2023-24 MMS 7201 Lecture 5 - Design and Devt (Product Realization and DFMA)

2/11/2024
MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction
LECTURE 5
Design and Development

(Product Realization and DFMA)
1
2/11/2024 2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction
Lecture Five Outline
5. Design and Development
5.1 Product Realization
5.2 Design for Manufacturability and Assembly (DFMA)
5.3 Manufacturing Documents
2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction

2 2/11/2024
1
2/11/2024
5.1 Product Realization
❑ Product realization refers ❑ The product and service provision planning process
to having a clear idea of defines the following four controls (sometimes called a
quality plan) as appropriate to product realization:
what the product will be,
usually expressed in 1. Quality objectives and regulations
engineering drawings, 2. Necessary processes, documents and resources
statements of work, and
functional product 3. Required checks and criteria for product
specifications. acceptance
❑ Quality management can 4. Records needed

objectively determine if the ❑ The resulting quality plan may be a one-off for a
product was realized and given product, i.e. a project-specific plan, or a more
how efficient the process general documentation.
was.
2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction

3 2/11/2024
ISO 9001 Quality Management System
❑ Product Realization Checklist

✓ Product Realization Planning leads into the following
❑ The objective of an ISO
areas of doing the job:
9001 Quality Management
System is to keep the 1. Customer-related processes
customer happy at all 2. Design and development
stages of the sales process, 3. Purchasing
which include : 4. Process control
1. Enquiry and quotation 5. Calibration
✓ Exclusions of product realization areas of doing the job:
2. Order receipt
▪ ISO 9001:2008 Section 7 gives some exclusions of areas
3. Order processing of product realization which may be permitted but the
4. Order amendment exclusions are limited to the Product Realization
requirements where an element of ISO 9001:2008
Section 7 is genuinely not relevant to the company.
2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 4 2/11/2024
2
2/11/2024
1. Customer-Related Processes
❑ At each stage, the key customer related questions are:

1. Do we really understand what the customer wants?
2. Are we able to do the job on time and in full?
3. Has the customer changed their requirements?
❑ The key customer related questions constitute the basic sales objectives in any
business and can be used to specify the customer-related processes which
include:
a) Determination of requirements related to the product
b) Review of requirements related to the product
c) Customer communication
2. Design and Development
(d) Review
(c) Outputs
(e) Verification
(b) Inputs
(f) Validation
Design and (g) Control of design

(a) Planning Development changes
Processes
3
2/11/2024
Design and Development Processes (1)
a) Planning b) Inputs
Determine all necessary design and ✓ Determine functional and performance

development phases. related characteristics
✓ Determine relevant statutory and
Determine the appropriate design
regulatory requirements
review, verification and validation
techniques. ✓ Determine relevant information from
previous designs
Determine who has responsibility for
design and development. ✓ Determine other requirements that are
essential to the product
Determine the necessary authorities for
✓ Maintain records
design and development.
▪ NB; These inputs relate to Customer-
Maintain records. related processes.
c) Outputs d) Review
The following outputs must reconcile with the inputs: ✓ At key stages of development the
▪ Determine whether the outputs meet the input design should be reviewed to
requirements for design and development. ensure that the inputs are met,
▪ Determine whether the outputs provide suitable and any technical problems
information for purchasing. identified and resolved.
▪ Ensure the outputs provide reference to product
▪ Determine whether the results
acceptance criteria.
conform to the specified
▪ Determine whether the outputs accurately specify requirements.
essential characteristics.
▪ Maintain records. ▪ Identify any gaps in the design.
✓ The final drawing or specification should meet the ▪ Propose and implement
input requirements. solutions to close gaps in the
✓ The outputs would also normally be used as the basis design.
for purchasing and process control. ▪ Maintain records.
4
2/11/2024
e) Verification f) Validation
Determine whether the outputs meet the ✓ Ensure the product meets the
input requirements for the design. specified requirements.
✓ Undertake prototype testing.

Maintain records.
✓ Maintain records.
g) Design Changes
✓ Consider the impact of proposed changes, especially in terms of backwards compatibility and
ensure control over design and development changes.
✓ Design changes must be: Identified, Recorded, Reviewed, Verified, Validated, Approved
✓ Any design changes must be fed back through the entire design and development process,
e.g. from (a) all the way through to (f) since any changes will impact these requirements.
3. Purchasing
(a) ❑ To be effective, the purchasing

Supplier process should define the activities
Evaluation required to ensure a purchased
product conforms to specified quality
requirements.
Three Aspects ✓ Implement a combination of

to Purchasing supplier controls.
as specified in
ISO 9001:2008
✓ Define product requirements.
✓ Perform product inspections,

(b) (c) taking into account the
Purchase Goods Receipt potential consequences of a non-
Orders Checks conforming product.
5
2/11/2024
Aspects of Purchasing
a) Supplier Evaluation: Establish and maintain control of b) Purchase Orders: Describe the product
the purchasing process: to be purchased:
– Determine extent of control to be applied to suppliers. ▪ Define product approval requirements,
– Develop criteria for the selection of suppliers. e.g. certificates of conformity.
– Evaluate suppliers ability to meet requirements. ▪ Define intended verification
Potential and existing suppliers are evaluated by: arrangements, e.g. prototyping,
– Evidence of effective continuous improvement process. witness testing or test evidence.
– Looking at suppliers process control data. ▪ Define personnel qualifications, e.g.
evidence of competence.
– Analyze supplier corrective action process when
responding to non-conformities. ▪ Define QMS requirements.
– Determine effectiveness of corrective action responses c) Goods receipt checks: Establish and
– Perform an audit at the supplier's premises. implement a process for inspection to
– Evidence of an effective ‘zero defect’ program in the ensure purchased products conform to
process flow of the supplier. the following: Purchase order, Product
– Evidence of product quality objective attainment based specification, National or international
upon agreed KPIs, e.g. on-time delivery, cost, quality. standards.
4. Process Control
❑ In Process control, emphasis on controlling ✓ Items to be implemented to maintain

the product and all necessary elements of control of production processes:
the production process are planned and
conducted under control conditions to ▪ Information describing product
ensure customer requirements are met. characteristics.
▪ Work instructions
(i) As part of the order acceptance process,
the availability of specifications that ▪ Use of suitable equipment.
define the characteristics of the product
should be defined. ▪ Monitoring and measuring devices.
(ii) Provide clearly understandable work ▪ Implementation of monitoring and

instructions for subsequent activities measurement processes.
necessary for achieving product
▪ Implementation of release, delivery
conformity.
and post-delivery activities.
6
2/11/2024
5. Calibration
❑ At specified intervals, all the monitoring and measurement equipment

used for product and process verification must be controlled and calibrated
against nationally traceable standards.
✓ The measurement devices should be available to guarantee continuity

of in-process measurement capabilities.
✓ All test equipment must be calibrated either: at regular, planned

intervals, or prior to use.
▪ The basis of calibration must be traceable back to an approved

laboratory and the laboratory's credentials must be checked.
5.2 Design for Manufacturability and Assembly (DFMA)
5.1.1 Design for Manufacture (DFM)
5.1.2 Design for Assembly (DFA)
Figure 5-1. DFM and DFA (DFMA)

7
2/11/2024
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA)
❑ The goal of DFM and DFA is to design a product that is

easily and economically manufactured and assembled.
❑ Design for Manufacturing
(DFM) and Design for ▪ The importance of designing for manufacturing and
Assembly (DFA) is the assembly is underlined by the fact that about 70% of
integration of product design manufacturing costs of a product (namely: cost of
and manufacturing process materials, processing, and assembly) is determined
planning and assembly into by design decisions made at the design phase which
one common activity resulting can not be changed during the
into a design methodology manufacturing/production phase.
referred to as Design for ▪ Production decisions made at the
Manufacturability and manufacturing/production phase (namely:
Assembly (DFMA). manufacturing process planning or machine tool
selection) are responsible for only 20% of the
manufacturing costs of a product.
5.1.1 Design for Manufacture
❑ Design for Manufacture (DFM) is the process of proactively designing products to:
1. Optimize all the manufacturing functions, including: fabrication processes,

assembly, testing, procurement, shipping, delivery, servicing, and repair.
2. Assure the best: cost, quality, reliability, regulatory compliance, safety, time-to-
market, and customer satisfaction.
❑ Concurrent Engineering (CE): is the practice of concurrently developing products

and their manufacturing processes.
If existing manufacturing processes are to be utilized, then the product must be

designed for those manufacturing processes.
If new processes are to be utilized, then the product and the manufacturing
process must be developed concurrently.
8
2/11/2024
Benefits of Design for Manufacture (DFM) (1)
❑ DFM techniques can be used in research and development, involving prototyping and
to commercialize products.
❑ Benefits of incorporation of DFM principles in product design include:
1. Shortens product development time and minimizes development cost

