Modular Treatment Approach for

Drinking Water and Wastewater

Satinder Kaur Brar
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MODULAR TREATMENT APPROACH
FOR DRINKING WATER AND
WASTEWATER
This page intentionally left blank
 MODULAR
TREATMENT
APPROACH FOR
DRINKING
WATER AND
WASTEWATER
Edited by

Satinder Kaur Brar

Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada;
Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre-Eau Terre et Environnement, Québec, QC, Canada

Pratik Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Agnieszka Cuprys
Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
Elsevier
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 Contents

Contributors ix 4. Modular treatment approach for drinking

Preface xiii water and wastewater: introduction to a
sustainable approach to decentralized treatment
1. Introduction systems
RAHUL SAINI, CARLOS SAUL OSORIO-GONZALEZ, AND A. DALILA LARIOS-MARTÍNEZ,
SATINDER KAUR BRAR

CHRISTELL BARRALES-FERNANDEZ,
P. ELIZABETH ALVAREZ-CHAVEZ, CARLOS MÉNDEZ-CARRETO,
1.1 Introduction 1 FABIOLA SANDOVAL-SALAS, NORA RUIZ-COLORADO,
STÉPHANE GODBOUT, SÉBASTIEN FOURNEL, AND
References 9
ANTONIO AVALOS-RAMÍREZ

2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking 4.1 Introduction 55

water treatment 4.2 Wastewater treatment 57
SABA MIRI, JAVAD GHANEI, AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR
4.3 Wastewater treatment operations 57
4.4 Modular wastewater treatment approaches 60
2.1 Introduction 13 4.5 Conclusions 64
2.2 Wastewater treatment infrastructure 14 References 64
2.3 Macropollutants in water and sludge 19 Further reading 66
2.4 Micropollutants in water and wastewater 21
2.5 Water quality parameters 26 5. Modular water treatment practice in cold
2.6 Bottlenecks and limitations of centralized drinking countries
water and wastewater treatment facilities 29 MOHAMMAD HOSSEIN KARIMI DARVANJOOGHI,
2.7 Conclusion 31 WASEEM RAJA, PRATIK KUMAR, SARA MAGDOULI, AND
References 31 SATINDER KAUR BRAR

3. Perspectives on the use of modular systems for 5.1 Introduction 67

organic micropollutants removal 5.2 Treatment units for modular drinking water
system 68
SEYYED MOHAMMADREZA DAVOODI,
5.3 Operational challenges of modular treatment systems
MOHAMMAD HOSSEIN KARIMI DARVANJOOGHI, AND
SATINDER KAUR BRAR in a cold country 76
5.4 Conclusion 77
3.1 Introduction to challenges related to removal of Acknowledgments 78
organic micropollutants and possible solutions 33 References 78
3.2 Organic micropollutants removal: current state of
art 40 6. Introduction to modular wastewater
3.3 Source-to-tap: Where to apply the new treatment system and its significance
modules? 47 ASHOK KUMAR GUPTA, ABHRADEEP MAJUMDER, AND
3.4 Conclusion 49 PARTHA SARATHI GHOSAL
Acknowledgments 49
References 49 6.1 Introduction 81

v
vi Contents

6.2 Wastewater and its components 82 9. Electrode-based reactors in modular

6.3 Conventional practices and associated challenges in wastewater treatment
wastewater treatment 88
GURUPRASAD V. TALEKAR
6.4 Prospect of modular wastewater treatment units in
developing countries 93
9.1 Introduction 149
6.5 Summary of findings 94
9.2 Electrooxidation 150
References 95
9.3 Electrochemical disinfection 157
9.4 CLASS (closed loop advanced sanitation
7. Phytoremediation as a modular approach for system) 161
greywater treatment 9.5 Conclusion 167
~
FERNANDO JORGE MAGALHAES FILHO (CORREA) AND References 167
PAULA PAULO (LOUREIRO)
10. A review on advanced biological systems for
7.1 Phytoremediation and constructed wetlands: a
modular wastewater treatment plants: process,
modular approach 107
7.2 Greywater as a main component of domestic application, and future in developing countries
wastewater 109 ASHOK KUMAR GUPTA, ABHRADEEP MAJUMDER, AND
7.3 Constructed wetlands as nature-based solutions for PARTHA SARATHI GHOSAL
greywater treatment 109
7.4 Case study: authors experience with constructed 10.1 Introduction 171
wetlands and greywater 113 10.2 Modular constructed wetland-based treatment
7.5 Challenges and perspectives 125 units 171
Acknowledgments 126 10.3 Modular membrane bioreactorebased treatment
References 126 units 178
10.4 Modular microbial fuel cellebased treatment
units 179
8. Design and principles of adsorbent-based 10.5 Other advanced modular biological wastewater
reactors for modular wastewater treatment treatment units 180
M. CHAUDHARY, N. JAIN, L. BARMAN, AND G.D. BHOWMICK 10.6 Evaluation of the performance of modular treatment
units 184
8.1 Introduction 129 References 185
8.2 Adsorbent-based reactors 130
8.3 Flow direction and the extent of adsorption 133 11. A life cycle assessment perspective to
8.4 Adsorbents used in adsorption-based reactors 134
conventional and modular wastewater treatment
8.5 Principle of adsorption and its mechanism 134
8.6 Design of multifunctional adsorbents 137 BIKASH R. TIWARI AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR
8.7 Decentralized/modular treatment systems: need,
significance, and case studies 138 11.1 Introduction 187
8.8 Challenges and future perspectives 142 11.2 Life cycle phases 188
8.9 Conclusion 143 11.3 LCA of modular wastewater treatment systems 194
References 143 11.4 Case studies centralized versus decentralized 198
Further reading 148 References 202
 Contents vii
12. Concept of bioproduct recovery in relation References 261
to the modular treatment Further reading 264
CARLOS SAUL OSORIO-GONZALEZ, JOSEPH SEBASTIAN,
SATINDER KAUR BRAR, AND ANTONIO AVALOS-RAMÍREZ 15. Role of membrane filtration in modular
drinking water treatment system
12.1 Introduction 207 PRITHA CHATTERJEE, UBHAT ALI, AND PRATIK KUMAR
12.2 Sludge-to-energy concept 208
12.3 Biodiesel production 210 15.1 Introduction 267
12.4 Biogas generation 212 15.2 Types of membrane systems 268
12.5 Biofertilizers 216 15.3 Modular design: a membrane technology aspects for
12.6 Conclusion 220 drinking water treatment 270
Acknowledgment 220 15.4 State of the art: application of the membrane
References 220 treatment systems 271
15.5 Case studies 276
13. Introduction to modular drinking water 15.6 Conclusions 277
treatment system Acknowledgment 277
KAIVALYA KULKARNI, WASEEM RAJA, AND PRATIK KUMAR
References 277
Further reading 279
13.1 Introduction 225
13.2 Modular drinking water treatment systems: 16. Modular drinking water systems: chemical
advantages 226 treatment perspective
13.3 Challenges in setting up modular drinking water PRATISHTHA KHURANA, RAMA PULICHARLA, AND
treatment systems 227 SATINDER KAUR BRAR
13.4 Factors affecting selection of modular drinking water
treatment systems 227 16.1 Introduction 281
13.5 Design considerations for modular drinking water 16.2 Community drinking water treatment 282
treatment systems 228 16.3 The chlorination process 283
13.6 Conclusion 236 16.4 Chlorination by-products 289
References 236 16.5 Advanced chemical methods 290
Further reading 237 16.6 Challenges and future outlooks 298
16.7 Conclusion 299
14. Role and importance of filtration system in References 299
modular drinking water treatment system
17. Modular drinking water treatment system
KAMALPREET KAUR BRAR, HAYAT RAZA, SARA MAGDOULI,
AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR using ozonation and UV
XUHAN SHU, PRATIK KUMAR, AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR
14.1 Introduction 239
14.2 Commercialized MDWTS 240 17.1 Ozonation drinking water treatment system
14.3 Case studies 242 (DWTS): a modular approach principle of
14.4 Ultrastructure of filter vessel and important steps to ozonation 303
be followed for efficient functioning in 17.2 UV-based treatment of drinking water sources: a
MDWTS 245 modular approach principle of a UV light 307
14.5 Basic sizing formula and example of filter 17.3 Current benefit and possible challenges to provide
media 247 solution for a smaller community 311
14.6 Role of passive filter media to design a novel 17.4 Case study and future perspective for the modular
MDWTS 249 water treatment system 314
14.7 Microbiological aspect of drinking water 256 17.5 Conclusion 315
14.8 Conclusion 261 References 316
viii Contents

18. Application of solar energy in modular 19. Life cycle assessment drinking water supply
drinking water treatment and treatment systems
PRATIK KUMAR, AGNIESZKA CUPRYS, AND VR SANKAR CHEELA, UBHAT ALI, PRATIK KUMAR, AND
SATINDER KAUR BRAR BRAJESH K. DUBEY

18.1 Introduction 319 19.1 Introduction 335

18.2 Solar energy used for desalination purpose 320 19.2 Case study 338
18.3 Disinfection of drinking water using solar energy: 19.3 Review of LCA studies in water sector 342
solar disinfection 326 19.4 Summary 348
18.4 Conclusion 332 Acknowledgment 348
Acknowledgments 332 References 348
References 332
Index 351
 Contributors
Ubhat Ali Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir, India
P. Elizabeth Alvarez-Chavez Research and Devel-
opment Institute for the Agri-Environment
(IRDA), Québec, QC, Canada; Département des
sols et de génie agroalimentaire, Faculté des sci-
ences de l’agriculture et de l’alimentation, Univer-
sité Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
Antonio Avalos-Ramírez Institut National de la
Recherche Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environ-
nement, Université du Québec, Québec, QC,


