those between certain fractions of the belligerent armies
and in a fixed radius.

ARTICLE XXXVIII.
An armistice must be notified officially, and in good time, to
the competent authorities and the troops. Hostilities are
suspended immediately lifter the notification, or at a fixed
date.

ARTICLE XXXIX.
It is for the Contracting Parties to settle, in the terms of
the armistice, what communications may be held, on the theatre
of war, with the population and with each other.

ARTICLE XL.
Any serious violation of the armistice by one of the parties
gives the other party the right to denounce it, and even, in
case of urgency, to recommence hostilities at once.

ARTICLE XLI.