✓ Consideration of manufacturing issues during design shortens product
development time and minimizes development cost thus ensuring a smooth
transition into production and market; i.e. it determines how quickly a new
product can be introduced into the market.
✓ DFM determines how easily the product is manufactured and how easy it will
be to introduce manufacturing improvements like just-in-time and flexible
manufacturing.
✓ The design determines 80% of the cost and has significant influence on
quality, reliability and serviceability.
2. DFM leads to cost reduction and improved quality
✓ With consideration of manufacturing issue in design, products can be quickly

assembled from fewer parts thus products are easier to build and assemble
and with better quality.
▪ This is because component parts are designed for ease of fabrication and
commonality with other designs.
▪ The immense cost saving potential of good product design is even

becoming a viable alternative to automation and off-shore
manufacturing.
▪ True concurrent engineering of versatile product families and flexible

processes determines how well companies will handle product variety
and benefit from Make-to-Order and Mass Customization.
9
2/11/2024
3. DFM encourages standardization of products through maximum use

of standard purchased parts, modular design, and use of standard
design features.
✓ Designers are able to save time and money by not having to "re-invent
the wheel" resulting in a broader product line that is responsive to
customer needs.
✓ With application of DFM, costs and time-to-market are reduced with

significant improvements in quality, reliability, serviceability, product
line breadth, delivery, customer acceptance and, in general,
competitiveness.
Quality Aspects in Product Design
❑ Quality can be incorporated in

a product in the design phase
through optimal part selection
and proper integration of parts
in the designed product with
minimum part interaction
problems.
✓ By considering the
cumulative effect of
individual component/part
quality on product quality,
designers are encouraged
to carefully specify part
Figure 5-2. Quality Aspects in Product Design quality.
10
2/11/2024
Product Development Team Requirements for DFM
❑ In order to design for manufacturability, the product development team needs to:
(a) Have manufacturing expertise, i.e. understand how products are manufactured
✓ This requires the product development team members to have experience in

manufacturing, quality guidelines, training, and/or use multi-functional design
teams with participation of members with expertise in manufacturing.
(b) Be able to design manufacturing processes to be used to build the product

that is being designed.
✓ If products will be built by standard manufacturing processes, design teams

must understand the manufacturing processes and design for those processes.
✓ If new manufacturing processes are to be used, then the design team must
concurrently design the new manufacturing processes as the team designs the
product.
Design Paradigm Shift
❑ Bad Old Days: Before DFM, the ❑ Good New Days: Product Development
motto was "I designed it; you build Teams include Manufacturing Expertise
it!" ✓ Product manufacturability is assured by
✓ Design engineers produces product developing products in multi-functional teams
designs that are thrown to the with early and active participation from
manufacturing engineers. Upon Manufacturing, Marketing (and customers),
receipt of the design, manufacturing Finance, Industrial Designers, Quality,
engineers face the dilemma of either Service, Regulation and Compliance
objecting a design that can not be specialists, Lawyers, etc.
easily manufactured (too late to
change the design!) or they struggle ✓ Design team makes product designs with both
to manufacture the product anyway. functionality and optimization of cost, delivery,
This delayed both the product launch quality, reliability, ease of manufacture and
and the time to full production of the assembly, shipping, human factors, safety,
product which is the only meaningful customization, scalability, and regulatory and
measure of time-to-market. compliance requirements, e.g. environmental.
11
2/11/2024
Importance of Early Product Manufacturing Decisions at

Concept Phase
❑ Incorporation of Product Manufacturing decisions
in the concept phase is important because of the
following reason:
✓ From Figure 5-3, it can be seen that by the time

a product has been designed, only 8% of the
total product budget has been spent but by that
time, the design has determined 80% of the cost
of the product!
✓ Once a high manufacturing cost is locked in the
design, it is difficult for the production phase to
change that cost. Therefore, the design phase
that determines the manufacturability of a
product also determines a significant part of the
product cost, i.e. production cost (80% of product
Figure 5-3. Product cost vs Phase of Product Life cost).
Key Design for Manufacturability (DFM) Guidelines (1)
❑ The Design for Manufacturability (DFM) guidelines/principles or rules are structured to

help the designer reduce the cost and difficulty of manufacturing the designed product.
SN DFM Guidelines
1 Understand manufacturing problems/issues of current/past products
2 Reduce the Total Number of Components/Parts (i.e. Reduce part/component count)
3 Use of Standard Components (Off-the-Shelf Parts)
4 Develop a Modular Design
5 Design Parts for Multi-Use
6 Avoid Separate Fasteners
12
2/11/2024
SN DFM Guidelines
7 Minimize the Number, Size, and Variation Used; Reduce part/component types
8 Eliminate over constraints to minimize tolerance demands
9 Use round/diamond pins for critical alignment of parts
10 Adhere to specific process design guidelines
11 Avoid right/left hand parts
12 Design parts with symmetry
13 If part symmetry is not possible, make parts very asymmetrical
14 Design for fixturing
SN DFM Guidelines
15 Minimize tooling complexity by concurrently designing tooling
16 Specify optimal tolerances for a Robust Design
17 Specify quality parts from reliable sources
18 Minimize Setups
19 Minimize Cutting Tools
20 Understand tolerance step functions and specify tolerances wisely
13
2/11/2024
1. Understand Manufacturing Problems/Issues of Past Products
❑ When previous products are stimulating/inspiring

new designs, it is important to understand all
problems and issues with past products with
respect to manufacturability in order to learn from
the past and not repeat old mistakes.
With respect to learning from the past products, it

is important to understand the following:
1. Issues of introduction into mass production,
2. Quality,
3. Repairability,
4. Serviceability,
Figure 5-4. Understanding manufacturing
problems: Quality, Mass 5. Regulatory test performance, etc.
Production, etc.
2. Reduce the Total Number of Parts (i.e. Part Count Reduction)
❑ Reduction of the number of parts in a product is important in reducing

manufacturing costs. Reducing the number of parts reduces the level of intensity of
all activities related to the product during its entire life.
✓ Less parts implies less purchases, inventory, handling, processing time,

development time, equipment, engineering time, assembly difficulty, service,
inspection, testing, etc.
✓ A part that does not have relative motion with other parts (or a part that would
make the assembly or service of other parts extremely difficult or impossible)
can be eliminated.
✓ Part-count reduction is based on the use of one-piece structures and selection of

manufacturing processes such as injection molding, extrusion, precision
castings, and powder metallurgy, etc.
14
2/11/2024
Minimize Part Count and Part Type
Figure 5-5. Re-design to reduce part count
Part Count Reduction by using Multi-functional Parts
❑ Multi-functional parts reduce the total

number of parts in a design.
✓ E.g. a part can be made to act as both an

electric conductor and as a structural
member, or as a heat dissipating element
and as a structural member.
✓ Also there can be elements that besides

their principal function have guiding,
aligning, or self-fixturing features to
facilitate assembly, and/or reflective
surfaces to facilitate inspection, etc.
Figure 5-6. Design with multi-functional parts
15
2/11/2024
3. Use of Standard Parts/Components
❑ Standard (off-the shelf) parts/components