Canada; Centre National en Electrochimie et en
Technologies Environnementales, Shawinigan,
QC, Canada
L. Barman Agricultural and Food Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Christell Barrales-Fern
andez Tecnol
ogico Nacional
de México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
G.D. Bhowmick Agricultural and Food Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Kamalpreet Kaur Brar Department of Civil Engi-
neering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York Uni-
versity, Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre
Technologique des Résidus Industriels en Abitibi
Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada
Satinder Kaur Brar Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, Lassonde School of Engineering, York Univer-
sity, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institut National de la
Recherche Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environ-
nement, Québec, QC, Canada
Pritha Chatterjee Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Hydera-
bad, Telangana, India
ix
M. Chaudhary Department of Desalination and Wa-
ter Treatment, Zuckerberg Institute for Water
Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
Beer-Sheba, Israel
VR Sankar Cheela Environmental Engineering and
Management, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharag-
pur, West Bengal, India
Agnieszka Cuprys Norwegian University of Life
Sciences, Ås, Norway
Seyyed Mohammadreza Davoodi Department of
Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering,
York University, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institut
National de la Recherche Scientifique - Centre-
Eau, Terre Environnement, Québec, QC, Canada
Brajesh K. Dubey Environmental Engineering and
Management, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharag-
pur, West Bengal, India
Sébastien Fournel Département des sols et de génie
agroalimentaire, Faculté des sciences de l’agricul-
ture et de l’alimentation, Université Laval, Quebec,
QC, Canada
Javad Ghanei Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Partha Sarathi Ghosal School of Water Resources,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharag-
pur, West Bengal, India
Stéphane Godbout Research and Development
Institute for the Agri-Environment (IRDA), Québec,
QC, Canada
Ashok Kumar Gupta Environmental Engineering
Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur,
West Bengal, India
x Contributors
N. Jain Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Mohammad Hossein Karimi Darvanjooghi Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of
Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Pratishtha Khurana Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, Lassonde School of Engineering, York Univer-
sity, Toronto, ON, Canada
Kaivalya Kulkarni The Municipal Infrastructure
Group, Civil EIT - Water Linear, Toronto, ON,
Canada
Pratik Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, In-
dian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir, India
A. Dalila Larios-Martínez Research and Develop-
ment Institute for the Agri-Environment (IRDA),
Québec, QC, Canada; Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Fernando Jorge Magalh~aes Filho (Correa) CNPq
Research Productivity Fellow (National Scientific
Research Council), Brasília, DF, Brazil; PhD in Envi-
ronmental Sanitation and Water Resources (UFMS),
Campo Grande, MS, Brazil; Specialist in Project
Management (USP), Piracicaba, SP, Brazil; Postdoc-
torate (UFMS), Brazil and period at Aarhus Univer-
sity, Denmark and Technological University of
Pereira, Aarhus and Colombia, Denmark
Sara Magdouli Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre Technologique des
Résidus Industriels en Abitibi Témiscamingue,
Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada
Abhradeep Majumder School of Environmental
Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Carlos Méndez-Carreto Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Saba Miri Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada; Institut National de la
Recherche Scientifique - Centre-Eau Terre Environ-
nement, Québec, QC, Canada
Carlos Saul Osorio-Gonzalez Department of Civil
Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering,
York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Paula Paulo (Loureiro) Dom Bosco Catholic Univer-
sity, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil; PhD in Environ-
mental Sciences (WUR), Delft and Wageningen,
Netherlands; Specialist in Resource-Oriented Sani-
tation (SIDA), Stockholm, Sweden; Postdoctorate
(WUR and TU Delft), Delft and Wageningen,
Netherlands; Federal University of Mato Grosso
do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
Rama Pulicharla Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Waseem Raja Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu
and Kashmir, India
Hayat Raza Continental Carbon Group, Inc., Stoney
Creek, ON, Canada
Nora Ruiz-Colorado Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Rahul Saini Department of Civil Engineering, Las-
sonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Fabiola Sandoval-Salas Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Joseph Sebastian Institut National de la Recherche
Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environnement,
Université du Québec, Québec, QC, Canada
Xuhan Shu Department of Civil Engineering, Las-
sonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Guruprasad V. Talekar Research Associate,
Applied Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory,
Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute
of Technology and Science, K K Birla Goa Campus,
Goa, India
Bikash R. Tiwari Institut National de la Recherche
Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environnement,
Université du Québec, Quebec, QC, Canada
 Preface
Early wastewater treatment plants during the
Roman period were primary conduits carrying
dirty water, which changed in the late 19th and
early 20th century with the construction of
centralized sewage treatment. As environmental
quality became a key preoccupation in the mid-
20th century, the treatment systems became
more complex and larger in size. With the pas-
sage of time, the technological, climatic, and
demographic changes started affecting the per-
formance of “centralized” urban water and
wastewater treatment plants. Hence, a higher
water quality and demand management necessi-
tate the requirement of a novel approach for wa-
ter treatment plant design. The modular systems
came to the rescue as they allow a flexible,
sustainable, and cost-effective water treatment
service and operation. Such modular or decen-
tralized water treatment system provides porta-
bility features, such as low footprint, and is
amazingly effective for the development of the
infrastructure that requires less engineering by
adapting to the existing space.
The purpose of this book is to present the
modern approach of tackling the problem of
high-quality water and wastewater treatment
demand. The modular strategy allows the
customized retrofit solution to constantly chang-
ing parameters of the urban water that is to be
treated. The advanced treatment modules can
be added or removed, depending on the current
demand and requirements. The application of
xi
modular water/wastewater treatment can be
remarkably successful for nontransient, noncom-
munity water systems, housing developments,
day care centers, schools, industries and parks,
manufacturing facilities, as well as environ-
mental remediation. Hence, this book is
intended to keep the global research community,
practitioners, industrialists, and young water
professionals up to date with the current trend
in this emerging field of modular water and
wastewater treatment systems.
This book summarizes the principles of
modular design (Chapters 1e4), as well as the
current developments and perspectives
regarding the usage of the modular approach
in a cold climate (Chapter 5). It introduces the
modular approach in urban water treatment.
The novel and up-to-date review of wastewater
(Chapter 6e12) and drinking water (Chapter
13e19) treatment methods with incorporated
modular strategy is presented. The life cycle as-
sessments of water treatment plants as well as
the perspectives of modular treatment usage
are explained.
We gratefully appreciate the hard work and
patience of all contributing authors of this
book. The views or opinions expressed in each
chapter of this book are those of the authors
and should not be interpreted as opinions of
their affiliated organizations.
The Editors
This page intentionally left blank
 C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
Rahul Saini, Carlos Saul Osorio-Gonzalez, Satinder Kaur Brar
Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Toronto,
ON, Canada
1.1 Introduction
The water sector around the world has faced
many challenges regarding its management.
However, a specific emphasis has been observed
in urban water systems including drinking and
wastewater systems. Water is one of the essential
elements for sustaining quality of city life, liveli-
hoods, and urban economy. In general, water
management involves meeting regulatory
criteria for safe drinking water, storage, treat-
ment, wastewater discharge, drainage, and
collection of stormwater to decrease risks of ur-
ban flooding. The current policies to water man-
agement have well served in terms of public
safety, economic development, and public health
(Meli
an, 2020). However, increasing impact of
climate change, urbanization, strained ecosys-
tems, and high energy requirements on water
quantity and quality are becoming apparent
and more visible. Fig. 1.1 shows the benefits of
sustainable and integrated water management.
Basically, the concept of sustainable water man-
agement includes the environmental, hydrologi-
cal, ecological, and social integrity of water
systems in the present and long-term future.
However, because of the sustainable water man-
agement works with the above factors, it is
Modular Treatment Approach for Drinking Water and Wastewater
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85421-4.00016-4
necessary to include multidisciplinary objec-
tives, process, and participatory agents with
the aim to manage, develop, and improve the
water systems (Haasnoot et al., 2011). In this
sense, the sustainable water management con-
siders the drinking and tap water as a funda-
mental for the human well-being, while
promoting the healthy communities by creating
the resilient environment.
Over the past decade, resource recovery tech-
nologies from wastewater have been extensively
studied as a potential alternative, used mainly to
help in resolving the problem of water scarcity.
However, the current problem of this type of
technologies is that a large-scale implementation
is still lacking. However, to talk about water
management can be a hard topic because of the
wide application of water and its differences in
specific application. Additionally, well-being of
humanity depends on the availability of drink-
ing water, which directly related to the food pro-
duction and wastewater treatment (EL-Nwsany
et al., 2019). Drinking water supplies as well as
stormwater disposal systems have been a
massive challenge in all the places highly popu-
lated (10 millions). The main concerns sur-
rounding this situation are the fast
urbanization, which has largely surpassed most
1 © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Introduction
FIGURE 1.1 Illustration of benefits of sustainable water management.
of the used systems, but especially developing
countries are the ones that have suffered the
most due to this (Biswas, 2006).
On the other hand, agriculture sectors require
at least 70% of ground water for irrigation.
Nevertheless, this percentage could increase
rapidly with the time because of the increasing
population as well as field irrigation and distri-
bution losses (Chartzoulakis and Bertaki, 2015).
Finally, wastewater system plays a critical role
in water management. Conventionally, the goal
of wastewater treatment is to protect the ecolog-
ical user life and ecosystem integrity. Neverthe-
less, each of the systems can work as whole
system but with different approaches and
several applications directly or indirectly ob-
tained from each system. For instance, storm-
water recovered can be used on urban
gardening and carwash establishments, among
others.
So far, the major research development has
been focused on wastewater systems to remove
toxic compounds and in a best exploitation and
maximum production of high value-added
products. Furthermore, one of the main aims of
wastewater system is to remove the pollutants
such as heavy metals, phosphorus, sulfur, nitro-
gen, or pathogens (Verstraete et al., 2009). As
mentioned before all water systems have
different characteristics, applications, and tech-
nologies. In this sense, the modular treatment
concept can be a potential alternative to improve
its efficiency from the point of view of approach-
ability to improve, replace, update, or change the
equipment without changing the entire system
due the freedom it brings to each stage of the
process of the system. For example, one of the
most used technologies in wastewater treatment
systems is an anaerobic digestion where the
microorganism consumes the organic content
from wastewater. This type of process could be
a good example to use a modular concept
because for instance with base on wastewater
characteristics two or more types of anaerobic
reactor can be adaptable for the entire process
(Verstraete and Vlaeminck, 2011). The above
facts and statements drive the necessity to
develop the sustainable technology with a
modular concept as a resource to have a better
water management as well as a high recovery
and production of value-added compounds
low energy requirement and low or no impact
on environment with a circular resource flow
that can contribute to increase the sustainable
development goals (Guest et al., 2009; Ma
et al., 2013).
 1.1 Introduction
The present chapter focuses on the current sta-
tus of urban water management including stan-
dards and guidelines. Issues regarding
wastewater treatment and sustainability such
as energy requirement, nutrient recovery, water
quality monitoring, and modular modeling
have been discussed in this chapter.
1.1.1 Urban water management: current
state of the art
Urban water management includes managing
multiple parameters such as water storage, treat-
ment, collection, discharge, industrial effluents,
wastewater treatment, and storm water collec-
tion. In general, urban water management re-
quires the holistic approach for performance
assessment of water sustainability by including
the multiple parameters and criteria including
wastewater management, storm water manage-
ment, and water demand management. Fig. 1.2
represents the different aspects of urban water
management for sustainable use of water. It
can also be characterized by urban water cycle,
which includes the water stream flow around
the environment.
FIGURE 1.2 The concept of urban water management for sustainable use of water has been illustrated.
3
1.1.1.1 Wastewater management
The history behind of wastewater manage-
ment is interesting in terms of all steps that are
involved before obtaining the final product that
basically is to remove certain compounds that
come from human hygiene, food, pharmaceu-
tical, and industrial activities. Furthermore, in
addition to the previous sources in some coun-
tries, the stormwater is also included into the
wastewater system. However, these actions
depend on the structure that each location pos-
sesses that is closely related to the water direc-
tions they hold (Lofrano and Brown, 2010).
Over the last century, significant changes have
been made to the guidelines and legislation on
wastewater management to further increase the
pollution control and decrease the impact on
ecosystem. These changes start with the Eight
Report created by the Royal Commission on
Sewage and Disposal in 1912, when for the first
time, the inclusion of biochemical oxygen de-
mand (BOD) standard protocol was applied in
wastewater effluents. After that, a cascade of
new technologies, standard protocols, and
different systems were developed, tested, certi-
fied, and patented. However, all this developed
4 1. Introduction
knowledge has been evolved through the time in
different manners and different routes and every
time each process began to be more specific in
the direction of wastewater characteristics and
concerning to the obtained products as an added
value of the entire process (Brown and Lofrano,
2015; Hellweger, 2015; Villarín and Merel,
2020). Currently, a new concept to have a better
exploitation and reliability of wastewater treat-
ment process has been raised during the last de-
cades. The main attribute that the modular
system offers to the wastewater management
process and specially in wastewater treatment
plants is a high independence among all steps
without disturbing the entire process flow.
1.1.1.2 Storm water management
The constant and growing urbanization
derived from the imminent growth population
around the world has undesirable effects in the
natural water cycle because the hydrological cy-
cle is disturbed by artificial paths mainly con-
structed by concrete with low filtration
capacity. The above fact affects the water perme-
ability to the groundwater, which has given a
way to a new paradigm regarding the treatment
of the stormwater management process during
the last decades (Khadka et al., 2020). The new
paradigm has not been focused on nature-
based solutions such as in situ reuse, infiltration,
and storage. Nevertheless, the above solutions
have been addressed using different
processes such as green roofs, permeable con-
crete, bio-retention cells, or rain gardens. All
these technologies are contemplated through
different approaches such as water-sensitive ur-
ban designs (WSUDs), low-impact development
(LID), low-impact urban design and develop-
ment (LIUDD), integrated urban water manage-
ment (IUWM), or sustainable urban drainage
systems (SUDS), among others. All these ap-
proaches are designed in a specific way and ac-
cording to the necessities of each place around
the world in which they are implemented
(Fletcher et al., 2015). Although, the use of the
technologies mentioned above shows three
considerable limitations in the moment of its
development and application. Firstly, they
cannot be used in all the urban places, for
instance, the green roofs only can be used in
some buildings or houses that were designed
with this purpose; secondly, most of them have
a high investment cost and maintenance, and
thirdly, the efficacy in terms of water recovery
and management is relatively low, which com-
plicates its use and application on a large scale.
Besides, once the stormwater has been recov-
ered, most of it is discharged into the conven-
tional drainage system (Saraswat et al., 2016).
So far, the research has been focused to develop
more suitable, efficient, and affordable technolo-
gies with low investment and maintenance costs.
In this sense, the modular treatment concept rep-
resents a great opportunity to create a potential
process that can contribute to solve above chal-
lenges in the sector of stormwater management.
1.1.1.3 Water demand management
The water demand in urban regions has been
increased due to population burst and economic
activities. Derived from the two above situa-
tions, the water demand has been faced chal-
lenges such as enough sources to provide
quality water, water availability, increase de-
mand from the final users, as well as process fac-
tors like high energy demand, high operation,
and maintenance cost. Likewise, another critical
factor is related to the environment and most
specifically to climate change because the
anthropogenic activities disrupt the water cycle
causing changes in raining frequency, period-
icity, as well as the intensity (Da-ping et al.,
2011; Mishra et al., 2020). So far, most of the
developed studies have been focused to generate
models that include environmental and anthro-
pogenic factors. Additionally, both factors func-
tion as a socio-economical characteristics and
water demand at the site where the model has
 1.1 Introduction
been limitedly applied or will be applied. Never-
theless, these models do not consider a drastic
changes in landscape, land use, and urban devel-
opment, as well as extreme climatic events that
may occur over time (Moazeni and Khazaei,
2021; Sanchez et al., 2020). On another hand, to
face the operational and process challenges, the
modular system concept can be a suitable alter-
native to improve the entire water supply pro-
cess through a fast update of the old
technology, easy maintenance, and substitution
of some equipment in specific steps of the pro-
cess, as well as offer alternatives to increase the
water management on specific approaches such
as quality control that is one of the most impor-
tant parameters to consider.
In summary, the management seeks to eval-
uate the impact of urbanization on water cycles.
It requires an understanding the natural, prede-
velopment, and postdevelopment water balance.
Similarly, Sustainable Water Management Im-
proves Tomorrow’s Cities Health (SWITCH) is
a research program funded by European Union
(EU) in 2006 to facilitate modified concepts in ur-
ban water management (Howe et al., 2011). The
SWITCH framework has funded in four charac-
teristics: (i) interactive institutional action that in-
cludes urban water bodies and water cycle, (ii)
foresee the effect of urbanization through
learning alliance approach, (iii) a long-term strat-
egy development for sustainable urban water
management, and (iv) an efficient development
of storm water, wastewater, and urban water
management systems. Finally, the framework
considers all the aspects of the urban water sys-
tem in the cities as well as its modification with
respect to the changes that can happen in the
future time. Likewise, the framework makes
and emphasizes on the used technologies and
their robustness, including the sustainability
concept all the time. Nevertheless, around the
world, each country and each city have their
own programs or can follow some of the interna-
tional protocols that may vary widely between
them.
5
1.1.2 International conventions,
guidelines, and agreements
According to the United Nations (UN), com-
mittee on cultural rights, social, and economic is-
sues right to water statement, based on Article 11
and 12 of the International Covenant; everyone
has the right to get the highest attainable stan-
dard of mental and physical health. Currently,
two international global water conventions are
active (Belinskij et al., 2020); the first one is the
convention on the use and protection of interna-
tional lakes and transboundary watercourses
published in 1992, and the second one is the
convention on international watercourses for its
nonnavigational use published in 1997. Howev-
er, whatever the international guidelines or pro-
tocols are implemented, they share three main
principles regarding utilization, protection, and
sharing the watercourse. Table 1.1 show the
three principles and their main characteristics.
However, although the water management
guidelines follow the three previous principles,
there are still several challenges that need to be
considered for the development and implemen-
tation of models for the improvement of water
management systems (drinking water, storm-
water, and wastewater). And mention how
modular system/technologies will help (five to
six sentences).
1.1.3 Tackling the problem: sustainable
water treatment
There is no denying the fact that water scar-
city has been a foremost problem all over the
world. Moreover, overpopulation, climate
change, pollution of coastal regions, and aquifers
are continuously affecting the accessibility to suf-
ficient quality water (Zhou et al., 2020). In gen-
eral, toxic wastewater or sewage must be
treated before being discharged or reuse. There
are several pollutants which should be removed
or treated as they affect both natural environ-
ment and human beings. These compounds
6 1. Introduction

TABLE 1.1 Demonstrate the principles to use international waterways.