are less expensive than custom-made items.
✓ The high availability of standard

components reduces product lead times
✓ The reliability factors of standard parts
are well ascertained.
✓ The use of standard components
transfers production pressure to the
supplier, relieving the manufacturer’s
concern of meeting production
schedules.
Figure 5-7. Using
✓ The design team has to make an Standard parts (off
optimal use of off-the-shelf parts. the shelf parts)
Benefits of using Standard (Off-the-Shelf) Parts
❑ Developing the product architecture around the optimal use of off-the-shelf components
provides substantial benefits to the product and the product development process, namely:
1. Off-the-shelf parts are less expensive if we have to consider the cost of design,
documentation, prototyping, testing, overhead cost of purchasing all the constituent parts,
and the cost of non-core-competency manufacturing.
2. Off-the-shelf parts save time if we have to consider the time to design, document,
administer, and build, test, and fix prototype parts.
3. Suppliers of off-the-shelf parts are more efficient at their specialty because they are
more experienced on their products, they continuously improve quality, have proven track
records on reliability, design parts better for DFM, dedicate production facilities, produce
parts at lower cost, offer standardized parts, and sometimes pick up warrantee/service costs.
4. Off-the-shelf part utilization helps internal resources focus on their real missions of
designing and manufacturing products.
16
2/11/2024
4. Develop a Modular Design
❑ Use of modules to create a modular product

simplifies manufacturing activities, e.g.:
purchasing, assembly, inspection, testing, re-
design, maintenance, service, etc.
❑ Benefits of a modular design include:
1. Modules add versatility to product update in
the re-design process,
2. Modules help run tests before the final
assembly is put together, and
3. Modules allow the use of standard
components to minimize product variations.
❑ However, the connection of modules in a product
Figure 5-8. Modular Design of shelves and chairs
can be a limiting factor.
5. Design Parts for Multi-Use
❑ In a manufacturing firm, different products can share parts that have been designed for
multi-use. Multi-use parts can have the same function or different functions when used
in different products.
✓ It is necessary to identify the parts that are suitable for multi-use; e.g. all parts used
in the firm (purchased or made) can be sorted/organized into groups as follows:
– Firstly, a group containing all the parts that are used commonly in all products.
Then part families are created by defining categories of similar parts; the result
is a set of standard part families from which multi-use parts are created.
✓ After organizing all the parts into part families, the manufacturing processes are
standardized for each part family.
– Production of a specific part belonging to a given part family will follow the
manufacturing routing that has been setup for its family, skipping the operations
that are not required.
17
2/11/2024
5. Avoid Separate Fasteners
❑ The use of separate fasteners increases the cost

of manufacturing a part due to the handling and
feeding operations that have to be performed.
✓ Besides the high cost of the equipment

required for fasteners, these operations are
not 100% successful, so they contribute to
reducing the overall manufacturing
efficiency.
✓ Fasteners should be avoided and replaced,

for example, by using tabs or snap fits.
✓ If fasteners have to be used, then some

guides should be followed for selecting Figure 5-9. Cost comparison of Fasteners
fasteners.
6. Minimize the Number, Size, and Variation Used
❑ Avoid screws that are too long, or

too short, separate washers,
tapped holes, and round heads and
flatheads (not good for vacuum
pickup).
✓ Self-tapping and chamfered

screws are preferred because
they improve placement
success.
✓ Screws with vertical side

heads should be selected for
vacuum pickup.
Figure 5-10. Preferred us of Self-Tapping Screws
18
2/11/2024
7. Eliminate Over-constraints to Minimize Tolerance

Demands
❑ An over constraint happens whenever

there are more constraints than the
minimum necessary, for instance:
✓ Guiding a rigid platform on four

rigidly mounted bearings.
✓ Trying to precisely align two parts

with multiple round pins inserted into
round holes Figure 5-11 (a) results in
over constraints.
▪ Elimination of over-constraints in
Figure 5-11(a) is achieved in
Figure 5-11 (b) and (c). Figure 5-11. Different components have different
production costs
8. For Critical Alignment of Parts Use Round/Diamond

Pins
❑ Pairs of inexpensive but tight-
tolerance dowel pins are used to locate
critical parts. And the matching tight-
tolerance hole diameters can be made
with reamers.
✓ To eliminate the tolerance match
problem between holes, one round
pin is used to locate in “x” and “y”
dimensions and a diamond pin to
locate the angle from the round
pin.
✓ The diamond pin is precision
ground to locate in the angle
Figure 5-12. Round Pin and Diamond Pin direction, but is relieved in the
direction of the hole spacing.
19
2/11/2024
Assembling Parts with Pins: Round Pins and Diamond Pins
❑ Assembling parts (connecting parts

together) using Pins.
✓ Parts that are already aligned

can be held together by drilling
and reaming holes through all the
parts and then holding the parts
with all round pins.
✓ Aligned parts are held together

with bolts with ample clearance
holes so the bolts do not try to
align the parts; this technique
was developed to locate tooling
but it can also be useful for
aligning parts for assembly. Figure 5-13. Assembling parts with Round Pin and Diamond Pin
2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 39
2/11/2024
9. Adhere to Specific Manufacturing Process Design

Guidelines
❑ Use specific design guidelines for parts to
be produced by specific manufacturing
processes, such as:
✓ Welding, casting, forging, extruding,
forming, stamping, turning, milling,
grinding, powdered metallurgy
(sintering), plastic molding, etc.
✓ Select the optimum combination
between the material and fabrication
process to minimize the overall
manufacturing cost.
✓ Some reference books give design
guidelines for many specific
manufacturing processes.
Figure 5-14. Forming and Seam Welding Processes
20
2/11/2024
10. Avoid Right/Left Hand Parts
❑ Avoid designing mirror image (i.e. right or left hand) parts;

instead design the product so the same part can function in
either right or left hand modes.
✓ If identical parts cannot perform both functions, add

features to both right and left hand parts to make them the
same; i.e. use "paired" parts instead of right and left hand
parts.
✓ Purchase of paired parts is for twice the quantity but half

the number of types of parts. This has a significant impact
for a high volume of many paired parts.
▪ The top and bottom parts of a brief case or suitcase are

identical parts used in pairs; the top looks like the
bottom.
Figure 5-15. Paired Parts: Tyres
11. Design Parts with Symmetry
❑ Design each part to be symmetrical so that the part

does not have to be oriented for assembly.
✓ In manual assembly, symmetrical parts cannot
be installed backwards, a major potential
quality problem associated with manual
assembly.
✓ In automatic assembly, symmetrical parts do
not require special sensors or mechanisms to
orient them correctly.
✓ The extra cost of making the part symmetrical
(e.g. extra holes or whatever other feature is
necessary) will probably be saved many times
over by not having to develop complex orienting
mechanisms and by avoiding quality problems.
Figure 5-16. Symmetrical Part
21
2/11/2024
12. If Part Symmetry is not Possible, Make Parts Very

Asymmetrical
❑ A symmetrical geometry is the best for assembly

and the worst geometry for assembly is one that is
slightly asymmetrical as it may be installed
wrongly because a worker or robot could not notice
the asymmetry. Or worse, the part may be forced
in a wrong orientation by a worker who thinks the
tolerance is wrong. So if symmetry cannot be
achieved, parts should be made very asymmetrical
so workers will less likely install the part
backward because it will not fit backward. And
automation machinery may be able to orient the
part with less expensive sensors and intelligence.
✓ Very asymmetrical parts may even be able to be
oriented by simple stationary guides over Figure 5-17. Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Parts
conveyor belts.
13. Design for Fixturing
❑ The designer should understand the manufacturing

process well enough to be able to design parts and
dimension them for fixturing.
❑ Parts designed for automation or mechanization need

registration features for fixturing.
❑ Machine tools, assembly stations, automatic transfers

and automatic assembly equipment need to be able to
grip or fixture the part in a known position for
subsequent operations.
✓ This requires registration of locations on which

the part will be gripped or fixtured while the
part is being transferred, machined, processed
Figure 5-18. Fixturing for Welding or assembled.
22
2/11/2024
14. Minimize Tooling Complexity by Concurrently designing