Principles

Reasonable and equitable utilization No-harm rule (UNECE, 2013) Cooperation rule (Belinskij et al., 2020)

The principle states that international
watercourse must be developed and
utilized in reasonable and equitable
manner to achieve sustainable use and
equal benefit through-out the place. In
addition, several other factors should
also be considered before taking the
decisions on water utilization such as
economic and social need, and the effect
of water use on another state or area.
According to no-harm rule principle,
authorities should take appropriate or
strict measures to prevent the harm or
damage to watercourses. For instance,
state can pass the legislation to prevent
to harmful or illegal activities in its
territory.
The principle aims to increase the
cooperation between two watercourse
sharing parties to achieve the principles
of no-harm rule and equitable utilization.
According to the rule, states sharing the
international waters must cooperate for
sovereign equality. It can also include the
joint monitoring, sharing information on
current and future uses, and alarm
procedures.

when discharged in aquatic system results in in-
crease organic load, which further leads to eutro-
phication. Similarly, hormonal disruptors are
another group of pollutants that pose huge
health risk to animals and humans such bisphe-
nol A, pesticides, and several bleaching agents


(Alvarez-Ruiz and Pic
o, 2020). In general, water
treatment methods include several techniques
such as physical, biological, and chemical
methods. These treatments are designed in-
order to achieve different levels of contaminant
removal. Briefly, the physical treatment involves
the screening to remove solids, large plastics,
and grit by sedimentation. The biological
methods mainly remove heavy metals, organic
load, nitrogen, and phosphorus from the waste-
water and sludge using technologies such as
trickling filters, rotating biological contactors,
anaerobic digestion, activated sludge process,
aerated lagoons, and pond stabilization. Finally,
the treated water effluent goes through
advanced treatment systems where pathogens,
viruses, and other bacteria are removed before
discharging into the environment (Osorio-
Gonz
alez et al., 2018). In this sense, the concept
of modular system can be a good alternative
helping to treat the wastewater generated from
the different sources. The main advantage of
modular concept is the independence that can
provide to each system as well as its specificity
for each process. Furthermore, the modular
treatment has the flexibility to use separate mod-
ules or semi-interconnected systems that can be
used as a partial treatment in the same place
where the water facilities are placed. Addition-
ally, modular system offers a wide variety of
adaptability to obtain several by-products such
as bioenergy, biofertilizer, nutrient recovery,
and many more. Further, a widely and detailed
discussion about the application of modular
concept as a potential alternative to improve
the water management will be performed in
the next chapters.
1.1.3.1 Low-grade energy
It has been approximated that global energy
demand would increase by 50% from 2010 to
2040. Hence, it drives the need to design the en-
ergy efficient treatment and recovery process.
The wastewater treatment currently consumed
w4% of total energy consumption in the United
States and the United Kingdom (Xu et al., 2015;
Oh et al., 2010). Approximately, 17.8 kJ/g chem-
ical oxygen demand (COD) is present in munic-
ipal wastewater, which is five times higher than
the energy required for the activated sludge pro-
cess (Heidrich et al., 2011; Wan et al., 2016).
Although, significant amount of COD-based en-
ergy is generally lost during microbial meta-
bolism (Frijns et al., 2013). In the United States
 1.1 Introduction
and Europe, more than 12 plants have been re-
ported to achieve >90% of self-sufficiency en-
ergy (Gu et al., 2017). On the other hand,
methane recovery from anaerobic process could
provide 30%e50% of energy required during
wastewater treatment (McCarty et al., 2011). In
addition, if recovered energy from the process
is used in the same or other process can be a po-
tential alternative to decrease the carbon finger-
print or in some cases it neutrality could be
achieved (Hao et al., 2015).
1.1.3.2 Nutrient recovery
In general, fraction of phosphorus and nitro-
gen applied as a fertilizer in agriculture ends
up in the wastewater plant (Daigger, 2009). It
was estimated that fertilizers account for >1%
of greenhouse gas emission, while 90% of the
emission comes from ammonium fertilizer pro-
duction (Sheik et al., 2014). In addition, ammonia
fertilizer is known to require high input energy
during its production stage, which then requires
a large amount of energy to undergo nitrification
and denitrification procedure. Hence, ammonia
recovery would be an option to save energy
only if it is done with lower energy than its pro-
duction stage (Daigger, 2009). Similarly, the re-
covery of phosphorus also holds importance as
its finite resource, which will soon be exhausted.
It generally enters the wastewater from indus-
trial effluents, detergents, and fecal matter (Xie
et al., 2016). If the phosphorus is not removed,
it can end up in water bodies and ultimately
affect the ecological integrity (Cordell et al.,
2009). The several technologies are available for
nutrient recovery such as bio-electrochemical re-
covery, crystallization, reversible adsorption,
electrodialysis, bio-drying, ammonia stripping,
alkaline humic acid recovery, and membrane
distillation (Kehrein et al., 2020). However,
nutrient recovery procedure generally affected
by lower concentration of nutrients present in
the wastewater effluent; hence, few should be
considered the nutrient accumulation or magni-
fication by physical, chemical, or biological
7
means, the release of concentrated nutrients or
the extraction of these concentrated nutrients
by chemical or physical methods. Nevertheless,
modular treatment allows to develop the model
that can not only remove excess of nutrient such
nitrogen, sulfur, or phosphorus from the water
but can also reuse these extracted nutrients to
grow forest trees as well as biofertilizers to in-
crease the crop growth.
1.1.3.3 Sensing and monitoring
Water such as wetlands, streams, coasts,
rivers, and estuaries are the most important
sources of water for life, while most of them
are polluted in most of the countries (Jiang
et al., 2020). Hence, sensing and monitoring
would allow the people to understand, improve,
and protect the aquatic life and water quality by
developing standards and management prac-
tices. For instance, water quality monitoring
network is designed for protecting and manag-
ing the water environment by collecting the in-
formation on states of water systems.
Researchers have made immense efforts to
further improve the monitoring network such
as budget requirement, sampling frequency
and duration, site selection, quality indicators,
and many more (Behmel et al., 2016; Shi et al.,
2018). In addition, World Health Organization
(WHO) and environmental protection agencies
such as USEPA, EPA, and EUEPA have pub-
lished guidelines on monitoring activities and
have been reviewed elsewhere (Behmel et al.,
2016; Loo et al., 2012; Watkinson, 2000; Zhang
et al., 2011). Water monitoring has evolved
from lab-scale analysis to on-site monitoring
and in-situ sensor-based monitoring, that helps
in great manner to obtain a high knowledge
“in real time”, which contributes to develop
and adjust the water process management. Be-
sides, the biosensor technology contributes to a
sustainable development mainly in places where
the water management has limitations related to
infrastructure, that generate a high impact into
the society (Viviano et al., 2014). Pollutant
8 1. Introduction
FIGURE 1.3 Detection of specific type of pollutant using sensors.
sensing and monitoring has been expanded from
conventional stoichiometric analysis to
spectrum-based analysis such as adsorption,
scattering, and optical reflection. Biosensors are
increasingly becoming popular in terms of
detecting lower concentration of pollutants
such as heavy metals, toxins, drugs, and patho-
genic strains (Saini et al., 2019). Fig. 1.3 repre-
sents the pollutant sensing mechanism using
sensors. The modular concept has an enormous
potential to use in this context due to a separate
and mobile module can be place, transport, or
attach at the same place where the water man-
agement or process is performed.
1.1.3.4 Modular modeling
The concept of modularization is with a base
of the separation of complex production sys-
tems, something that can be defined as a
“modular production.” The modular system
concept gained strength in the 1980s, with the
concept to use a strategy that would allow the
development and implementation of a variety
of combinations of the different production mod-
ules (Schilling, 2000; Langlois, 2002; Hegde et al.,
2003; Hellström and Wikström, 2005). Currently,
the concept of modular systems has evolved
through the inclusion of intrinsic factors and in
some cases anthropogenic. The current frame-
work in modeling, development, and implemen-
tation of production processes through modular
systems has factors based on the concept of sus-
tainability (economic, social, environmental)
(Mannina et al., 2019). In this sense, the develop-
ment and implementation of the sustainability
concept in modular systems have been coupled
with the constant and demanding change in
environmental policies around the world as a
prevailing objective for the success of these
type systems (Hammad et al., 2019; Pakizer
et al., 2020). Likewise, during the planning and
design of modular systems, not only the factors
mentioned above should be considered, because
each system needs a different level of customiza-
tion, in order to have a better adjust to the re-
quirements of the system itself. Some of these
factors are local conditions, in which the installa-
tion of modular systems has been a constant
challenge to its success on an industrial scale.
On the other hand, once the modular system
model has been established, the optimization
and standardization of the process must be car-
ried out as a single system. This will allow cost
reduction, which in turn will increase the
 References
profitability and efficiency of the modular sys-
tem (Saliu et al., 2020; Chopra and Khanna,
2014). With the aim of reducing heterogeneity
and increasing its functionality, strategies such
as functional modularization and massive cus-
tomization of modular systems have been pro-
posed. The above strategies are based on the
fact that when dividing a complex system into
more detailed modules, it depends firstly; the
product to be obtained and secondly; the pur-
pose of the modular system itself. This is mainly
due to the fact that, although the modules are in-
dependent, they form a “whole,” which can be
called in terms of the process as an “industrial
ecosystem” where the main advantage is that
the modules can be operated and replaced by
other modules with the same or different func-
tion (depending on the requirements of the com-
plete system) (Benito et al., 2002; Zhu and Ruth,
2013). An example of this type of system is the
processes to produce biofuels or secondary me-
tabolites, in the management of industrial or
agricultural waste, where some modules act as
raw material suppliers, pretreatment units, and
purification, among others (Pang et al., 2017;
Fenoll et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020). In this
sense, the establishment of the modules and their
complement between them is a challenging task
during their planning and standardization, since
when this type of modular systems presents a
weak interdependence (high independence
from each other), which is beneficial for the
entire system during the optimization and stan-
dardization period. Therefore, the implementa-
tion and use of modular systems in production,
purification, and recovery processes is an
extremely attractive alternative. Likewise, this
modular system can be the beginning of a com-
bined system, where the modular process sys-
tem can become a business model with some
minor adjustments, which leads to the creation
of industrial clusters in a fast and sustainable
route.
9
1.1.4 Conclusion
The market of resource recovery from waste-
water has been increased over the past years to
meet the energy and elemental demands of soci-
eties. The focus on developing the circular water
flow has increased along with the development of
resource recovery routes to satisfy overall demand
in most sustainable way possible. Several standards
and convention are in-effect to implement the
controlled and sustainable sharing of waterways
across the world. On the other hand, developing
ways to treat wastewater to achieve the standards
laid by government before its reuse are under con-
stant research. Furthermore, designing the water
monitoring network is an essential aspect of sus-
tainable water management.
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 C H A P T E R
2
Characteristic of wastewater and drinking
water treatment
Saba Miri1,2, Javad Ghanei1, Satinder Kaur Brar1,2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON,
Canada; 2Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique - Centre-Eau Terre Environnement, Quebec,
QC, Canada
2.1 Introduction
In the last century, understanding and knowl-
edge of the relationship between water/waste-
water treatment and public health have
increased, so has the impetus for innovation of
new treatments technologies. Due to increasing
urbanization and new stringent regulations, the
existing processes should be modified, and inno-
vative technologies are an inevitable need for
achieving enhanced removal of pollutants from
wastewater and drinking water. Worldwide,
1.8 million children die from diarrhea every
year due to water contamination (Supply et al.,
2015), leading to an urgent need to provide effi-
cient and affordable water treatment in devel-
oping countries. Water and wastewater
facilities are often nonexistent in these countries,
or current technologies cannot address water
quality or quantity demand. Modular treatment
systems allow flexibility in response to changing
quality or quantity demands. Also, it provides
the platform for availing a decentralized treat-
ment system that can be linked with the central
Modular Treatment Approach for Drinking Water and Wastewater
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85421-4.00007-3 13
pipelines for better management of the water
system. The changes in water quality can be
attributed to emerging contaminants such as
personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and vi-
ruses. While quantity changes are related to
rapid population growth.
There are several technologies and facilities
used for the treatment of wastewater and drink-
ing water. However, the wastewater effluent
cannot be used as drinking water and needs
more treatment. The wastewater quality can
affect the necessary process of drinking water
treatment. Most often, treatment infrastructure
for wastewater and drinking water has some
common steps and has a relation to the urban
water cycle. Fig. 2.1 shows an overview of pro-
cesses used in plants to treat water in two forms:
wastewater and drinking water. Source separa-
tion and quality-separation sewage treatment
and resource recovery are essential trends of
wastewater and drinking water treatment.
Modular packages can be designed for waste-
water source-separation treatment and can be
applied in resource recovery for remote camps
© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
14 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment
FIGURE 2.1 Typical wastewater and drinking water treatment infrastructures.
and small communities such as single buildings,
construction sites, or shopping complexes. Also,
industrial users such as food and beverage com-
panies can be benefited from this modular treat-
ment. One of the advantages of modular
treatment is the flexibility of adjusting the mod-
ule size, so the number of modules can be
changed to reach desirable water quality for
different purposes (Tang et al., 2020). Also, it
provides better wastewater facility and manage-
ment where specific pollutants (for example,
hospital wastewater (HWW)) that could be pre-
treated before they enter the wastewater system.
Since, pharmaceutical compounds can create
further trouble for the conventional central
wastewater treatment and then drinking water
facilities. Nowadays, research on the presence
of pharmaceutical compounds in drinking water
has been increased, and these chemical pollution
might have the ability to cause harm This is sur-
prising because drinking water would provide a
direct route into the body for any drugs that
might be present. Accordingly, new technologies
such as modular systems that provide multiple
functionality, high efficiency, and high flexibility
in configuration and system size are needed. In
this chapter, the basic principles in drinking wa-
ter and wastewater treatment infrastructure are
discussed, and available techniques for removal
of macro and micropollutants were evaluated.
Then, bottlenecks and limitations of conven-
tional drinking water and wastewater treatment
systems are presented. This information can be
used in setting research in designing modular
systems to address the challenges in the conven-
tional system.
2.2 Wastewater treatment infrastructure
Wastewater is contaminated water from in-
dustrial, commercial, domestic, or agricultural
 2.2 Wastewater treatment infrastructure
activities, which cannot be used again before
treatment. Municipal and industrial wastewater
and stormwater are the main categories of
wastewater.
Municipal wastewater is all the water that
leaves people’s houses every day, including the
water used in toilettes, kitchens, bathrooms,
etc. Water goes through a wastewater collecting
system and ends up in a wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP). Industrial wastewater is the
outcome of industrial or agricultural activities.
It may be polluted with heavy metals and partic-
ular chemicals, so it should be treated separately
using a modular treatment system as a part of
pretreatment technology. In many modern and
smart cities, the industrial area has separate
wastewater treatment facilities. In these facilities,
wastewater would be primarily treated to reach
specific standards; then, it can be added to the
municipal wastewater flow for more treatment.
Finally, stormwater is the result of rainfall.
Some part of the rainfall would be absorbed to
the ground, and some of it would be surface
runoff and flows into the waterways, which
ends up in the wastewater system. The proper
designing of a central sewerage system takes
into account both municipal as well as the storm-
water. However, due to the old designed facil-
ities (for more than 20 years), many cities
worldwide need a fresh design where modifica-
tions could be envisioned to incorporate the link-
ing of modular treatment facilities at several
points in a city. The distribution of different
wastewater types in total wastewater varies for
different countries. For example, in Canada
(2006), about 65% of the total wastewater had a
residential origin, while the industrial, commer-
cial, and institutional sectors were responsible
for about 18% of municipal produced waste-
water (Holeton et al., 2011). Meanwhile, storm-
water accounted for 9% of sewer flows, and the
remainder (8%) resulted from groundwater infil-
tration into sewer systems (Holeton et al., 2011).
Thus, modern design or any needed modifica-
tion for a city sewerage system could be planned
15
specifically based on the distribution of waste-
water category. This way, an efficient and perti-
nent modular treatment system can be designed
considering the smart guidelines that may be
required in the future.
Wastewater treatment aims to reduce impu-
rities/pollutants like solids, biodegradable
organic materials, pathogens, and toxic com-
pounds. Then, the effluent would meet the regu-
latory requirement and be released to the stream
water or used as the source of drinking water.
Wastewater treatment in conventional WWTPs
consists of different unit operations and pro-
cesses to remove pollutants step by step. Each
step, such as pretreatment, primary treatment,
and secondary treatment, uses various equip-
ment and technology to remove contamination
based on their size. The load on each treatment
unit could be reduced drastically by treating
the wastewater near its origin. The provision of
decentralized treatment facilities or modular
treatment approaches could be convenient in
meeting stricter discharge guidelines practiced
in recent years because of new policy changes.
However, the degree of dominance of the
centralized socio-technical regime is geographi-
cally varied. Many countries such as the
Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and
Switzerland have developed very high penetra-
tions of their modular systems and enforced cen-
tral connection rates close to 100% (Indicators,
2005). Lower connection rates are found in
other countries where large segments of the pop-
ulation are served by more or less functional
decentralized wastewater treatment systems.
Japan is a notable example that the development
of small-scale treatment units known as Johkasou
results in a current connection rate of 78%
(Indicators, 2005).
2.2.1 Pretreatment
In the pretreatment process, large particles
like wood pieces and fabrics can be physically
16 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment
separated. If these materials go to the next level,
they may cause excessive wear and tear on
pumps, and other plant equipment and opera-
tional problems may interrupt the system (Riffat,
2012). In particular, these large particles could be
segregated intermittently at few critical places
before the wastewater drains into the waste-
water plant facilities. This periodical collection
of big materials in parallel to the sewer pipelines
(by-pass sewer lines) could effectively control
their direct entry to the WWTP. The use of
modular treatment systems inside the cities at
various points could also help prevent the un-
wanted intrusion of these oversize materials up
to a great extent. Several industries require pre-
treatment facilities or on-site treatment due to
the nature of their wastewater to meet regulatory
requirements or recover water or products (Pat-
terson, 1985).
Some examples of equipment for the primary
treatments are discussed further.
Bar screens: It stops more oversized items
from entering the treatment equipment, removes
the outliers from the sewage, and makes the
sewage more homogenous. Items removed
would be sent to the landfill stations. Screens
can be cleaned manually or mechanically. Manu-
ally cleaned screens are smaller and suitable for
small plants, and they have low maintenance
and operation costs. Mechanically cleaned
screens have a bigger size and low labor costs.
Fig. 2.2 depicts a recent and ingenious idea that
could be installed and regularized at the “point”
of wastewater discharge (from industry or farm-
lands) that eventually goes directly into the cen-
tral sewage pipelines or treatment facility. These
mesh drains captures a huge amount of plastics
(big sized) and also the debris of floating plants
and other inert materials.
Shredder/grinder: The larger particles would
go into the shredder/grinder to be reduced in
size. Usually, a shredder consists of two sets of
counter-rotating cutters that use sheer force to
reduce the solid size. After size reduction, the
FIGURE 2.2 Mesh drains to prevent bigger plastics and
debris to get into the central sewer pipelines or other direct
water body discharges.
materials can be back to the wastewater to be
processed in the following steps. A shredder re-
duces the damage and maintenance of the down-
stream equipment but increases the volume of
particles like plastic and decomposable materials
in digestion tanks.
Grit removal: Grit is the name for particles
heavier than biodegradable organic materials in
wastewater. It can comprise sand, gravel, cinder,
eggshell, coffee seeds, and food waste. Grit can
cause wear and abrasion in pumps and mechan-
ical equipment, so grit removal is a necessary
step. Grit cannot be removed by using chemicals,
and special equipment should be applied. There
are different types of grit removal equipment:
• Vortex type grit chamber: Flow enters a
cylindrical tank and creates a vortex flow
pattern. Heavy particles settled in the bottom
of the tank by gravity. These could also be a
part of modular treatment systems as they
occupy less space than a conventional grit
chamber.
• Aerated grit chamber: Here, the wastewater
flows in a spiral pattern. Air introduced in the
grit chamber causes a change in velocity
pattern and heavier particles settled in the
tank’s bottom.
 2.2 Wastewater treatment infrastructure
• Detritus tank: Here, the wastewater flows in a
constant-level, short-detention settling tank.
Organic materials would be washed up.
• Hydrocyclone: Using a high head pump,
wastewater pumps into a cylinder that has a
cone-shaped bottom. Heavier and larger
particles go to the bottom of and exit from the
cone stream, while light and small particles
exit through the upstream. These could also
be used as a part of a modular treatment
system. These systems could be handy,
especially in handling the kitchen wastewater
or restaurant wastewater, where the modular
treatment system containing hydrocyclone
could efficiently dewater the organic waste
and could be utilized for other purposes such
as washing the dishes/utensils.
The pretreatment process in modular design
can be adjusted with the properties in waste-
water to properly handle the separation of their
material for the next level of treatment. The pre-
treatment module is necessary for collecting
wastewaters because large particles can affect
the efficiency of all modules and piping.
2.2.2 Primary treatment
The primary treatment process follows the
pretreatment step. In this stage, using primary
clarifiers, materials are settled down and be
removed continuously from the bottom using a
mechanical force. Clarified water would be
removed from the top of the tank and goes to
the next step. In this step, only particles larger
than 10 mm would be removed, so effluent with
mainly organic particles less than 10 microns
would remain. The solids generated from this
step would be called sludge. The sludge is full
of organic material that can be used as a fertil-
izer. For enhancing the settling velocity of parti-
cles in the clarifier, some chemicals are used,
such as flocculent (like chitosan) and coagulant
(aluminum-based like aluminum sulfate,
aluminum chloride, and sodium aluminate and
17
iron-based like polyferric sulfate). These chemi-
cals help that small particles stick together to
make larger particles and enhance the settling
velocity (Zouboulis et al., 2007).
A combination of physical and chemical
methods in modular treatment can efficiently
remove such organic particles. For example, elec-
trocoagulation has been successfully applied for
wastewater treatment of food (Karpuzcu et al.,
2002), textile (Kim et al., 2002), metal and galva-
nized metal, and petrochemical industries
(Meng et al., 2002). Bashir et al. (2019) evaluated
electro-coagulation-peroxidation for the treat-
ment of palm oil mill effluent. The optimum
treatment efficiency of 71.3%, 96.8%, and 100%
for COD, color, and TSS was obtained, respec-
tively. In a study, peroxymonosulfate-assisted
electro-oxidation/coagulation combined with a
ceramic ultrafiltration (UF) membrane was
applied for micropolluted surface water treat-
ment. This technique could offer a suitable
effluent for sulfamethazine degradation (Du
et al., 2019). However, research on modular
treatment systems using electrocoagulation
modules is still limited, and more work needs
to be done as far as bridging the future gap is
concerned. With appropriate knowledge and
technology, the modular treatment system
could become an integral part of the city
sewerage system that could significantly remove
the economic constraints over its wide-ranged
benefit.
2.2.3 Secondary treatment
In secondary treatment, the focus is on the
degradation of biological sewage content. For
this purpose, different steps like aeration, filtra-
tion, and clarification should be followed.
• Aeration: Effluent from the previous step
flows into the aeration basins, in which tiny
air blowers in the bottom of the basins create
bubbles. Microorganisms present in the
returned activated sludge (RAS) would use
18 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment
organic materials in the effluent water. For
this process, a significant amount of bacteria
uses a vast amount of oxygen.
• Secondary clarifiers: After the aeration
process, the effluent pumps into the
secondary filter or clarifier. The sludge would
be removed and pumped back to the aeration
tank.
• Disinfection process: Clarified water from the
secondary clarifier would go to the
disinfection process (that can be considered as
tertiary treatment). About 85% of solids are
removed from the sewage water till this step,
but disinfection is still necessary. There are
three different ways for disinfection: chlorine,
ozone, and ultraviolet disinfection. Each
method has its benefits and drawbacks.
• Chlorine: Chemicals like concentrated bleach
would be added to the effluent and disinfects
the living organisms in the water. Chlorine
must be removed before it can be discharged
so it does not kill anything in the discharge
location.
• Ozone: Using an electrical current, oxygen
(O2) molecules would react, and ozone (O3)
would be formed. Ozone is a strong oxidant
and would cause damages to microbe cells.
• Ultraviolet: The last method uses ultraviolet
light to affect bacteria DNA, so they cannot
multiply. In this method, bacteria would be
sterilized. The bacteria are still alive, but it is
harmless.
After the last step, the water can be added to
the lake or stream or sent to a drinking water
treatment plant to be ready for consumption.
However, tertiary treatment can be designed
based on wastewater characteristics. The entire
process of wastewater treatment may take be-
tween 24 and 36 h. As each wastewater source
is unique, selecting a biological module to meet
particular treatment objectives in modular sys-
tems should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis
and adjusted based on water quality criteria. For
example, a sequencing batch biofilter granular
reactor consisting of a mixture of biofilm and
granules packed in a filling material can be effec-
tively applied for textile wastewater treatment
(Lotito et al., 2014). This system consists of a sin-
gle basin and can be used in a modular system to
simplify the treatment scheme for wastewaters
characterized by a high content of recalcitrant
compounds such as textile effluents.
2.2.4 Tertiary treatment
Tertiary (also called advanced) treatment
removes dissolved pollutants, such as metals,
remaining nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen)
and organic chemicals, microbes, and some
micropollutants. The treatment processes are
categorized into three main methods: chemical,
physical, and biological (as shown in Fig. 2.1).
Previous studies have concluded that many
micropollutants should be removed from waste-
water by advanced tertiary treatments. Based on
EPA (2012) report, the most common tertiary
treatments implemented in the United States
are UV irradiation (used in 285 facilities), chlori-
nation (used in 1133 facilities), and sand filtra-
tion (used in 245 facilities).
Choosing a suitable disinfectant for tertiary
treatment is dependent on the following criteria:
1. Safe and easy storage, handling, and shipping
2. Ability to work and destroy infectious
compounds under normal operating
condition,
3. Absence of carcinogenic and mutagenetic
compounds or toxic residual after the
disinfection process (Disinfection, 1999).
Advanced oxidation processes are also
considered as a tertiary treatment that can be
used for aqueous waste. Fenton’s reagents as
advance oxidative compounds are effectively
used for biological oxygen demand (BOD)/
chemical oxygen demand (COD), odor, and co-
lor removal. Fenton’s treatment requires a large
amount of H2O2 and FeSO4 in the treatment
 2.3 Macropollutants in water and sludge
process, and the H2O2/Fe2þ ratio is vital for the
efficient treatment process. To maximize waste
degradation by Fenton’s reagents, the reaction
conditions like temperature and pH should
also be optimized. Based on most literature,
30 C is the optimum temperature for waste
degradation by Fenton’s oxidation; however,
this may vary based on the characteristics of ef-
fluents (Ramirez et al., 2005; Alaton and Teksoy,
2007; Mandal et al., 2010).
Ultrafiltration as a physical tertiary treatment
method can effectively remove bacteria and vi-
ruses from wastewater. UF is a membrane sepa-
ration technology that separates solutions
between microfiltration and nanofiltration and
removes particles with an approximate size of
0.005e10 mm. This ability makes UF the ideal
technology for tertiary treatment to protect the
public from pathogens. High cost, membrane
fouling, and membrane life are still significant
constraints for the application of UF for waste-
water treatment, while this technology is consid-
ered a promising technique for industrial
wastewater and drinking water treatment
(Cordier et al., 2020). As mentioned above, UF
can be considered as an effective treatment
method for modular systems to treat micropol-
luted water.
Nowadays, biotechnology is recognized as
the best available technology for odor treatment
by membrane bioreactors (MBRs) and biofilters
due to their lower operating costs and environ-
mental impact than their physicalechemical
counterparts. Biofiltration and biotrickling filtra-
tion are conventional biotechnologies that are
mainly implemented for odor elimination by
removing the hydrophobic fraction of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Generally, the pres-
ence of a water layer over the biofilm attached to
the packing material in biofilters and biotrickling
filters (conventional design) limits the mass
transfer of the most hydrophobic VOCs from
the gaseous phase to the aqueous biofilm. How-
ever, advanced designs under nonmass transfer
limiting conditions guarantee a cost-effective
19
treatment for removing a hydrophobic fraction
of VOCs (Lebrero et al., 2014).
Membrane bioreactors are designed based on
a membrane (microfiltration or ultrafiltration)
and the microbial community attached to the
membrane (biological wastewater treatment)
for nutrient removal as well as odor control.
The membranes have a solideliquid separation
function (tertiary treatment), and the suspended
microbial growth has function biological treat-
ment (secondary treatment). The advantages of
MBR are a reduced footprint, approximately
30%e50% smaller than conventional secondary
treatment and tertiary filtration methods, and
allow for the direct reuse of the treated water.
Considering membrane technology used in
MBRs, complete elimination of microorganisms
can be achieved in the effluent, and also a high
removal ratio for most abiotic contaminants is re-
ported. Bioreactor configuration can make this
technology suitable for the selective extraction
of the target pollutants (Lebrero et al., 2014).
These membrane technologies are highly in de-
mand for modular treatment solutions. They
are placed in the lorries referred to as “treatment
on wheels” by many reputed global companies
that provide an efficient and productive way to
treat wastewater, wherever applicable. MBR
can be ideally suited also for small plants poten-
tially subject to relatively large hydraulic load
variations; its investment and operating costs
are usually high for that class of applications. It
is becoming the industry standard for central-
ized WWTP.
2.3 Macropollutants in water and sludge
There are two primary source contaminants
for water: (1) Natural contaminants and (2) arti-
ficial by-products. Natural contaminants are
mainly the geological materials presented in wa-
ter due to water moving through soils and sedi-
mentary rocks (attrition effects). A wide range of
compounds at an unacceptable level can be
20 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment
considered water contaminants such as chloride,
calcium, magnesium, arsenate, nitrate, fluoride,
and iron (Sharma and Bhattacharya, 2017). Arti-
ficial by-products are mainly generated from in-
dustrial and agricultural activities that include
primarily heavy metals such as mercury, chro-
mium, copper, lead, other hazardous chemicals
like dyes, and other compounds like fertilizers
and pesticides. Improper disposing or sorting
household or industrial chemicals such as disin-
fectants, synthetic detergents, paints, solvents,
medicines, batteries, pool chemicals, oils, diesel
fuel, and gasoline can lead to groundwater
contamination (Sharma and Bhattacharya, 2017).
Hence, the modular treatment facilities across
a city in the form of decentralized water treat-
ment could target water pollutants specifically
related to the area or wastewater sector. For
example, near the agricultural lands sector in a
city, the modular treatment system could be
installed dealing with pesticides/fertilizer pol-
lutants before being sent to the central or main
sewer city pipelines, finally draining into the
WTP facility. In addition, modular systems can
offer several inherent advantages compared to
traditional systems agricultural lands sector,
including very low capital costs, lower operating
costs, simplicity of design, less infrastructure,
and ease of operation.
2.3.1 In drinking water
Drinking water typically contains dissolved
substances, as mentioned above, and a small
amount of very finely divided solid particles of
several kinds. These solid particles are composed
of organic and inorganic materials of varying
sizes ranging from colloidal dimensions to about
100 mm (Levine et al., 1985). They include human
activities debris such as clays, acicular or fibrous
particles of asbestos minerals, and organic parti-
cles resulting from animal and plant debris
decomposition in the soil. These suspended
solids might have effects on the health of those
who drink macro-pollutant contaminated water.
Some of these particles, such as the asbestos
mineral fibers, have biological effects in water
since similar fibers are known to be carcinogenic
when air is heavily laden with them. However,
because of other contaminants of drinking water,
organic colloid and clays, no evidence has been
discovered that directly affects health. Neverthe-
less, it is possible that these contaminants, as
they occur in water, may indirectly affect the
quality of water because they can adsorb a vari-
ety of viruses, bacteria, and toxic substrates from
suspension or solution. Thus, their occurrence
characterization should be studied to find out if
they serve to protect some water pollutants
and concentrate them or not. A great deal of
effort has been made to obtain background infor-
mation from suspended particulate matter in
treated and raw drinking water supplies in
different typical communities. However, such a
study should be coupled with the characteriza-
tion of particulates concerning shape, composi-
tion, size, and adsorbed constituents and
analysis of accompanying inorganic and organic
material and microorganisms. It seems that in-
formation is required to study biological,
organic, and inorganic toxicants adsorbed on
organic and clay particulates (Council and
Committee, 1977). This information could be
effectively utilized for improving the modular
or decentralized treatment approach.
Different types of macropollutants have been
recognized, including clay particles, inorganic
and organic pollutants that their properties are
discussed here, together with the tendency of
bacterial, viruses, and chemicals to become
concentrated at the surface of these particles.
Macropollutants can be physically removed
from drinking water by various processes. The
sizes of the macropollutants are significant for
their removal by sedimentation and filtration.
Sometimes, water quality can be improved by
storing it undisturbed or holding it without
 2.4 Micropollutants in water and wastewater
mixing long enough to settle out or sediment of
large particles by gravity. Since ancient times,
sedimentation has been applied because of
simplicity and low cost using settling basins or
water storage vessels, storage tanks, and reser-
voirs. Storing water even for a few hours will
sediment the dense and large particles, such as
sands and silts, large microorganisms, and any
microbes associated with denser, larger particles.
Although sedimentation is an effective method
to reduce water turbidity, it is not consistently
effective in reducing macropollutants such as
microbial contaminants. This is important to
point out that recovering the supernatant water
should be done with care to avoid disturbing
the sedimented particles. Water should also be
protected from contaminants during storage
and collection after settling, and procedures
and cleaning systems should be applied to clean
the storage vessel.
Filtration is another effective method to
remove macropollutants that is also widely
used since ancient times. The ease of use, practi-
cality, availability, affordability, and accessi-
bility of these filtration media make this
method wide. Table 2.1 shows a variety of filter
media and available filtration processes. Filtra-
tion can be considered a necessary module for
modular systems because most package plants
use water filtration processes and are typically
not equipped for corrosion control, disinfection,
and adsorption of organic pollutants by acti-
vated carbon.
2.3.2 In wastewater
Macropollutants in wastewater can be
defined as inert materials and large suspended
solids that are mainly removed through prelim-
inary treatment. Physical treatment is mainly
used in preliminary treatment to remove such
particles that may damage the mechanical part
of the equipment in unit operations such as
pumps. These floating or suspended materials
21
include weeds, rags, organic matter, twigs, and
various solids. Screening devices are used to
remove the larger materials before entering the
wastewater stream to the pumps (as shown in
Table 2.2). The removed materials are usually
incinerated or disposed of in landfills. Different
types of screens can be designed based on waste-
water characteristics that can determine the size
of the openings of screens (Riffat, 2012). Screen
filters can be effectively combined in modular
systems based on the water quality needs, and
for industrial users, this module can be adjusted
to address the specific problems and quality ob-
jectives in their wastewater treatment.
2.4 Micropollutants in water and
wastewater
Micropollutants are compounds found in wa-
ter with a concentration in a range of microgram
to less than nano-gram per liter of water (mg/L to
below ng/L). All these chemicals are similar in
one aspect, and that is persistence. These com-
pounds could be found in wastewater. For
example, when a person washes face with a
dedicated cosmetic, its ingredients would go to
the wastewater, and since WWTPs cannot
remove them altogether, they partially go to
the effluent and would end up in stream water.
Also, some part of these compounds would
remain in the sludge, and since the sludge is
used as fertilizer, these compounds would find
their way to the ground and finally go to the un-
derground water.
Different compounds (ammonia, perchlorate,
arsenate), metals (Al, Hg, Fe, Cs, etc) and micro-
organisms (bacteria, protozoa) can be found in
water. In addition to these categories of micro-
pollutants, the emergence of other pollutants in
the environment (i.e., antimicrobial agents/dis-
infectants, fungicides, detergents, herbicides, fra-
grances, organochlorine, and organophosphorus
insecticides, as well as plasticizers) has been
noticed (Kim and Zoh, 2016). Table 2.3 shows
22 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment

TABLE 2.1 Characterization of Filters and Filtration Media for the Treatment of Drinking Water.

Filter type Media of filter Filter design Ease of use Cost Advances

Granular Sand, crushed • Bucket Easy to Low to Coating or co-mingling sand, coal,
media filters sandstone, anthracite, or filter moderate moderate and other common negatively
(rapid filter) other soft rock, charcoal, • Barrel or charged granular media with metal
and other minerals drum filter oxides and hydroxides of iron,
• Roughing aluminum, calcium, or magnesium
filter
Sand filter Sand ND Easy to Low to Using multiple filter units
moderate moderate
Fiber, fabric, Cloth, other woven • Cone- Easy to Varies: Low Advanced fabrication methods,
paper, fabric, wick siphons, shaped moderate for natural; special filter holders
canvas, synthetic polymers filter high for
membrane synthetics
filters
Vegetable- Sponge, coal, charcoal, • Sponge Moderate to Low to Combinations of layers made of
and animal- cotton, etc filters difficult moderate different biomass
derived
depth filters
Ceramic Clay, other minerals • Vessels Moderate. Moderate to Made of different mineral media,
filters and • Hollow Physically high such as clay, glass, diatomaceous
other porous cylindrical cleaning is earth, and other fine particles to
cast filters candles needed advance their efficiency based on
regularly pore size.

TABLE 2.2 Screens Used for Particle Removal.

The size
Type of range of Available
screen opening Characteristic Collected particle commercial type

Trash racks 50e150 mm Rectangular or circular steel bars Large debris and garbage • Rack machines
arranged in a parallel manner
Coarse 25e75 mm Two types: Automatic, Prevents excessive head loss by clogging • Chain-driven
screens mechanically cleaned bar screens • Reciprocating
rake
• Catenary
• Continuous
belt
Fine screens Less than They are located after coarse For the treatment of combined sewer • Static wedge
6 mm screens overflows wire screen
• Stair screen
• Drum screen

Microscreens Less than It involves low-speed rotating For fine solids removal from treated • Drum screens
50 mm drum screens effluents (used in the tertiary treatment) with fabric
filter
 2.4 Micropollutants in water and wastewater 23
TABLE 2.3 Classification of Micropollutants in Water (Drinking/Wastewater).

Molecular
weight Chemical Electrostatic Log Log
Categories Group Micropollutants (gmolL1) formula charge (pH 7) pKa Kow D

PhACs Antibiotics Erythromycin 733.93 C37H67NO13 Neutral 8.9 3.06 1.55

Roxithromycin 837.05 C41H76N2O15 Neutral 9.0 2.7 e
Ofloxacin 361.36 C18H20FN3O4 e 5.8 2.0 0.25
Sulfamethoxazole 253.3 C10H11N3O3S e 1.7; 5.6 0.89 0.45
Analgesic and anti- Acetaminophen 151 C8H9NO2 Neutral 9.5 0.46 0.23
inflammatory
Ibuprofen 206.29 C13H18O2 e 4.47 3.97 1.44
drugs
Naproxen 230 C14H14O3 e 4.2 3.18 0.34
Mefenamic acid 241.285 C15H15NO2 e 3.8 5.12 2.04
Fenoprofen 242 C15H14O3 e 4.21 3.9 0.38
Ketoprofen 254.28 C16H14O3 e 4.29 3.12 0.41
Indometacin 357.78 C19H16CINO4 e 3.8 4.23 0.75
Diclofenac 296.15 C14H11C12NO2 e 4.08 4.51 1.59

Antiepileptic drugs Primidone 218 C12H14N2O2 e 12 0.91 0.83

Carbamazepine 236.27 C15H12N2O Neutral 13 2.45 2.58
Blood lipid Clofibric acid 214.65 C10H11ClO3 e 3.35 2.57 3.6
regulators
Gemifibrozil 250.34 C15H22O3 e 4.45 4.77 4.12
Bezafibrate 361.82 C19H20CINO4 e 3.44 4.25 e
Pravastatin 24.53 C23H36O7 e 4.2 3.1 e

b-blockers Metoprolol 276.37 C15H25NO3 e 9.49 1.88

Propranolol 259.34 C16H21NO2 Neutral 9.6 3.48 e
Contrast media Iopromide 790.0 C18H24I3N3O8 e P1 ¼ 2 2.10 5.28
P2 ¼ 13
Iopamidol 777.1 C17H22I3N3O8 e 10.7 2.42 e
Iohexol 821.1 C19H26I3N3O9 e 11.7 3.05 e
Hormones Estrone 270.36 C18H22O2 Neutral 10.3 3.13 1.86
17C-estradiol 272.38 C18H24O2 Neutral 10.4 4.01 e

17a-ethinyl 296.4 C20H24O2 Neutral 10.3 3.9 e

estradiol
Estriol 288 C18H24O3 Neutral e 2.45 e

Cytostatic drugs Cyclophosphamide 260 C7H15Cl2N2O2P e 0.5 0.97 e

(Continued)
24 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment

TABLE 2.3 Classification of Micropollutants in Water (Drinking/Wastewater).dcont'd

Molecular
weight Chemical Electrostatic Log Log
Categories Group Micropollutants (gmolL1) formula charge (pH 7) pKa Kow D

PCPs Antimicrobial Triclosan 289.6 C12H7Cl3O2 Neutral 7.8 5.34 e

agents
Disinfectants Triclocarban 315.6 C13H9Cl3N2O Neutral 11.4 4.90 e
Preservatives Propyl-paraben 180.2 C10H12O3 Neutral 8.5 3.04 1.86
Methyl-paraben 152.15 C8H8O3 Neutral e e e

Insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m- 191.3 C12H17NO e 2 2.18 e

toluamide
Sunscreens Oxybenzone 228 C14H12O3 e e 3.79 e

Pesticides Herbicides Atrazine 215.68 C8H14ClN5 Neutral 1.7 2.6 e

Diuron 233.1 C9H10Cl2N2O Neutral 2.68 e e
Insecticides Diazinon 304.35 C12H21N2O3PS e 2.6 3.8 e
Fungicides Clotrimazole 344.84 C22H17ClN2 e e e e
Tebuconazole 307.82 C16H22ClN3O e e e e
Industrial Plasticizers Bisphenol A 228.29 C15H16O2 e 9.6 3.32 e
chemicals
DBP 278.34 C16H22O4 e e e e
DEHP 390.564 C24H38O4 e e e e
DMP 194.184 C10H10O4 e e e e
Fire retardants Tri(2-chloroethyl) 250.187 C9H15O6P e e 1.44 e
phosphate
Tri(chloropropyl) 327.57 C9H18Cl3O4P e e 2.59 e
phosphate

Modified from refs Khanzada et al. (2020), Taheran et al. (2016), Liu et al. (2013), Luo et al. (2014).

the classification of selected organic micropollu-
tants and their representative products. As can
be seen in Table 2.3, the log Kow (>2.5) and
pKa (a wide range of values) should be consid-
ered as the dominant properties of micropollu-
tants to study biotransformation and
adsorption of these compounds. The value of
log Kow should be the most crucial factor in the
process selection for the elimination of organic
micropollutants. On the other hand, the molecu-
lar weight of organic micropollutants would be
another important factor that should be
considered when membrane technologies are
used for their separation. The perspectives
on the usage of the modular system for this
type of pollutants will be further discussed in
Chapter 3.
2.4.1 In drinking water
The guidelines for drinking water quality
determine the efficiency of treatment processes.
These guidelines were established based on cur-
rent knowledge of health effects and aesthetic
 2.4 Micropollutants in water and wastewater
effects (e.g., taste and odor) of compounds.
However, many compounds are unknown in
terms of their health effects, and recently, they
have been taken into account for research on
their health. Still, operational considerations are
limited for these new pollutants. Table 2.4 pre-
sents the contaminants present in water before
and after treatment in the effluent of drinking
water treatment plants.
2.4.2 In wastewater
Municipal wastewater is mainly the constitu-
ents of organic matter, suspended solids, and
25
pathogens. The organic matter is measured indi-
rectly by oxygen demand methods such as BOD,
COD, etc. BOD is expressed in terms of oxygen
equivalents that are needed for the biodegrad-
ability of organic matters. Typically, 5-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) is used as
a measure of organic concentration. The size
range of organic matter in wastewater can range
from less than 0.001 mm to over 100 mm. Nowa-
days, the main pollutants discharged into water
streams are organic and solid matter. Thus, effec-
tive measurement technologies and strategic
addition of agents, including flocculants, coagu-
lations, filter aids, and the application of

TABLE 2.4 Classification, Treatment Considerations, and Health Effect of Micropollutants from Drinking Water.

Important
compound/ Treatment
Category agent Source goal Health effect Treatment process Reference

Microorganisms Enteric Animal and Minimum 3 Commonly • Sedimentation Hsu and

protozoa human feces log and associated with • Microfiltration Yeh (2003),
(Giardia and C inactivation of gastrointestinal • Ozonation Canada
yptosporidium) oocysts/cysts upset (vomiting, (2020)
nausea, and
diarrhea).
Enteric Human Minimum 4 Gastrointestinal • Ultrafiltration Canada
viruses feces log upset (vomiting, • Flocculation (2020),
nausea, and • Aluminum hydroxide Bosch
diarrhea). (1998)

Bacteria Animal and Nondetectable Pose danger to • Activated sludge Canada

(E. coli) human feces in 100 mL public health • Electrocoagulation (2020),
Aguilar-
Ascon
(2019)

Chemical Ammonia, Naturally e Cancer, Different methods like Canada

perchlorate, occurring, microscopic filtration, ion exchange (2020),
Fe, Al, Cr, emission effects on organs using resins, precipitation Fischer
CN, Cd, Ca, from and tissues, by pH change, reverse et al.
As, etc. industrial neurological osmosis, electrodialysis, (2019), Xie
waste effects, etc. etc. et al. (2018)
Radiological Cesium, Naturally e Different types of Filtration, ion exchange, Canada
compounds radium, occurring, cancer reverse osmosis (2020),
indium, emission Baeza et al.
radon, from a (2019)
uranium, etc. nuclear
reactor, etc.
26 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment
optimized bacterial or fungal cultures, have
attracted researchers’ attention to improve treat-
ment practices’ performance. The discharge of
wastewater without treatment might have
adverse effects, such as depleting dissolved oxy-
gen, unacceptable changes of color, turbidity,
and solid content. Thus, the industry must
remove the main pollutants from wastewater.
Wastewater discharge from industries with the
main pollutants of organic matter and sus-
pended particles is controlled by regulations
that set limits on the amounts of biochemical ox-
ygen demand and total suspended solids (Riffat,
2012). The modular treatment units for small-
scale industries located in and around the city
would significantly reduce the load on the
main wastewater treatment facilities. In addi-
tion, each industrial wastewater can be treated
depending on the wastewater nature and
required quality before entering the main drain.
2.5 Water quality parameters
Turbidity and color are two terms commonly
applied in particulate removal practice.
Turbidity in water is due to suspended matter
(i.e., slit, clay plankton, nonliving organic partic-
ulate). The particles in a colloidal solution are
visible through the electron microscope but not
through the naked eye. However, the particles
in the suspension are visible through naked
eyes and under the electron microscope. Thus,
the turbidity measurement does not give com-
plete information about the mass, size, and num-
ber of particles that absorb light. Small particles
(those less than 0.1 mm, single viruses, and
many asbestos mineral particles) are not
detected by conventional measurements.
The presence of natural organic matter causes
the color in the water, and it may also be due to
particular industrial wastes and caused by some
metallic complexes. Turbidity and color mea-
surements are expressions of specific light scat-
tering and light absorption, respectively.
Particulate removal can be obtained using water
treatment practices such as filtration, sedimenta-
tion, softening, and coagulation. Softening is the
process by which calcium and magnesium ions
are removed from the water, and these pollut-
ants are usually removed as solids (i.e., magne-
sium hydroxide and calcium carbonate). Thus,
water-softening plants have sedimentation, and
filtration facilitates to separate solids from water
by gravity. Coagulation is another process in
which colloidal particles can be destabilized us-
ing suitable coagulants and promote the aggre-
gation of particles for their removal by
dissolved air flotation and sedimentation. Mate-
rials suspended (particle size up to 100 mm) in
drinking water such as organic and inorganic
solids may also have some other microorgan-
isms and substrate attached to them. Carbona-
ceous constituents measured by BOD or COD
analysis are essential to the activated sludge pro-
cess design. Unlike BOD, some portion of the
COD is not bridgeable, and it is important to
know how much of the COD is particulate
comprised of suspended solids and colloidal.
So, total COD in the wastewater is soluble (unfil-
terable) and suspended COD (colloidal and par-
ticulate biodegradable and nonbiodegradable)
that nonbridgeable particulates will contribute
to the total sludge production. Even though sol-
uble readily biodegradable COD is assimilated
quickly by the biomass during the activated
sludge process design, the colloidal and particu-
late COD must first be dissolved by extracellular
enzymes and are thus assimilated slowly.
Depending on surface functional groups, particle
size, charge, and colloidal stability of COD par-
ticulates change up to 10 mm. The presence of
pollutants with ionic character can also cause
or support the aggregation of humic and fulvic
particles. Secondary treatment for the biological
breakdown of biodegradable particles has been
recommended to reduce the biochemical oxygen
demand, toxicity, and total suspended solids.
Table 2.5 shows that even though many kinds
of particles are harmless in themselves; they may
 2.5 Water quality parameters 27
TABLE 2.5 Water quality parameters, souces, concern, and issues the aquatic environment.