Tooling
❑ Application of concurrent
engineering whereby the parts
are designed and also the tooling
used in the manufacture of the
part are also designed
concurrently.
❑ Concurrent designing enhances

minimization of tooling
complexity, cost, and delivery
lead-time.
❑ Concurrent designing of tooling Figure 5-19. Cutting Tools for Machining

also enables maximization of
throughput, quality and
flexibility.
15. Specify Optimal Tolerances for a Robust Design
❑ Design of Experiments can be

used to determine the effect of
variations in all tolerances on
a part or system quality so
that all part tolerances can be
optimized to provide a robust
design defined by high quality
at low cost.
❑ Tolerances that are specified

in the design must be
achievable with specified
Figure 5-20. Part Tolerances manufacturing processes.
23
2/11/2024
16. Specify Quality Parts from Reliable Sources
❑ The "rule of ten" specifies that it costs 10 times

more to discover and repair a defect at the next
stage of assembly, i.e. it costs 10 times more
cost to find a part defect at a sub-assembly; 10
times more to find a sub-assembly defect at
final assembly; 10 times more in the
distribution channel; and so forth.
❑ Level of completion Cost to find and repair
defect: the part itself X; at sub-assembly 10 X;
at final assembly 100 X; at the
dealer/distributor 1,000 X; at the customer
10,000 Xx.
❑ All parts must have reliable sources that can Figure 5-21. Rule of 10 in Repairing Defects
deliver consistent quality over time in the
volumes required.
17. Minimize Set-ups
❑ For machined parts, ensure accuracy

by designing parts and fixturing so
that all key dimensions are all cut in
the same setup of a workpiece.
❑ Removing the workpiece to re-position

for subsequent cutting operations will
lower the accuracy relative to cuts
made in the original set-up position.
❑ Single setup machining is also less

expensive than a multiple set-up
machining.
Figure 5-22. Workpiece for turning and milling
24
2/11/2024
18. Minimize Cutting Tools
❑ For machined parts, minimize cost by

designing parts to be machined with
the minimum number of cutting tools.
For CNC "hog out" material

removal, specify radii that match
the preferred cutting tools (avoid
arbitrary decisions).
Keep tool variety within the

capability of the tool changer.
Figure 5-23. Turret Tool Changer
19. Understand Tolerance Step Functions and Specify Tolerances Wisely
❑ The type of manufacturing process to be

used depends on the tolerance specified in
the design.
❑ Each process has its practical "limit" to

how close a tolerance could be held for a
given skill level on the production line.
❑ If the tolerance is tighter than the

practical limit of the process, the next
most precise (and often more expensive)
manufacturing process must be used.
Therefore, designers must understand the
tolerance step functions and know the
tolerance limit for each process.
Figure 5-24. Cost as a function of manufacturing process
25
2/11/2024
5.2 Design for Assembly (DFA)
❑ DFA may be defined as "a process for improving product design for easy and low-cost
assembly by concurrently focusing on functionality and assembly.
❑ The aim (objective) of Design for Assembly (DFA) is to simplify the product so that
the cost of assembly is reduced. An assembly task also involves: storing, handling,
positioning, joining, adjusting, securing, and inspection
❑ The secondary benefits of applying DFA usually include: improved quality and
reliability, and a reduction in production equipment and part inventory. These
secondary benefits often outweigh the cost reductions in assembly.
❑ DFA recognizes the need to analyze both the part design and the whole product for
any assembly problems early in the design process.
❑ Assembly methods used include: Manual, Fixed or hard Automation, and Soft
Automation of Robotic Assembly. Assembly methods should be chosen to prevent
bottlenecks in the process and to lower costs.
Comparison of Assembly Methods
Manual Assembly Fixed or Hard Automation Soft Automation or Robotic

Assembly
▪ Parts are transferred to ▪ Sometimes, this kind of assembly ▪ Incorporates the use of robotic
workbenches where workers is called "Detroit-type" Assembly. assembly systems. This can
manually assemble the product. take the form of a single robot,
▪ Characterized by custom-built
or a multi-station robotic
▪ Hand tools are used to aid the machinery that assembles one
assembly cell with all
workers who assemble products. and only one specific product.
activities simultaneously
▪ This is the most flexible and ▪ Assembling machinery requires a controlled and coordinated by
adaptable of assembly methods, large capital investment but as a PLC or computer.
however, there is usually an upper production volume increases, the
▪ This type of assembly method
limit to the production volume fraction of the capital investment
also has large capital costs but
compared to the total
▪ Labour costs (including benefits, its flexibility often helps offset
manufacturing cost decreases.
cases of workers compensation the expense across many
due to injury, overhead for ▪ Indexing tables, parts feeders, different products.
maintaining a clean, healthy and automatic controls are
environment, etc.) are high. typical fixed assembly methods.
26
2/11/2024
Comparison of Assembly Methods
❑ Figure 5-25 is a representation of the ❑ Figure 5-26 shows the production ranges for
each type of assembly method. The non-linear
relative costs of different assembly methods
cost for robotic assembly reflects the non-linear
by type and production volume. costs of robots (even small robots cost a lot).
Figure 5-26. Production ranges for each type

Figure 5-25. Relative costs of different assembly methods of assembly method
Basic DFA Guidelines (1)
❑ Many of the DFA guidelines are similar or the same the guidelines for DFM.
1. Minimise part count and part type by incorporating multiple functions into single parts
2. Modularise multiple parts into single subassemblies
3. Eliminate adjustments
4. Make parts such that it is easy to identify how they should be oriented for insertion
5. Prefer self-locating or self-adjusting parts
6. Use standard parts to reduce part variability
7. Maximize part symmetry
8. If part if non-symmetric, design in geometric or weight polar properties
9. Color code parts that are different but shaped similarly.
27
2/11/2024
Basic DFA Guidelines (2)
11. Prevent nesting of parts; prefer stacked assemblies

12. Provide orienting features on non-symmetries
13. Design the mating features for easy insertion
14. Provide alignment features
15. Minimize assembly directions: Insert new parts into an assembly from above
16. Eliminate re-orientation of both parts and assemblies
17. Eliminate fasteners if possible
18. Place fasteners away from obstructions; design in fastener access
19. Deep channels should be sufficiently wide to provide access to fastening tools
20. Eliminate channels if possible
21. Provide flats for uniform fastening and fastening ease
22. Ensure sufficient space between fasteners and other features for a fastening tool
23. Prefer easily handled parts
Design for Assembly Principles /Target Outcome and Applicable Guidelines (1)
SN DFA Principles/Target Outcome Applicable DFA Guidelines

1 Simplify and reduce the number of parts 1. Reduce part count and part types
2. Eliminate separate fasteners
3. Standardize features and use standard parts
4. Check all parts for function and modify the design to
eliminate redundant parts
2 Design for ease of assembly 1. Ensure adequate access and unrestricted vision
2. Design part assembly downward motion
3. Minimize part variation
4. Design for assembly motions that can be done with one
hand and do not require skill or judgment.
5. Eliminate adjustments (no cable, conduits, etc.)
3 Design parts for easy handling 1. Minimize the need for re-orientations during assembly
2. Design parts for easy handling, e.g. self-aligning, self-
locating
3. Ensure the ease of handling of parts from bulk
4. Maximize part symmetry if possible
28
2/11/2024
Design for Assembly Principles/Target Outcome and Applicable Guidelines (2)
SN DFA Principles/Target Outcome Applicable DFA Guidelines

4 Design parts for easy insertion 1. Use insertion motions that are simple (top-down)
2. Avoid simultaneous operation
3. Design for efficient joining and fastening
4. Make parts obviously asymmetrical if symmetry can not
be attained.
5 Mistake-proof product design and 1. Design arts that can not be assembled incorrectly
assembly 2. Provide obstructions that will not permit incorrect
assembly
3. Shape part unambiguously so that they can not be
assembled incorrectly
Ensure Adequate Access and Unrestricted Vision
Figure 5-27. Improved access for assembly
29
2/11/2024
Maximize Part Symmetry
Figure 5-28. Part Symmetry
Minimize Assembly Directions
❑ All parts should be assembled from one direction.
❑ If possible, the best way to add parts is from

above, in a vertical direction, parallel to the
gravitational direction (downward).
✓ In this way, the effects of gravity help the

assembly process, contrary to having to
compensate for its effect when other
directions are chosen.
Figure 5-29. Assembly Direction