Category Important
(parameter) subclasses Major sources Removal technique Concern and issues Effect on health

Clay particle • Clay mineral • Clays are in soils • Conventional • The amorphous • Clays and
components (the and sediments treatment plants hydroxide flocs organic colloids
phyllosilicates) formed during are effective in formed in many have not any
• Nonclay-mineral soil development turbidity coagulation direct effect on
such as iron, through the removal and processes can health. However,
aluminum weathering of since clay adsorb trace both may
oxides, quartz, parent minerals comprises a metals and indirectly affect
hydroxides, significant organic the quality of
amorphous portion of compounds. drinking water
silica, feldspar natural turbidity, Hence, if they due to the fact
clay suspensions pass through that they can
can be removed filters and into adsorb a variety
by filtration and the treated water, of toxic
coagulation they may carry substances,
other substances bacteria, and
with them. viruses from
solution or
suspension
Particulate • Organic • Municipal and • Color and many • It may increase ND
organic matter macromolecules industrial waste other organic lead and copper
such as humic disposal is a macromolecules concentration in
and fulvic acid major source of and particulates treated water
• All nonliving organic can be removed • It favors the
material (e.g., particulate by conventional development of
amorphous matter in natural processes. For biofilms in the
organic matter, waters that serve example, humic distribution
detritus) as sources for and fulvic acids system
drinking water can be • Formation of
coagulated by halomethanes
iron (III) and and other
aluminum (III) chlorinated
salts organics
• Measurement of
particulate
content by
turbidimetry is
imprecise and
cannot be relied
upon as a sole
indicator of the
safety of an
uncharacterized
drinking water
source

(Continued)
28 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment

TABLE 2.5 Water quality parameters, souces, concern, and issues the aquatic environment.dcont'd

Category Important
(parameter) subclasses Major sources Removal technique Concern and issues Effect on health

Mineral fibers • Amphibole and • Synthetic mineral • Amphibole fibers • The ubiquitous •There is concern
chrysotile fibers fibers, called slag can be removed occurrence of over the
wool or rock by coagulation fibrous or biological effects
wool, are and filtration. acicular of the mineral
produced by • Considerable minerals, as well fibers such as
blowing air or difficulties have as the wide asbestos that
steam through been reported for variation in occur in water
molten rock or small and composition, and • Evidence from
slag positively similarities of studies in both
• Man-made charged crystallographic people and lab
vitreous (silicate) chrysotile fibers make the animals has
fibers are a group analysis of shown that
of materials that environmental asbestos can
include samples most increase the risk
refractory difficult for some types of
ceramic fibers, cancer
glass wool,
special-purpose
glass fibers, rock
wool, slag wool
and continuous
glass filaments
Microbiological • Large ND • Large • Escaping of •There is also
particulates microorganisms microorganisms microbial strong evidence that
including including amebic particulates: microbes may
amebic cysts cysts and algae • Aggregation and contribute to many
and algae are readily survival: Some noninfectious
removed by aspects of the chronic diseases
filtration from resistance to such as some forms
properly disinfection of of cancer and
pretreated water viruses that have coronary heart
• 100% removal of been attributed disease. Different
microorganisms to the association diseases are caused
is not feasible between organic by different types of
particulate microorganisms
materials to
produce
complex.

ND: not determined.

indirectly affect water quality by acting as vehi-
cles and releasing pollutants under different con-
ditions. The above-mentioned water treatment
practice can effectively remove most of the solids
suspended in water; however, the conventional
technique of measuring and detecting the
presence of particles using turbidity has serious
deficiencies. Thus, the development of standard-
ized methods is necessary to determine particle
size distribution and concentration using an op-
tical technique such as adsorption and light scat-
tering (Rieger and Ditl, 1994).
 2.6 Bottlenecks and limitations of centralized drinking water and wastewater treatment facilities
Pulp and paper industry wastewater treat-
ment practice is one example of the presence of
particulate and colloids such as carbohydrate
and lignin-related compounds in the stream
that resulted in a high value of BOD, turbidity,
and even toxicity. The presence of toxic sub-
stances such as dioxins in effluents from pulp
bleaching and its adsorption on particles
resulted in the transport and protection of them
from removal by water treatment. Conventional
wastewater treatment systems comprising pri-
mary clarification followed by activated sludge
processes have been applied in the pulp and pa-
per industry. At higher levels of pollutants, the
removal of contaminants has been achieved by
supplementary treatments, including anaerobic
biological stages, bioreactors, advanced oxida-
tion processes, and membrane filtration practice
(Hubbe et al., 2016). Also, these supplementary
treatments can be served as a modular system
to decrease the load of mentioned contaminates
before entering to the wastewater treatment
facilities.
2.6 Bottlenecks and limitations of
centralized drinking water and wastewater
treatment facilities
A municipal WWTP is designed to work with
conventional household wastewater. If uncon-
ventional wastewater enters the WWTP, the effi-
ciency of treatment changes. One example of
unconventional wastewater would be HWW.
Different unconventional pollutants can be
found in HWW, such as various toxic or persis-
tent substances such as hazardous chemical
substances, pharmaceuticals, pathogens, radio-
nuclides and radioisotopes, radiographic devel-
opers, solvents, endocrine disruptors, and
disinfectants in a wide range of concentrations
(Yan et al., 2020). Even feces and patients’ urine
contain high amounts of antibiotics, the metabo-
lites of pharmaceuticals, cytotoxics, and X-ray
contrast media. It is reported that a hospital, as
29
a significant point source, can discharge approx-
imately 700 kg of pharmaceuticals in the marine
environment annually. Untreated HWW, which
contains high concentration norovirus and
antibiotic-resistance bacteria, causes the death
of zebrafishes and crustaceans after 96 h of expo-
sure (Casas et al., 2015). Thus, the proper man-
agement, treatment, and disposal of HWW
before entering the main drain can decrease in-
ternational concerns.
Most countries across the world did not have
a good distinction between HWW and urban/
domestic wastewater. According to WHO safe
management of wastes, the direct discharge of
hazardous chemical and liquids wastes (e.g.,
pharmaceuticals) to the sewer is strictly pro-
hibited. A separate pretreatment is required for
such wastewater. The pretreatment can involve
filtering, autoclaving, and acidebase neutraliza-
tion. European pill project (2010e12) reported
the effective treatment of HWW in terms of phar-
maceutical compounds using membrane biofilm
reactor and ozone/UV/H2O2/RO treatment
(Kovalova et al., 2013). For the first time, a full-
scale hospital WWTP was constructed in
Denmark in 2013. The Herlev hospital was
considered a significant point source. Its
WWTP consists of secondary treatment with
two biological tanks followed by the adsorption
with granular-activated carbon, ozonation, and
UV radiation (Casas et al., 2015). A modular sys-
tem can be applied for the source removal of
medical contaminants from HWW. The modular
design can be placed on-site like hospitals,
elderly homes, or pharmaceutical companies to
remove the pollutants before entering the main
wastewater system.
Since HWW contains a wide range of chemi-
cals and microbiological compounds that make
its treatment different, two approaches are
considered HWW. In some countries such as
the United States, Italy, and France, it is regarded
as industrial wastewater, so HWW can be dis-
charged to municipal sewage after a different
treatment. This separate treatment can be varied
30 2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking water treatment
from a simple pretreatment to separate on-
site treatment. So, HWW can be treated in an
on-site HWWTP using the modular treatment
system or technologies, and effluent can be dis-
charged to WW main streams. No need to
mention that in this method, HWW sludge
should be managed carefully. For example, Her-
lev Hospital (Copenhagen, Denmark) employs a
modular system that contains filtration, biolog-
ical purification, activated carbon, and ozone to
remove the pharmaceutical active substances
(Hartmann et al., 1998).
In other countries, the different treatment of
HWW is not considered, and untreated HWWs
are discharged directly to the municipal WW.
In this case, the effluent of WWTP should be
monitored more carefully. In the effluent, the
measurements of specific pollutants are
required, such as adsorbable organic halogens,
disinfectants, detergents, surfactant, sulfates, cy-
anides, organophosphates, total nitrogen, total
and free chlorine, heavy metals, and rarely
microbiological indicators (total coliform, fecal
coliform, or Escherichia coli).
However, it is noticeable that pollutant
removal by advanced treatment inevitably re-
quires additional financial costs that some coun-
tries cannot afford it. As mentioned previously,
most industrial wastewater stream effluents
contain a complex mixture of various organic
compounds and solid particulates. A variety of
challenges reported for those who set out to
remove macropollutants from the industrial
wastewater depend on the wastewater nature
and required quality needed. Operating cost is
one criterion that should be considered to obtain
successful treatment. Advanced oxidation sys-
tems that can eliminate some of the highly
colored and most challenging toxic components
from industrial effluent have been criticized for
their high operating cost. However, membrane
treatment practice is becoming more popular
because of a substantial reduction in membrane
price.
Greenhouse gas emission is the other criteria
to choose for appropriate treatment practice.
Even though improved efficiencies often can be
obtained using modern reactors designed for
biological wastewater treatment, these facilities
may require electricals energy (high) compared
to conventional treatment systems. Replacing
thermophilic with mesophilic (medium tempera-
ture) conditions in biological treatment plants
might save some electricity. However, studies
showed higher performance of thermophilic in
many cases. Researchers usually recommend
anaerobic wastewater treatment operations
because they generate methane that can be
retrieved. Quantity of sludge is the last but not
least factor that should be minimized and
remove pollutants from the wastewater.
Focusing on anaerobic biological treatment as
an early step in the treatment program and ther-
mophilic natural treatment systems can achieve
better efficiency and lower sludge amounts
(LaPara and Alleman, 1999; Skouteris et al.,
2012).
Petroleum industries and refineries wastewa-
ters mainly contain oil, organic matter, and other
petroleum compounds. Pretreatment can reduce
the concentration of oil, grease, and suspended
materials. However, advanced treatment is
needed to decrease/degrade the pollutants to
acceptable discharge values. The critical parame-
ters in treatment techniques for petroleum
wastewater are COD, BOD, oil and grease, total
petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH), sulfate, and phe-
nols. Biological techniques (Wang et al., 2015),
adsorption (Al Hashemi et al., 2015), chemical
oxidation (Hu et al., 2015), and coagulation
(Farajnezhad and Gharbani, 2012) should be
advanced in conventional treatment plants to
remove the organic matter from petroleum
wastewater. Using advanced treatment in a
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municipal wastewater systems.
2.7 Conclusion
Modular systems can be designed in a way
that provides all the advantages of conventional
water treatment systems. Since they are prefabri-
cated, packages can be easily installed for indus-
trial and residential areas. The modular systems
are flexibly designed to deal with specific prob-
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treatment biological and tertiary modules
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system can be placed on-site to reduce the over-
all cost of treatments; however, these systems’
choice depends on source water quality, treat-
ment targets, operating, and maintenance costs.
However, a modular treatment system may still
be financially out of reach for some underdevel-
oped communities.
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plateau-surface of the planet, with cultivated vegetation in the
bottom-lands.
The rims of these canyons are fortified with very high and very wide
stone walls, a military defensive work, with watch-towers, designed
as a protection for the white people who inhabit the canyons from
attack by their ancient enemy, the ape-men, who swarm over the
tropical regions in countless numbers.
These fortifications somewhat resemble the Great Wall of China, and
create a distinct boundary line. Following the course of the canyons,
and extending over the surface for many thousands of miles, like a
network, it is easy to understand how they were mistaken for the
lines of canals, or waterways, as viewed from the earth through our
great telescopes. Apparently these canyons were formed by volcanic
disturbances in the early ages of the planet, which shivered and rent
its surface into these stupendous fissures in the rock.
As a refuge from the bitterly cold nights peculiar to Mars, and the
constant cyclonic sand-storms, the canyons make an ideal place of
abode. The wind, it seems, blows eternally on Mars, kicking up a
fearful dust from the reddish deserts, and making the planet a
veritable dustbowl.
I must give Schiaparelli credit, however, for his discovery of the
canals, in 1877, for these canyons do really serve as water routes.
Running through them are great aqueducts which tap the arctic and
antarctic regions, into which the Martians pump water from the
melting snow and ice caps. As there are no seas on the planet, and
very little rainfall, this water is stored in huge reservoirs, and used
largely for irrigating the bottom-land of the canyons, thus rendering
them extremely fertile.
Around these reservoirs the white inhabitants cluster, not in cities,
but in vast cliff-dwelling communities, the sides of the canyons being
honey-combed with homes. The wind-power of the planet is
converted into electrical energy in immense funneled power-houses,
just as we harness water-power on the earth. The current generated
by this method is used to turn the wheels of industry, propel the
passenger and freight trains which rumble through the tunnels in the
cliffs, connecting the various communities, operate the elevators and
escalators uniting the tiers of cliff homes with the fortifications at the
rim and the bottom-lands, as well as supplying light and heat for all
of the inhabitants.
I have always been puzzled as to how the Martians looked and
dressed. The picture interpretation of their daily life revealed tall,
stalwart men, with leathery complexions, owing to the lack of
moisture in the atmosphere, and graceful, really beautiful women,
with classic features, enveloped in veils from head to toe as a
protection against the climate. Men, women and children, all garbed
and living as the ancient Grecians, with the difference that to their
colorful spectacle of life is added the enjoyment of the benefits of
scientific inventions.
I marveled at their magnificent temples, set in great plazas, in the
bottom-land of the canyons, over thermal springs. Temples largely of
glass construction, with airspace between the double walls, which
are lined with a transparent substance, resembling cellophane,
evidently to keep out the stinging cold of the nights. Grouped about
each temple were universities, libraries, museums and coliseums,
also of glass, and modeled after the highest forms of what we, on
earth, call modernistic art, but which is now regarded on Mars as a
relic of ancient art.
As I gazed at the swift moving scenes, I was deeply impressed by
the similarity between Mars and Thibet, in Asia, in point of rarity of
air, climatic severity, and the superiority and authority of priests.
Since the Martians worship fire and water, and venerate as twin
goddesses their two tiny moons, which revolve so closely to their
planet, I could see how this excessive number of priests was really
necessary for the propagation of the State religion. Furthermore, the
entire intellectual and cultural life of Mars is vested in the priesthood,
and naturally all education and refinement center in the temple
areas, just as the industrial and agricultural activities seem to
converge at the great reservoirs.
All products, watered by irrigation, are grown under glass; and stored
summer sunlight, a process as yet unknown to science on the earth,
is used to melt the nightly deposits of frost which accumulate the
year round. Horses, cattle and sheep were shown peacefully grazing
in glass-enclosed corrals, which are electrically heated at night.
I observed particularly how all the homes in the sides of the canyons
had glass fronts, which made the towering steep rocks look like the
façade of a modern New York skyscraper. The power of the sun is
not so great on Mars as on the earth, consequently the practical
utilization of glass for living purposes is quite necessary for the
conservation of the sun's light and heat. The materials of which glass
is made abound on Mars, the great plateaus having a natural bed of
glassy volcanic rock.
If I were here sedulously to outline all of the startling revelations
concerning Mars I saw in this picture, it would take many pages;
much easier it will be to outline just a few more of the more important
disclosures. Unfortunately, there are a few taboos as far as the moral
law of our earthly civilization is concerned.
For instance, a specialized offspring is being produced on Mars to
save the white race from extinction. Respiratory diseases and their
frightening toll of lives, caused by the climatic extremes and the
particles of sand in the air, have long been a national calamity. For
the begetting and production of the young, the healthiest and most
beautiful women of the planet give themselves up to the State as a
patriotic duty. Their mates are carefully selected for their mental and
physical fitness.
These eugenic babies are born in special establishments attached to
the temples, and reared at the expense of the State. The unmarried
mothers were shown as they took part in the ceremonials of the
temples; some appeared as dancers, while others attended the
sacred fire and water shrines, also engaging in the weaving of fine
tapestries and in rich embroidery work.
As this strange phase of Martian life was unrolled to our view, I
suddenly remembered Jane, with a sinking feeling in the pit of my
stomach, but the room was too dark to observe what effect this
scene was having upon her. I must say that at no time did it seem
vulgar and lewd; everything was conducted in perfect good taste and
propriety.
I was surprised to find that the Martians are ruled by a dictator, a
form of government of which I very much disapprove. A very
despotic dictator, who has the supreme power to frame the laws and
order punishment. And instead of labor unions, they have labor units
—units of agriculture, engineering, science, and so on, each with a
leader responsible to the dictator.
There's this to say about the Martians. Despite all the handicaps
imposed by nature, they manage to enjoy themselves. Fête days in
the temple areas are very frequent. In the coliseums they hold
thrilling chariot races and gladiatorial combats between trained ape-
men from the jungles, who use short swords.
I was rather horrified to learn that slavery is common among them,
which will account for the almost constant warfare between them and
the ape-men. The herculean task of building their fortifications, which
covered many centuries, was made possible by the employment of
the ape-men as slaves. The process of evolution seems to have
slowed up in the Martian tropics, leaving black, hairy creatures, in
form and in intelligence intermediate between the highest ape and
man. These ape-men worship the enormous wolf of the deserts, a
war-like beast, in peculiar rites of sacrifice and the blood-covenant,
which is an outspring of totemism, a stage in all human
development.
In retaliation for the slave raids of the whites in the jungles, these
ape-men move against them in vast armies, and with surprising
agility, over the dead regions of the planet. When they leave their
natural location, they live upon the fruits and berries which grow in
the many oases scattered over the deserts, where thermal springs
are found.
I could well imagine the frightful and devastating effect of these ape-
men armies once they were victorious over the whites. The picture
showed them attacking the fortifications, and being driven off with
showers of bombs filled with deadly gases. When they succeed in
plundering the temples, they carry off the cloistered white women as
captives to their jungle lairs.
Besides the ape-men and the hazards of climate, the white
population is also harassed continually by the foraging beasts,
reptiles, birds and insects from the waste regions and the jungles,
who destroy the plantations and devour the horses and cattle. To
meet the perils of the marauders, the whites maintain a standing-
army, scientifically-equipped. Quartered in the canyon fortifications,
the army uses a system of wireless-signaling from the watch-towers,
to warn the people when in danger of attack.
Getting a first view of these monsters of the Martian deserts and
tropical zone, a chill ran down my spine. Many of them were what we
term prehistoric monsters—the tapir, tree sloth, and dinosaur. I
gasped in horror at the sight of the insects from the jungles—beetles
having the bulk of baby elephants, and ants big and strong enough
to carry a man on their backs. And what at first I believed to be an
airplane, turned out to be an enormous, monstrous bat.
As the film moved swiftly onwards to its completion, the breathless
interest of the assembled scientists and explorers was concentrated
on the last episode, which proved to contain the most amazing
revelation of all.
The rays from the motion picture projector now seemed to flash upon
the silver screen like messages of hope. Hope for our white brethren,
on a faraway star, beset on all sides by danger, and threatened with
extinction. With increasing excitement, I watched, through a happy
haze of light, the great transformation that was now taking place in
that bright point of light that studs our darkling sky—the planet Mars.