30
2/11/2024
Maximize Compliance
❑ Errors can occur during insertion operations due to

variations in part dimensions or due to accuracy of the
positioning device used; this faulty behavior can cause
damage to the part and/or to the equipment.
✓ It is necessary to include part built-in compliance
features include: tapers or chamfers and moderate
radius sizes to facilitate insertion, and nonfunctional
external elements to help detect hidden features.
✓ Compliance for the assembly process also includes:
selection of a rigid-base part, sensing capabilities
and vision system.
✓ A simple solution is to use high-quality parts with
designed-in-compliance, a rigid-base part, and
selective compliance in the assembly tool.
Figure 5-30. A chamfer as a Built-in Part
compliance
Minimize Handling
❑ Part handling consists of positioning, orienting, and fixing a part or component.
❑ To facilitate orientation, symmetrical parts should be used whenever possible.
✓ If it is not possible to have symmetry, then the asymmetry must be

exaggerated to avoid failures.
❑ Use external guiding features to help the orientation of a part.
✓ The subsequent operations should be designed so that the orientation of the

part is maintained.
✓ Also, magazines, tube feeders, part strips, etc., should be used to keep the
part orientation between operations.
❑ When designing the product, try to minimize the flow of material waste and parts in
the manufacturing operation; and also take packaging into account by selecting
appropriate and safe packaging for the product.
31
2/11/2024
Minimize Handling
Figure 5-31. Part handling consists of positioning, orienting, and fixing a part or component.
Design Self-Locating or Self-Adjusting Parts
Figure 5-32. Self-Locating (or Self-adjusting) Parts
32
2/11/2024
Minimize Part Count and Part Type
Figure 5-33. Re-design to reduce part count
DFA Guidelines Suitable for Manual Assembly
❑ Accuracy in manual assembly depends on the skill of the worker performing the
assembly.
❑ The following DFA guidelines are applicable to manual assembly:
1. Eliminate the need for workers to make decisions or adjustments.
2. Ensure accessibility and visibility.
3. Eliminate the need for assembly tools and gauges (i.e. prefer self-locating parts).
4. Minimize the number of different parts - use "standard" parts.
5. Minimize the number of parts.
6. Avoid or minimize part orientation during assembly (i.e. prefer symmetrical parts).
7. Use easily handled parts that do not tangle or nest within one another.
33
2/11/2024
DFA Guidelines suitable for Hard Automation Assembly (1)
❑ In hard automation, the assembly of products is performed by machines instead of

by humans.
❑ The following DFA guidelines are applicable to hard automation assembly:
1. Reduce the number of different components by considering

▪ does the part move relative to other parts?
▪ must the part be isolated from other parts (electrical, vibration, etc.)?
▪ must the part be separate to allow assembly (cover plates, etc.)?
2. Use self-aligning and self-locating features
3. Avoid screws/bolts
4. Use the largest and most rigid part as the assembly base and fixture. Assembly
should be performed in a layered, bottom-up manner.
DFA Guidelines suitable for Hard Automation (2)
❑ The following DFA guidelines are applicable to hard automation assembly:
5. Use standard components and materials.
6. Avoid tangling or nesting parts.
7. Avoid flexible and fragile parts.
8. Avoid parts that require orientation.
9. Use parts that can be fed automatically.
10. Design parts with a low centre of gravity.
11. Sometimes it is too difficult to make parts symmetrical, often non-functional

features are added to a part to facilitate part feeding, grasping, and
orientation.
34
2/11/2024
Design Guidelines suitable for Soft Automation / Robotic Assembly
❑ Compared to humans, robots are extremely inflexible and stupid.
However, robots can be programmed to do one thing over and over again with
high speed and accuracy compared to humans.
❑ The following DFA guidelines are applicable to soft automation/robotic assembly:
1. Design the part so that it is compatible with the robot's end effector.
2. Design the part so that it can be fed in the proper orientation.
Evaluation Methods for Design for Assembly (DFA)
❑ The improvements and goals of Design for Assembly (DFA) can be quantified.
❑ The two methods used for DFA quantification, include:
1. Boothroyd-Dewhurst Method
▪ The Boothroyd-Dewhurst method is based on two principles, namely:
a) Application of criteria to each part to determine if it should be

separate from all other parts.
b) Estimation of the handling and assembly costs for each part using
the appropriate assembly process.
2. Lucas Method
▪ The Lucas method for DFA quantification (developed in the early 1980's by
the Lucas Corporation in the UK) is based on a point scale which gives a
relative measure of assembly difficulty.
35
2/11/2024
1. Boothroyd-Dewhurst Method for DFA Quantification
❑ The Boothroyd-Dewhurst method relies on an existing design which is iteratively

evaluated and improved.
❑ The Boothroyd-Dewhurst evaluation process follows these steps:
1. Select an assembly method for each part
2. Analyze the parts for the given assembly methods
3. Refine the design in response to shortcomings identified by the analysis
4. Loop to step 2 until the analysis yields a sufficient design
Boothroyd-Dewhurst Analysis
❑ The Boothroyd-Dewhurst analysis is generally performed using some kind of worksheet.
✓ Tables and charts are used to estimate the part handling and part insertion time.
✓ These tables are based on a two-digit code that is in turn based on a part's size,
weight, and geometric characteristics.
✓ Non-assembly operations are also included in the worksheet, e.g. extra time is
allocated for each time the assembly is re-oriented.
✓ Then parts are evaluated as to whether the part is really necessary (in the
assembly) by asking the following three questions:
1. Does the part move relative to another part?
2. Are the material properties of the part necessary?
3. Does the part need to be a separate entity for the sake of assembly?
36
2/11/2024
A Sample of the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Worksheet
❑ The list of all parts is evaluated to obtain the minimum number of theoretically needed parts, denoted N m.
Table 1. A Sample of the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA worksheet

Name of
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9*
assembly
Number of
Manual Manual Estimation for
consecutive Manual
identical handling insertion Theoretical
Manual handling insertion code Operation
operations (No of time/part (i.e. time/part (i.e. Operation Minimum
Part ID#
times the
code (i.e. 2-digit (i.e. 2-digit time
handling code) Manual Manual cost (0.4C7) Number of Parts
operation is insertion C2(C4+C6)
handling time insertion time (Is it an
carried out code)
consecutively) per part) per part) essential part?)
Totals: Tm = Cm = Nm =
▪ *in column “C9", use "1" to represent that a part is essential, and "0" to represent that a part is not essential.
▪ The Boothroyd-Dewhurst method then assumes that the assembly time for a part is 3 seconds; with that
assumption, the design efficiency can be calculated as:
o Design Efficiency = (3 x Nm) / Tm
Example of the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Worksheet
37
2/11/2024
SELF-PROPELLED WHEELCHAIR MODEL 1
Example 1: Determination of Design Efficiency for a Self-Propelled

Wheelchair Model 1 using the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Method
Example 1. Determination of Design Efficiency of a Self-Propelled Wheelchair Model 1 using the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Method
Name of
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9*
assembly
Number of Estimation for Theoretical
Manual handling Manual insertion
consecutive Minimum Number of Parts
Manual handling time per part (i.e. Manual insertion time per part (i.e. Operation time Operation cost
identical operations (Is it an essential part?) Self-Prolled
Part ID# code (i.e. 2-digit Manual handling code (i.e. 2-digit Manual insertion C2(C4+C6) (0.4C7)
(No of times the 1 for an essential part and 0 Wheelchair Model 1
handling code) time per part) insertion code) time per part) (Seconds) (USD)
operation is carried for a part that is not
(Seconds) (Seconds)
out consecutively) essential
202001 6 11 2 21 2 24 9.6 1 Frame
202002 2 12 4 22 2 12 4.8 1 Armrest
202003 6 13 2 23 2 24 9.6 1 Wheels
202004 2 14 2 24 2 8 3.2 1 Leg rest
202005 2 15 2 25 4 12 4.8 1 Actuators
202006 2 16 2 26 2 8 3.2 0 Book holder
202007 1 17 2 27 2 4 1.6 0 Head Support

Total Number of
Total Operation Total Operation
Totals: Theoretically Needed Parts,
Time, Tm = 92 Cost, Cm = 36.8
Nm = 5
▪ Assuming the assembly time for a part is 3 seconds, then Design Efficiency = (3 x Nm) / Tm = (3 x 5) / 92 = 0.16
38
2/11/2024
SELF-PROPELLED WHEELCHAIR MODEL 2
Example 1: Determination of Design Efficiency for a Self-Propelled

Wheelchair Model 2 using the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Method
Example 1. Determination of Design Efficiency of a Self-Propelled Wheelchair Model 2 using the Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Method
Name of
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9*
assembly
Number of Manual handling Manual insertion Estimation for Theoretical
consecutive identical Manual handling time per part (i.e. Manual insertion time per part (i.e. Operation cost Minimum Number of Parts (Is it
Operation time Self-Propelled
Part ID# operations (No of times code (i.e. 2-digit Manual handling code (i.e. 2-digit Manual insertion (0.4C7) an essential part?)
C2(C4+C6) (Seconds) Wheelchair Modell 2
the operation is carried handling code) time per part) insertion code) time per part) (USD) 1 for an essential part and 0 for a
out consecutively) (Seconds) (Seconds) part that is not essential
201901 10 31 3 41 3 60 24 1 Frame
201902 3 32 4 42 4 24 9.6 1 Armrest

201903 4 33 2 43 2 16 6.4 1 Wheels
201904 2 34 2 44 3 10 4.0 1 Leg rest
201905 2 35 2 45 4 12 4.8 1 Actuators
201906 1 36 3 46 2 5 2.0 1 Control Lever
201907 2 37 3 47 3 12 4.8 1 Backrest
201908 1 38 2 48 2 4 1.6 0 Book Holder
201909 1 37 2 47 2 4 1.6 0 Head Support

Total Operation Time, Total Operation Total Number of Theoretically
Totals:
Tm = 147 Cost, Cm = 58.8 Needed Parts, Nm = 7
▪ Assuming the assembly time for a part is 3 seconds, then Design Efficiency = (3 x Nm) / Tm = (3 x 7) / 147 = 0.14
39
2/11/2024
2. Lucas Method for DFA Quantification
❑ Lucas method is based on three separate and sequential analyses

which are part of the assembly sequence flowchart:
1. Specification
2. Design
3. Functional analysis (First Lucas analysis)
4. If the functional analysis yields problems, then loop back to
step 2.
5. Feeding analysis (Second Lucas analysis)
6. Fitting analysis (Third Lucas analysis)
7. Assessment
8. If the feeding and fitting analyses identify problems, return to
step 2 otherwise, accept the design if there are no problems.
9. Accept part design
The Sequential Analyses of the Lucas Method
❑ The three main sequential analyses of the Lucas methods include: Functional,
Feeding and Fitting analyses; manufacturing analysis may also be added as a last
part of the Lucas Method.
1. Functional Analysis: Components of the product are reviewed only for their
function.
2. Feeding Analysis: The Feeding analysis involves an examination of the part

handling and insertion times during assembly.
3. Fitting Analysis: Fitting analysis involves an examination of the ease of part

fitting.
4. Manufacturing analysis: The manufacturing analysis is the last part of the

Lucas method which involves determination of the cost of manufacturing each
component.
40
2/11/2024
1. Functional Analysis
❑ In functional analysis, the ✓ The functional efficiency of the design, Ed , is determined as:
components of the product 𝐴
are reviewed only for their 𝐸𝑑 = × 100%
(𝐴 + 𝐵)
function.
▪ Where: A is the number of essential components
Components are divided into B is the number of non-essential components
two groups:
▪ Note: In the Lucas method, the functional efficiency of the
– Groups A: Parts that design obtained in this step is used to pre-screen a design
are essential to the alternative before more time is spent on developing the design
as opposed to the Boothroyd-Dewhurst method which assumes
product's function.
that the design is already available.
– Group B: Parts that ▪ A functional efficiency of the design of 60% is targeted
are not essential to the for initial designs.
product's function, e.g.
fastening, locating, etc. ✓ Functional analysis is intended to reduce the part count in
the product.
2. Feeding Analysis
❑ Feeding analysis involves an examination of ❑ Feeding Ratio:

the part handling and insertion times during
assembly. ✓ Besides the requirement of individual
feeding index, the combination of all
This is similar to the examination of part the product's parts (components) should
handling and insertion times in the meet a feeding ratio defined as:
Boothroyd-Dewhurst analysis.
(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥)
❑ In the feeding analysis, the problems 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
(𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)
associated with the handling of the part are
scored using an appropriate table; ▪ Total Feeding Index is the sum of the
subsequently an individual feeding index is individual feeding indices of all the parts.
scored for each part.
▪ Number of Essential Components is
– The target feeding index for a part is 1.5. the value A from the functional analysis.
– A part with a feeding index greater than
1.5 is considered for redesign. ✓ An ideal feeding ratio is taken to be 2.5.
41
2/11/2024
Tables for the Lucas DFA Method (1)
Lucas DFA Method: Manual Handling Analysis
Handling Index = A+B+C+D

A. Size & Weight of Part B. Handling Difficulties C. Orientation of Part D. Rotational Orientation of
(One of the following) (All that apply) (One of the following) Part (One of the following)
Very small - requires tools 1.5 Delicate 0.4 Symmetrical, no 0 Rotational Symmetry 0
orientation required
Convenient - hands only 1 Flexible 0.6 End to end, easy to see 0.1 Rotational Orientation, easy 0.2
to see
Large and/or heavy 1.5 Sticky 0.5 End to end, not visible 0.5 Rotational Orientation, hard 0.4
requires more than 1 hand to see
Large and/or heavy 3 Tangible 0.8
requires hoist or 2 people
Severely nest 0.7
Sharp/Abrasive 0.3
Untouchable 0.5
Gripping problem / slippery 0.2
No handling difficulties 0
Tables for the Lucas DFA Method (2)
Lucas DFA Method: Manual Fitting Analysis

Fitting Index = A+B+C+D+E+F
A. Part Placing and B. Process Direction C. Insertion D. Access and/or Vision
Fastening (One of the following) (One of the following) (One of the following)
(One of the following)
Self-holding orientation 1.0 Straight line from above 0 Single 0 Direct 0
Requires holding 2.0 Straight line not from 0.1 Multiple insertions 0.7
above Restricted 1.5
Plus 1 of the following
Self-securing (i.e. 1.3 Not a straight line 1.6 Simultaneous multiple 1.2
snaps) insertions
Screwing 4.0
Riveting 4.0 E. Alignment F. Insertion Force
(One of the following) One of the following
Bending 4.0 No resistance to
Easy to align 0 0
insertion
Resistance to
Difficult to align 0.7 0.6
insertion
42
2/11/2024
3. Fitting Analysis
❑ In fitting analysis, a fitting ❑ Fitting Ratio:

index for each assembly is
calculated in a similar manner ✓ Besides the requirement of individual fitting index,
as the determination of the the combination of all the product's parts
feeding index in the feeding (components) should meet a fitting ratio defined as:
analysis. (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥)
𝐹𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
Note: There is usually (𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)
greater variance in the
fitting indices than in the
feeding indices. ✓ An overall fitting ratio of 2.5 is desired.
A fitting index of 1.5 is a goal
value for each assembly.
4. Manufacturing Analysis
❑ Manufacturing analysis is the last ❑ Part manufacturing cost index, 𝑀𝑖 , is determined as:
part of the Lucas method. 𝑀𝑖 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑀𝐶 …….. (5-1)
❑ Manufacturing analysis involves ▪ Where the relative cost, 𝑅𝐶 is given as:
determination of the cost of 𝑅𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝑚𝑝 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑡 or 𝐶𝑓 ….. (5−2)
manufacturing each component. o 𝐶𝐶 is the complexity factor
▪ The manufacturing cost can o 𝐶𝑚𝑝 is the material factor
influence the choice of material o 𝐶𝑆 is the minimum section
and the production processes by o 𝐶𝑡 is the tolerance factor; or 𝐶𝑓 the finish
which the part is manufactured. factor, whichever is greater.
▪ This manufacturing analysis is ▪ 𝑃𝐶 is the processing cost
not a true costing of the part but ▪ Material cost, 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑉 𝐶𝑚𝑡 𝑊𝐶 ……….(5-3)
it gives a relative measure of the o 𝑉 is the volume (mm3);
manufacturing cost and guides o 𝐶𝑚𝑡 is the material cost;
the designer’s decision making. o 𝑊𝐶 is the waste coefficient.
43
2/11/2024
Part Manufacturing Cost
❑ Design for Assembly (DFA) ❑ The values used in equations 5-

focuses on part reduction which 1, 5-2 and 5-3 are derived from
often results in multi-functional tables given in the following
parts with very high complexity slides.
that increases manufacturing
costs.
✓ The first step is to
determine the envelope
Thus the part manufacturing cost
type and then use that
analysis in the Lucas method
envelop type to look up the
allows designers to evaluate
various values.
the effect of part complexity
versus part reduction.
Envelope Types (1)
Cylindrical Part Envelopes