XXI
There, fast unreeling before our eyes, were undeniable evidences of
the changed conditions that our radio broadcasts had wrought on
Mars. I had no misgivings now about our short wave programs
reaching that planet. We saw the Martians listening in to our daily
broadcasts, and becoming not only quite in sympathy with our
American ideas but benefitting therefrom.
Intercepting musical and talking programs from New York, London,
Paris, Rome, Bombay, Tokyo and Melbourne, and out of the strange
babble of voices and senseless prattle, soon, presto! evolves a
translation of the English language. Think of it!
But how, out of all this jumble of unintelligible words, which meant
nothing to them at all, did they succeed in translating the English
language? We shall see!
When the group of American scientists sent a message to Mars, in
the International Morse code, by directing a powerful beam of light
on the planet from the summit of the Jungfrau, in Switzerland, the
beam was brought into the range of the telescope of a young priest-
astronomer in one of the Martian temples. Having already made
superficial translations of the English language, as it registered on
the temple radio receiving set, this youthful Martian incarnation of an
earthly Marconi, succeeded in deciphering the code as registered by
this beam of light. The result was a rather crude transcription into the
English language, but sufficiently intelligible to exchange radio
communications, in code, with the earth.
Our short wave programs and code messages, it seems, have long
been registering on Mars, but their source was unknown until this
beam of light from the Jungfrau was picked up and decoded. The
belief, long persisting among the priest-scientists, that there were
human beings on the earth, known to them as the Blue Sphere, as
intelligent as themselves, it was perfectly natural that they should
begin at once to try and contact, by wireless, the planet from which
they had caught the beam of light.
For some reason or other, not made clear, they had failed. Perhaps
their signaling was mistaken for static on our radios, and was
unrecognizable among the weird chattering and apparitions, which
scientists claim are caused by the auroras and echoes of radio
signals sent from the earth. Certainly no one had the sense, or
intelligence, to pick them out of the static, and decode them, until
Henry and Olinski began their experiments.
It amazed me to learn that the radio had been developed by the
priest-scientists on Mars long before it became generally used on the
earth. But it had never been popularized. Its use there had been
confined solely to the temples in religious ceremonies, to awe the
superstitious masses, as the voice of their unseen gods, and in
linking up the various governmental and military outposts. The idea
of making it an instrument of popular education and entertainment
first came from the earth's music broadcasts, with the result that life
on Mars has become almost completely revolutionized.
It was my theory, then, that this clever, young Martian priest-
astronomer, who had first decoded the beam of light signals into
English, was the originator of the rocket-to-earth idea, and the author
and transmitter of the radio message, which had thrilled the world,
on the night of the public demonstration in Radio Center. There was
every likelihood, too, that he had composed and penned the
cuneiform message contained in the scroll, which had been so
skillfully translated to the screen for our entertainment and
edification.
My amazement grew beyond bounds as the last episode of the
travelogue progressed, and I realized how completely Americanized
the Martians were becoming through the medium of our radio
broadcasts. The short waves from the American stations seemed to
register stronger on Mars than those of any other broadcasting
stations in the world. And there was the stark truth, galvanized into
life on the screen.
Martians flocking in thousands to the temple areas, to listen in, by
means of loud speakers, to our educational broadcasts and national
programs, as interpreted by their priests. Our school curriculum,
talks on farming, science, finance and politics being discussed at
symposiums. Applications of American rules of health and hygiene
already in force, and largely decreasing the death rate.
Symphony orchestra concerts and grand opera broadcasts relayed
from the temples to loud speakers in all public squares of the various
communities. The younger generation learning to dance, with
partners, to jazz music. Martian youngsters hearing bedtime stories
for the first time in their lives—and learning of such important, earthly
make-believe characters as Mother Goose and Mickey Mouse.
Baseball rapidly displacing chariot racing and gladiatorial combats as
a popular amusement.
Furthermore, the masses were beginning to enjoy luxuries hitherto
unattainable; the Martian markets being flooded with soaps, tooth-
paste, perfumes, hair dressings, cold cream, face powder and
cigarettes, all patterned and manufactured after the American
products, advertised so extensively in all short wave broadcasts
reaching that planet. Martian women were being amazingly
transformed into pinkly powdered persons, smartly rouged and
lipsticked, slender lined, and giving out a fascinating scent.
The most astounding revelation was contained in the fact that the
whole political, social and economic order of the planet was being
threatened by the new ideas caught from the American short wave
broadcasts. Armed with this new knowledge, the political order of the
planet, a form of despotism, was facing disruption, the people
actually demanding a democratic form of government, patterned
after the American plan.
Even the State religion, the idolatrous worship of fire and water, and
the twin moon goddesses, was being undermined. Flashing across
the sidereal abyss that yawns between the earth and Mars, had
come the first message of Christ. Christian cults were springing up in
all parts of the planet despite the drastic action on the part of the
State, to forestall the accomplishment of the people's designs, and
the overthrow of their ancient religion. Hundreds of pagan priests
had become converts to Christianity; they were deserting the
temples, and sallying forth to preach a new gospel of salvation.
The slavery of the ape-men was being attacked by the Christians as
inhuman. Thousands of slaves owned by the whites had actually
been freed. Christian missionaries were penetrating the jungles. A
truce had been declared in the warfare that had long been raging
between the white race and the ape-men. Mediation was already in
progress. A movement for peace and good will among men, and
charity for all, was sweeping the planet. Better days were coming to
Mars....
The picture was over all too soon; enthusiasm ran high and oratory
flowed freely. It marked the close of a great day in the life of Henry.
The toastmaster moved his fellow-diners to thunderous applause
when he declared: "This event will go down in scientific history as
one of the greatest achievements of man." Subsequent speakers
showered flowery encomiums on Henry, whose courage and capital
had made the occasion possible. Even the sceptics conceded that it
all seemed feasible.
The startling disclosures, together with the pictorial creation and
grandeur of their interpretation, had held me spellbound. I was
impressed as never before in my life; convinced now, in fact, that the
information contained in the scroll of life on Mars, extraordinary and
incredible as it seemed, was genuine. "Henry's a great man," I
thought. My faith was pinned on him now; I didn't care what any one
else thought. Transplanted for more than an hour, into a region of
wide spaces, as I watched the film unroll, and grasping ultimately the
idea that order and efficiency, among human beings like ourselves,
could reign on another planet as well as our own, it took me several
minutes to come out of my trance, after the close of the picture.
When I did, finally, just as the lights were turned on, I no longer saw
a populous planet, with its strange and romantic people being
dominated by American ideas, but Pat and McGinity hurriedly
disengaging hands. I pretended to take no notice of them. Yet I
smiled to myself. While the procession and pageantry of life, in a
faraway world, had been weaving their patterns on the screen in
astonishing illumination, these two had been holding hands under
the table. New worlds might be created, and others grow dim and
crumble, I thought, but love would go on just like that—holding hands
under the table.
Maybe I was wrong. Perhaps McGinity was just patting Pat's hand to
soothe her. She hadn't been well lately; her face had grown pale and
anxious from the strain and excitement under which we were living.
McGinity turned to me. "Well, what d'you make of it?" he asked.
"Wonderful!" I replied.
"Oh, I wouldn't have missed seeing this, not for worlds!" Pat chimed
in. "I feel as though I'd been up in the clouds, among the stars. It was
so thrilling, so overpowering, I don't really feel let down yet. How do
you feel?" she added, looking at McGinity.
"Me?" McGinity answered. "Oh, I feel as if I'd fallen down a couple of
flights of stairs."
"I've seen great revelations in my time," I remarked, "but this is the
most triumphant—" I stopped. The reporter's rather cryptic remark
was puzzling me. I glanced at him quizzically. He did not look right,
somehow; too much gravity and anxiousness in his pose and
countenance, considering this crowning moment in his life.
"Something displeased you?" I inquired. "You look worried."
His reply, though vague, immediately aroused my curiosity. "I'd like to
see you, alone—tonight—after we return to the castle," he said, in a
low voice. "I want to talk over something with you."
That ended our conversation. He excused himself, and hurried away
to telephone to the Recorder. Newspapers, not only in New York but
throughout the country, and the rest of the world as well, were
prepared to devote columns to the momentous event; far more
important, to my mind, than the radio message from Mars, and the
landing of the Martian rocket, with its strange passenger, for here
were actual revelations direct from the planet, proving conclusively
that it was inhabited by human beings, who were subject to the same
laws, the same temptations and passions which affect ordinary
humanity.
It was amusing to see the small regiment of reporters present,
rushing off to their different papers to write their stories, as soon as
the picture had faded from the screen. McGinity, being more
advantageously placed, was ahead of the rest of them in that he had
filed his story for the Daily Recorder earlier in the evening. After he
had telephoned to his office, and given word for its release, and told
what had happened at the banquet table, excerpts from the
speeches, etceteras, he was free to accompany us to Sands Cliff.
He had something to tell me. What? It might be nothing, and it might
be a good deal. The time of surmising came to its end. Within a few
minutes after our arrival at the castle, we were closeted together in
his apartment. Middle of the night though it was, I felt excited and
bouyant, and filled with a sense of adventure. Lighting a cigar, I
settled down in an easy chair, and waited.
The reporter walked up and down the room with his hands plunged
deep in his trousers' pockets, and his head bent downwards. He
appeared to be tracing the designs in the rug beneath his restless
feet. Suddenly, he pulled himself out of his concentrated mental
effort, stopped dead, and turned to me.
"Mr. Royce," he said, "do you believe all this stuff that's been
happening?"
"Yes," I replied, promptly. "That is, in a way. Why, what do you
think?"
For a moment he stood gazing at me in silence, intently. Then he
asked: "I wonder if you think what I think?"
"Well," I answered, "if you want to know, I think that if all this that's
been happening was contrived and worked out by a human mind,
then a human mind can discover what it's all about."
He stared thoughtfully at me a moment before he spoke. "It wouldn't
surprise me a bit if you've hit on something," he said at last.
"Yes?" I said. "I'm afraid I don't see it yet. I'm just telling you what I
think."
"Exactly," said McGinity. "Now, you think something, and I think
something. Very good. If we're both convinced on one point, why not
join hands, and follow a new line, which may lead us out of all this
mystery to something in the way of solution?"
"That," I replied, instantly, "is just the very thing we shall do!"
"Of course, you must know, as well as I do, that it's all highly
improbable, utterly impossible," the reporter observed.
"I suppose it is," I answered, "yet the Science Editor of the Times
declared only last Sunday that radio signaling to Mars was
'technically possible.'"
"Granted," agreed McGinity; "but that's another question. What
concerns us now is what has already occurred—to prove that it isn't
true, without injuring your brother's standing as a scientist."
"I've never known a man so positive as Henry is on this Martian radio
signaling and rocket business," I said. "He believes it's all true, and I
see no reason whatever to think that it isn't. While there's
considerable scepticism in the outside world, no one has yet come
forward with a clue—not a single clue—to prove that Henry and
Olinski are all wrong, or are being duped."
"Would it surprise you very much if I produced—a clue?" McGinity
asked.
"It certainly would," I replied.
The reporter then did a most surprising thing, which gave a startling
and dramatic turn to our conversation.
"I've been convinced all along," he said, as he walked over to a
secretary, in which he unlocked and opened a drawer, "that there
was a human agency—a master mind—at the bottom of all this. In
what way, I didn't know—couldn't guess. But, now, I'm sure of it."
From an inner receptacle of the drawer, he produced the scroll,
which was found in the rocket, the contents of which Olinski had so
skillfully decoded, and he had put into scenario form. He laid it on the
table before me.
"Take a look at that," he said.
Carefully unrolling the scroll, I inspected it closely through a reading
glass. The tiny cuneiform writing was no more intelligible to me than
the hieroglyphics on Cleopatra's Needle in Central Park. It was
inscribed on what I judged to be papyrus, the writing-paper of the
ancient Egyptians. No doubt the papyrus-plant also grew on Mars.
As I looked it over carefully, I detected a curious, subtle scent, like
some rare perfume. The roller, I took to be ebony.
I smiled dryly, and made a move to hand it back to the reporter. "I'm
afraid I can't make anything out of it," I said; "at least, nothing
suspicious, or in the way of a clue."
He waved it off. "You're not finished with it yet," he said. "Try holding
it up against the light. Study it again—carefully."
I did as he directed, unrolling the scroll a little at a time, and looking
through it, against the bright light of the reading lamp. Suddenly, I
stopped—startled; my eyes seemed to pop.
McGinity's voice broke in on the silence.
"You see it?" he asked.
"Yes," I answered, my voice trembling. "I see it."
"Very well," he said. "Now, we know where we are."