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
Regular Internal or
Basic rotational features Irregular or
secondary/repetitive Internal external
only complex forms
features features
Projections,
Internal/external Holes, threads,
complex Complex contoured
Rotational symmetry, threads, knurling and counterbores
features, surfaces, or series
grooves, undercuts, steps, simple contours and other
blind flats, of features which
chamfers, tapers and holes through flats, splines, internal
splines, are not represented
along the primary axis or keyways on or around features not on
keyways on in previous
centre lines the primary axis or the primary
secondary categories.
center line axis
axes.
44
2/11/2024
Envelope Types (2)
Prismatic Part Envelopes
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
Regular Orthogonal or Simple curved
Basic features Irregular or
secondary/repetiti Straight line features on a
only contoured forms
ve features based features single plane
Regular
Regular through
orthogonal or
Through steps, features, T-slots Complex 3D
straight line based
chamfers and and racks, plain contoured surfaces,
pockets, Curves in internal
grooves, channels, gear sections, etc., geometries that
projections on one or external
slots and holes, repetitive holes, cannot be assigned
or more axes, surfaces
threads on a threads, to previous
angled holes,
single axis counterbores on a categories
threads, and
single plane
counterbores
Envelope Types (3)
Flat or Thin-walled Section Envelopes

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Uniform Non-uniform
Basic features Cup, cone, and Non-uniform or
section or wall section or wall
only box-type parts contoured parts
thickness thickness
Blanks,
Section changes
washers, simple Plain cogs and Components Complex or irregular
not made up of
bends, forms gears, multiple may involve features or series of
multiple bends or
and through or continuous changes in features which are
forms, steps,
features on or bends and section not represented in
tapers, and blind
parallel to forms thickness previous categories
features
primary axis
45
2/11/2024
Values for Complexity
Complexity Cc
Impact Ext. Sand Cast Die Cast Forge Press Machine Powder Net Plastic Mould
A1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2 1 1.2 1.1 2.1 1.2 2.1 1.1
A3 3 1.3 1.3 2.3 2.9 2.3 1.3
A4 1.8 2 2.6 5.3 2.6 2
A5 3.2 3.8 3 6.1 4 3.8
B1 2 1.1 1 1 1 1 1
B2 3 1.2 2.2 2.2 1.3 1.3 1.3
B3 5 1.4 2.2 2.2 2.6 1.7 1.8
B4 1.8 2.3 2.3 2.6 1.7 1.8
B5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 3.5 3
C1 1.5 2.1 2.1 1 1 1 1 1
C2 3 2.3 2.2 1.2 1.2 1.4 1 1.2
C3 3.5 2.8 2.3 1.6 1.5 3.1 1.4 1.8
C4 3.7 2.5 2.5 2.2 5.4 2.4 2.9
C5 5 3.6 3.4 2.5 6.5 4 3.6
NB: A blank space means it is not feasible
Values for Limiting Section
Limiting Section Cs (millimetres)

Minimum Impact Sand Powder Plastic
Die Cast Forge Press Machine
Section Ext. Cast Net Mould
<= 0.4 1 1 1.6 2
>0.4 - 0.6 1 1.5 1 1.4 1.2
>0.6 - 1.0 1 1 1.5 1 1 1.2 1
>1.0 - 3.0 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
>3.0 - 5.0 1 1 1 1 1.2 1 1 1
>5.0 1 1 1 1 1.7 1 1 1
46
2/11/2024
Values for Basic Processing Cost (1)
Basic Processing Cost/Quantity Pc

Impact Manual Power Plastic
PROCESS Sand Cast Die Cast Forge Press Auto M/C
Ext M/C Met Mould
Per Annum
Quantity
10 20000 513 10000 15000 8000 5000 505 50000 10000
50 4000 113 2000 3000 1600 1000 105 10000 3000
100 2000 63 1000 1500 800 500 55 5000 1000
200 1000 38 500 750 400 250 30 2500 500
400 500 26 250 376 200 126 18 1250 250
600 330 21 168 251 134 85 14 836 167
800 250 19 126 189 100 64 11 628 126
1000 200 18 100 151 80 51 10 500 100
2000 100 16 51 76 40 26 7.7 253 51
4000 50 14.3 26 39 20 14 6.5 128 26
6000 35 13.8 17 26 14 9.6 6 86 17

Ext M/C Met Mould
Per Annum
Quantity
8000 26 13.6 13 20 10 7.5 5.8 66 13
10000 21 13.5 11 16 8 6.2 5.7 53 11
20000 11 13.3 5.8 8.7 4.4 3.7 5.46 28 5.8
30000 7.3 13.2 4.1 6.2 3.1 2.9 5.38 19.7 4.1
40000 5.6 13.1 3.3 5 2.4 2.47 5.34 15.5 3.3
50000 4.6 13.1 2.8 4.2 2 2.22 5.31 13 2.8
60000 3.9 13.1 2.4 3.7 1.8 2.05 5.29 11.4 2.4
70000 3.5 13.1 2.2 3.4 1.6 1.93 5.28 10.2 2.2
80000 3.3 13.1 2 3.1 1.4 1.85 5.27 9.3 2
90000 2.8 13.1 1.9 2.9 1.3 1.78 5.26 8.6 1.9
100000 2.6 13.1 1.78 2.7 1.2 1.72 5.26 8. 1.8
47
2/11/2024

Ext M/C Met Mould
Per Annum
Quantity
200000 1.61 13 1.28 1.97 0.83 1.47 5.24 5.54 1.3
400000 1.11 13 1 1.59 0.63 1.35 5.22 4.29 1
600000 0.94 13 0.95 1.47 0.57 1.3 5.22 3.87 0.95
800000 0.86 13 0.91 1.47 0.53 1.28 5.21 3.67 0.91
1000000 0.81 13 0.88 1.37 0.51 1.27 5.21 3.54 0.88
1500000 0.74 13 0.85 1.32 0.49 1.25 5.21 3.37 0.85
2000000 0.71 13 0.83 1.3 0.47 1.24 5.21 3.29 0.83
2500000 0.69 13 0.82 1.28 0.47 1.24 5.21 3.24 0.82
3000000 0.67 13 0.81 1.27 0.46 1.24 5.21 3.21 0.81
Values for Material Suitability
Material Suitability, Cmp

Plastic
PROCESS Impact Ext Sand Cast Die Cast Forge Press Machine Powder Met
Mould
MATERIAL
Cast Iron 1 1.2 1.6
Low-C Steel 1.3 1.2 1 1.2 1.4 1.2
Alloy Steel 2 1.3 2 1.5 2.5 1.1
Stainless Steel 2 1.5 2 1.5 4 1.1
Copper Alloys 1 1 1 1 1.1 1
Aluminum Alloys 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1
Zinc Alloys 1 1 1.2 1 1 1.1 1
Thermoplastics
1.1 1
(nylons, acrylics, etc)
Thermosets (epoxies,
1.2 1
phenolics, etc.)
Elastomers (rubbers) 1.1 1.5
48
2/11/2024
Values for Waste Coefficient
Waste Coefficient, Wc
Plastic
PROCESS Impact Ext Sand Cast Die Cast Forge Press Machine Powder Met
Mould
A1 1 1.1 1 1.1 1.6 1 1
A2 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 2 1 1.1
A3 1 1.2 1.1 1.2 2.5 1 1.1
A4 1.3 1.2 1.2 3 1 1.2
A5 1.4 1.3 1.3 4 1.2 1.3
B1 1 1.1 1 1.1 1.7 1 1
B2 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.2 1 1.1
B3 1 1.2 1.1 1.2 2.8 1 1.1
B4 1.3 1.2 1.2 4 1 1.1
B5 1.4 1.3 1.3 6 1.2 1.2
C1 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.8 1 1
C2 1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 2.4 1 1.1
C3 1 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.4 4 1 1.1
C4 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.5 6 1 1.1
C5 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.6 8 1.2 1.2
Values for Material Cost Selection
Material Cost Selection Cmt

Material Cmt (cents/mm3)
Cast Iron 0.00105
Low Carbon Steel 0.00068
Alloy Steel 0.00259
Stainless Steel 0.00341
Copper Alloy 0.00564
Aluminum Alloy 0.00243
Zinc Alloy 0.00369
Thermoplastics 0.00107
(Nylons, acrylics, etc.)
Others 0.00035
Thermosets 0.00058
Elastomers 0.00035
49
2/11/2024
Values for Tolerance
Tolerance Ct (Based on number of planes on which critical tolerances occur)

PROCESS Impact Ext Sand Cast Die Cast Powder Met Forge Press Working Plastic Mould Machine
TOLERANCE
1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+
(mm)
<= 0.004 3.7 5.3 6.1 4.6 5.6 6.8 5.1 6.1 7 3.1 4.6 5.4 4.3 5.6 6.6 4.6 5.4 6.5 4.8 6.3 7.1 3.7 5.3
>0.004-0.01 2.8 3.1 4.3 3.5 3.8 4.9 3.5 4.2 5 1.4 1.7 2.1 3.2 3.5 4.6 3.2 3.8 4.5 3.6 3.9 5.2 2.8 3.1 4.3
>0.01-0.03 1.9 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 2.8 3 3.6 1 1.1 1.4 2.6 2.8 3 2.6 2.8 3.2 2.9 3.4 3.4 2.2 2.4 2.6
>0.03-0.05 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.8 1 1 1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.4 2.5 1.9 2.1 2.3 1.2 1.4 1.6
>0.05-0.08 1 1 1 2.2 2.4 2.5 1.5 2 2.4 1 1 1 2.2 2.3 2.4 1 1.4 1.6 1 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.4
>0.08-0.15 1 1 1 2 2.2 2.4 1 1.4 2 1 1 1 1.9 2.2 2.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 1.2
>0.15-0.3 1 1 1 1.9 2 2.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.8 1.9 2.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1

>0.3 1 1 1 1.5 1.7 1.9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.4 1.6 1.8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Values for Surface Finish

Surface Finish Cf (Based on number of planes on which critical surface finishes occur)
PROCESS Impact Ext Sand Cast Die Cast Powder Met Forge Press Working Plastic Mould Machine
SURFACE FINISH
1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+ 1 2 3+
(micrometre)
super
fine <=0.4 4.3 5.1 6.3 4.9 5.6 6.6 4.3 5.1 6.3 4.3 5.1 6.3 4.9 5.65 6.6 4.4 5.3 6.8 1.2 1.2 1.2 4.14 4.84
ground
fine
>0.4-0.6 2 2.5 2.9 3.9 4.2 4.6 1.2 1.5 1.7 2 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.8 1.3 1.5 1.8 1 1 1 1.2 1.5 1.7
ground
medium
>0.6-0.8 1.1 1.2 1.4 3 3.2 3.5 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.5 2.6 2.8 3 1.1 1.2 1.5 1 1 1 1.1 1.3 1.5
ground
coarse
>0.8-1.0 1 1.1 1.2 2.5 2.6 3 1 1.1 1.3 1 1.1 1.3 2.3 2.4 2.6 1 1 1.2 1 1 1 1 1 1.3
ground
semi
>1.0-3.0 1 1 1 2.3 2.4 2.6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.9 2 2.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
fine
medium
>3.0-5.0 1 1 1 2 2.1 2.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.4 1.5 1.7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
fine
semi >5.0-
1 1 1 1.9 2 2.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 1.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
rough 10.0
very
>10.0 1 1 1 1 1.1 1.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
rough
50
2/11/2024
APPLY LUCAS METHOD FOR DFA ON THE SELF-PROPELLED WHEELCHAIR MODEL 1
APPLY LUCAS METHOD FOR DFA ON THE SELF-PROPELLED WHEELCHAIR MODEL 2
51
2/11/2024
Considering DFM and DFA Guidelines, which design option is best among A, B and C?
Figure 5-34. Identify the Best Design Based On DFMA Guidelines
References
1. Geoffrey Boothroyd, Peter Dewhurst, and Winston A. Knight, 2010. Product Design for
Manufacture and Assembly, Third Edition (Manufacturing Engineering and Materials
Processing) 3rd Edition, CRC Press, ISBN-10: 1420089277 , ISBN-13: 978-1420089271.
2. James G. Bralla, 1998. Design for Manufacturability Handbook, McGraw Hill

Professional, 1998, ISBN 0071501789, 9780071501781.
3. Molloy, O., Warman, E.A., Tilley, S., 1998. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly:
Concepts, architectures and implementation, Springer US, ISBN 978-1-4615-5785-2.
4. Vincent Chan and Filippo A. Salustr , 2005. DFA: The Lucas Method, retrieved on 08
March 2019 from http://deed.ryerson.ca/~fil/t/dfmlucas.html.
5. International Standards Organization, ISO 9001:2008 Section 7, https://www.iso-9001-

checklist.co.uk/tutorial/7.2-customer-processes.htm
52

2023-24 MMS 7201 Lecture 5 - Design and Devt (Product Realization and DFMA)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2023-24 MMS 7201 Lecture 5 - Design and Devt (Product Realization and DFMA)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2/11/2024

MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction

Design and Development

Lecture Five Outline

5. Design and Development

5.1 Product Realization

5.2 Design for Manufacturability and Assembly (DFMA)

5.3 Manufacturing Documents

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction

5.1 Product Realization

❑ Quality management can 4. Records needed

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction

ISO 9001 Quality Management System

❑ Product Realization Checklist

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 4 2/11/2024

❑ At each stage, the key customer related questions are:

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 5 2/11/2024

2. Design and Development

Design and (g) Control of design

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 6 2/11/2024

Design and Development Processes (1)

Determine all necessary design and ✓ Determine functional and performance

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 7 2/11/2024

Design and Development Processes (2)

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 8 2/11/2024

Design and Development Processes (3)

✓ Undertake prototype testing.

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 9 2/11/2024

(a) ❑ To be effective, the purchasing

Three Aspects ✓ Implement a combination of

✓ Perform product inspections,

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 10 2/11/2024

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 11 2/11/2024

❑ In Process control, emphasis on controlling ✓ Items to be implemented to maintain

(ii) Provide clearly understandable work ▪ Implementation of monitoring and

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 12 2/11/2024

❑ At specified intervals, all the monitoring and measurement equipment

✓ The measurement devices should be available to guarantee continuity

✓ All test equipment must be calibrated either: at regular, planned

▪ The basis of calibration must be traceable back to an approved

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 13 2/11/2024

5.2 Design for Manufacturability and Assembly (DFMA)

5.1.1 Design for Manufacture (DFM)

5.1.2 Design for Assembly (DFA)

Figure 5-1. DFM and DFA (DFMA)

Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA)

❑ The goal of DFM and DFA is to design a product that is

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 15 2/11/2024

5.1.1 Design for Manufacture

1. Optimize all the manufacturing functions, including: fabrication processes,

❑ Concurrent Engineering (CE): is the practice of concurrently developing products

If existing manufacturing processes are to be utilized, then the product must be

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 16 2/11/2024

Benefits of Design for Manufacture (DFM) (1)

❑ Benefits of incorporation of DFM principles in product design include:

1. Shortens product development time and minimizes development cost

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 17 2/11/2024

Benefits of Design for Manufacture (DFM) (2)

2. DFM leads to cost reduction and improved quality

✓ With consideration of manufacturing issue in design, products can be quickly

▪ The immense cost saving potential of good product design is even

▪ True concurrent engineering of versatile product families and flexible

2023/2024 MMS 7201 Product Design and Introduction 18 2/11/2024

Benefits of Design for Manufacture (DFM) (3)