XXII
There was not much to see when I unrolled the scroll, and inspected
it against the lamplight, as McGinity had directed, but what there was
assured me that the reporter was right when he said that he had
made a find. Now, we knew something.
For a moment, the discovery completely overwhelmed me; I felt a
little giddy. It affected me personally, more closely than anything I
had ever had to deal with, mainly because of Henry. A sort of vision
rose before my eyes. I saw the whole thing about Mars exposed, and
my brother crushed in ignominy.
What the reporter had found was in line with what had been running
in both our minds, the conviction that a superior intellect was at the
bottom of all this Martian mystery, and its various resultants. It
revealed a carefully conceived, highly ingenious conspiracy; a cruel
and cold-blooded fraud, done in such a fashion as to leave no clue,
which would make the tracing of the adroit and utterly unscrupulous
perpetrator concerned, very difficult, if not impossible.
But here was a clue, thanks to McGinity's power of observation and
reportorial inquisitiveness, even if it was only the ghost of one, that
might put us on to the track of the perpetrator. A water-mark, a small
translucent design, appeared in the body of the parchment paper,
which proved that the scroll had not been made on Mars, but on
earth. There it was, as plain as day: "Royal Bond—Made in U. S. A."
McGinity's reportorial and detective instincts combined—all
newspaper reporters seem to have been born with a detective
complex—quickly sent him again to the secretary, this time to look
for a Manhattan telephone book; and while he was thumbing hastily
through its pages, I took another squint at the water-mark, in the
parchment scroll. I could hardly believe my eyes.
"What we want to find out now," the reporter said, "is the name of the
manufacturer of that particular brand of parchment paper. Hello!—
here it is. 'Royal Parchment Paper Company, 158 Beekman Street.'"
"Indeed?" I said, as calmly as I could.
"Now, one of us must take the scroll, and call on this firm, the first
thing in the morning," he suggested. "They may be able to throw
some light on the matter."
"I'll go," I quickly volunteered.
"Good," said McGinity. "Our job now is to find and bring to light the
actual perpetrator of this fraud. This water-mark in the parchment
may put us on his trail. That's about the situation, isn't it?"
"As far as I'm concerned," I replied, "that is the situation. But I'm
afraid we're facing a many-sided problem. You must remember that
we are dealing with events so stupendous that they can hardly be
conceived by the human mind."
"But we're in possession of one thread now that may guide us
through the maze," said McGinity, settling down finally in a chair
opposite me. "I admit that what we have to deal with is most
extraordinary—almost inexplicable—" he went on; "but here's this
much to remember—your own idea, by the way—if this mystery was
contrived and worked out by a human mind, then a human mind can
discover what it is."
"Quite right," I agreed. "And if the person who made the scroll is the
same one who sent those Martian radio messages, and dropped the
rocket—"
"Dropped?" McGinity exclaimed, interrupting me. "Of course, that
rocket was dropped on the water-front. Dropped! That idea had
never occurred to me before. It wouldn't surprise me, Mr. Royce, if
you've hit on another clue."
"Yes?" I said, a little bewildered. "Anyway," I began again, "if it is the
same person, then I'm sure we can trace him."
"I'll tell you what I think, Mr. Royce," McGinity said; "we shall have to
go back—and go back a long way, and find all we can about—
Olinski."
"Olinski?" I exclaimed. "Surely, you don't suspect him?"
"He's a radio wizard, isn't he?" the reporter said. "He may have sent
those alleged messages from Mars himself. He may have directed
them to the moon, round ten o'clock, each night, during the
experiments, and they were echoed, or bounced, back to earth. I
understand he's quite an inventor besides. Now, he may have
invented that rocket—everything—"
"You're forgetting, McGinity," I interrupted. "He couldn't possibly have
invented Mr. Zzyx."
"That's so—I'd forgotten Mr. Zzyx," the reporter admitted. "All the
same, just to be on the safe side, I think we'd better trace Olinski's
career."
"We must remember this," I suggested, "that whoever is at the
bottom of this fraud—if it is a fraud—had a definite purpose in putting
it over. In criminology, that is called motive. Once you have the
motive, the rest comes easier."
"I agree on that, Mr. Royce," said McGinity. "But the thought has just
come to me that the perpetrator of this hoax—and I'm convinced
now it is a hoax—has got nearly three months' start. Let's suppose,
as you suggested, that he's a man who had some definite purpose in
putting it over, the man we want to find. Very well, he pulls his two
big tricks late in August, the Martian radio message in code, and the
rocket from outer space, both occurring on the same night; and from
that time, he passes into the unknown. No more messages from
Mars. Everything cleaned up in one night."
"On that supposition," I said, "we shall, of course, have to eliminate
Olinski, for which I shall be very glad."
"But suppose Olinski is the man we want," McGinity said,
vehemently. "What about his having an accomplice? Olinski could be
doing something else. And here's something that seems to have
struck nobody. How could Olinski decode, so easily and expertly,
those radio signals, and the cuneiform writing on the scroll? Besides,
he's held on to this scroll like grim death, and never once allowed it
to pass out of his hands until tonight, when I wheedled him into
lending it to me, to be photographed for a Sunday article I'm writing
for the Recorder."
"If you're convinced of Olinski's complicity in this, I'm not," I said, a
little heatedly. "I've every confidence in him, and I've got to be
shown. So, before we start in pursuit of knowledge of Olinski, you'd
better let me follow up this clue of the water-mark, which may lead
us to something in the way of success."
McGinity, after some hesitation, agreed to this, and after remaining
silent for a few minutes, he said: "You have, of course, no idea who
this perpetrator might be?"
"No idea whatever," I promptly replied.
The thing to do, we decided after some further discussion, was to
keep everything to ourselves, while we combed out things that might
give us a further clue. Above all, neither Henry, nor Olinski, were to
know anything whatever about our mistrust.
Meantime, McGinity was to acquaint the editorial executives of his
paper with our suspicions, and to ease up on his sensational stories
about Mars. On this subject, I felt pretty much at a loss at to what to
suggest, but McGinity seemed to know his business. Before we
parted for the night, he convinced me that slowing up on a
newspaper story, removing it from the front page, reducing it to a few
paragraphs, and finally dropping it altogether, was a much easier
thing to do than most folk imagine. Besides, he said, the public
forgets so easily and quickly.
It was in my mind to make a good start in the morning. I felt sure that
the Royal Parchment Paper Company could tell me something that
might be of great importance in guiding us to the solution of one of
the most devilishly contrived plots I've ever known of.
All that the reporter and I had discussed was passing through my
mind, after I had said good-night to him, and was heading down the
hall to my own apartment. It was long after midnight. The castle was
in darkness, and as quiet as a tomb. But just as I was about to enter
my door, Pat came running down the hall, after me. Nearly
breathless, she panted out her message. Would I go back to her
room, at once? We hurried back, to find Jane there, all in a tremble,
and her face showing ashen.
"It's that dreadful thing again," Jane exclaimed. She gave a little
shudder, and turned away to get her smelling salts.
"What's up?" I asked. "Everything about the castle seems perfectly
normal."
"But they're not," Pat said, miserably. "If you hadn't slept so soundly
last night, you might have heard Mr. Zzyx, as I did, sneaking along
the hall. Auntie wouldn't believe it when I told her. She said it was
impossible for him to get out of his locked room without Niki knowing
it."
"Now, dear Pat," I said reassuringly; "haven't you been having
another nightmare? I'm positive that Mr. Zzyx was locked in his
room, and asleep, at this hour last night, as he is now, tonight—tired
out, like all of us, after a very exacting night at the banquet."
"But I'm certain he's not in his room, now," said Pat. "In fact, I've
proved he's out, and wandering about."
"Proved?" I asked, amazed, as Jane moved to my side.
"Yes, proved, dear Livingston," Jane whispered. "She tied a silk
thread across the hall, between her door and mine, after we came
home from the banquet."
"Oh, I see!" I remarked, lightly.
"Nothing to be amused about," said Pat, with a wan, twisted smile. "I
did it to prove to Aunt Jane that Mr. Zzyx was snooping about. She
stayed in here with me, and we waited to see if anything happened."
"And nothing happened for half an hour," Jane supplemented, taking
a good sniff of her sal volatile.
"When, suddenly, we heard something moving outside, in the hall,"
Pat resumed. "After a few minutes, and we didn't hear anything
more, I switched off the lights in here, opened the door a few inches,
and looked out. The hall was dark. I could hear the muffled sound of
your voice, and Bob's, in his room. That gave me courage, so I stole
outside to investigate. I found the thread had been broken."
"That's queer," I observed. "Still, it might have been broken by the
butler. Schweizer suffers terribly from insomnia, and has a habit of
roaming about the place at night, at unearthly hours. I really don't
understand."
"But I do," Jane said, in a low, guttural voice; "and it's your business,
Livingston, to rid this place of that terrible creature at once. If you
don't, and I should see him roving about, in the dark, I know I'll die of
heart failure, instantly." She placed strong emphasis on the last
word, and took another strong whiff of her smelling salts.
At that Pat turned to me, the tears welling in her eyes. "Oh, Uncle
Livingston!" she said, earnestly and pleadingly; "isn't there any
chance at all of ending this terrible mystery business about Mr. Zzyx
and Mars? Uncle Henry must be losing his mind, or he wouldn't be
associated with anything so unearthly and—spooky!"
"While we are still utterly in the dark, my dear," I said, consolingly, "I
have a feeling that it's only a question of time when the whole matter
will be cleared up." I wished then I could have taken her into my
confidence, and told her what McGinity had discovered, about the
scroll, but I knew it would be unwise to make any announcement at
that stage of the proceedings, when we had only the wildest
suspicions to go on. "And, now," I concluded, "I think we'll get to
business at once."
"What are you going to do?" Pat asked, eagerly.
"I'm going to rouse McGinity," I replied, "and if your suspicions are
correct, we'll find Mr. Zzyx, and put him back where he belongs."
"Lock him up!" Jane exclaimed. "And, for heaven's sake, keep him
locked up!"
"Now, you two compose yourselves, and go to bed," I admonished
gently but firmly. "You're both quite safe now."
I left the room, and went to my own apartment, where I got my
flashlight. A few minutes later, I knocked at McGinity's door.
Fortunately, he had not gone to bed. He was still pacing the floor and
smoking furiously. The first thing he did, after I had poured out Pat's
story to him, was to slip a small revolver in his hip pocket.
"There's no time to lose," I murmured, as we crept out into the hall.
"Follow me—and not a sound."
I led the way to the State Apartment. Our difficulty was to effect an
entrance into Mr. Zzyx's bedroom without awakening Niki, who slept
in the adjoining room. As I stood racking my brains how to get into
the creature's room, McGinity, on impulse, tried the door knob. To my
amazement, the door opened. We walked into the room. As I trained
my flashlight on the bed, he chuckled low, and said: "There's the
bed, and, as you see, Pat's right. There's nobody in it."
The bedclothes were in disorder, showing that the bed had been
recently occupied. Immediately, we turned our attention to the lock
on the door, and found that it was not in working condition. A long
brass bolt, on the inside, fitted into a deep groove in the jamb, and
that was all there was to fasten the door. This would account for Mr.
Zzyx's freedom of egress and ingress, and I smiled to myself at our
utter stupidity in not having the lock examined. I wondered why Niki
had not informed us about it, long before this. In many things, he
was just plain dumb.
After creeping quietly upstairs, we explored the two upper floors,
including Henry's observatory. We searched in many queer places,
and looked into all the cavernous and gloomy chambers. And then
we stumbled on something.
A room at the end of the corridor, on the third floor, used mostly for
storage of furniture, bore traces of recent occupancy. A chair had
been drawn up to a small table, on which there was a half-burned
candle, a picture magazine of quite recent date, and an ash tray
containing charred cigarette ends.
As I was examining the room and its contents in the light of my
electric torch, a quick exclamation from McGinity directed my
attention to a French window, which gave on to an iron-railed, stone
balcony.
"There he is!" whispered the reporter; "out on the balcony."
I quickly turned off the flashlight. All I could discern was a black
something standing on the balcony, silhouetted against a bright,
starlit sky. The next moment, the shadow started to move towards
the window. It was perhaps a little foolish of me, but I dashed
forward, threw the window open wide, and turned a flood of light
upon—Schweizer.
The butler, I immediately recalled, was occupying a bedroom a few
doors down the hall from the one we were exploring. After he had
explained that he often read and smoked in this room, and walked
out on the balcony for fresh air, when he was troubled with insomnia,
I dismissed him, without telling him what we were searching for. But
he must have guessed it, for I heard him running down the hall to his
bedroom.
He had no sooner gone when I was struck by a sudden idea. "It's
possible," I suggested, "that Mr. Zzyx, in his after-midnight
excursions, visits the butler's pantry, and makes a raid on our