CONJUNCTIONS and LINKING WORDS

Linking words and phrases connect and relate ideas, sentences, and
paragraphs. They assist in the logical flow of ideas as they signal the
relationship between sentences and paragraphs.

 CAUSE and EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS

We use the following to give reasons for something.

Sentence Prepositional phrase

 Because  Because of
 Since  Owing to
 As  Due to
 Because of the fact that  On account of
 Owing to the fact that  As a consequence of
 Due to the fact that  As a result of
 On account of the fact that

 Sample Sentences
- Because she was ill, she couldn‟t go to work.
- I didn‟t go to work because I was ill.
- Since she wants to lose weight quickly, she is on a strict diet.
- She is on a strict diet since she wants to lose weight quickly.
- As it was very cold in the garden, we decided to eat inside.
- We decided to eat inside as it was very cold in the garden.

- Because of her illness, she couldn‟t go to work.

- She couldn‟t go to work because of her illness.
- Owing to dramatically rising prices, it‟s difficult to make ends meet.
- It‟s difficult to make ends meet owing to dramatically rising prices.
- (Because/ Since/As prices are rising dramatically, it’s difficult to make ends
meet.)
- Due to the limited employment in rural areas, many people are moving to
big cities.
- Many people are moving to big cities due to the limited employment in
rural areas.

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
- (Many people are moving to big cities because the employment is limited
in rural areas.)
- On account of the construction work on the highway, we have been
taking another road to work.
- (Because there has been construction work on the highway, we have
been taking another road to work.)
- As a consequence of/ As a result of heavy rain, we can‟t go out.
- Due to her negligence of the children, they became disobedient.
- Due to the fact that she neglected the children, they became disobedient.
- Owing to her not studying regularly, she failed the exam.
- Owing to the fact that she didn‟t study regularly, she failed the exam.

 We use the following to mention results of something.

 So
 Therefore
 Thus
 Hence
 Consequently
 Accordingly
 As a result

 Sample Sentences:
- I can‟t go out because it is raining heavily.
- It is raining heavily, so I can‟t go out.
- It is raining heavily. Therefore/ Thus/Hence/Consequently/Accordingly/ As
a result, I can‟t go out.
- It is raining heavily; therefore/thus/hence/consequently/accordingly/as a
result, I can’t go out.

 CONTRAST

Sentence Prepositional phrase

 Although  Despite
 Though  In spite of
 Even though
 Despite the fact that
 In spite of the fact that

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
- Although/Though/Even though it was raining, they went on a picnic.
- They went on a picnic although/ though/even though it was raining.
- Despite/ In spite of the rain, they went on a picnic.
- They went on a picnic despite/ in spite of the rain.
- Despite the fact that/ In spite of the fact that it was raining, they went on a
picnic.
- Although/Though/Even though she is old, she still takes long walks every
day.
- Despite her old age, she still takes long walks every day.

 But
 Yet
 However
 Nevertheless
 Nonetheless

- Cars cause pollution, but people keep on using them to travel to work
every day.

 Contrasting two things

While / Whereas
- While I like pop music, my brother likes rock music.
- My brother likes rock music while I like pop music.
- Mark is very confident, whereas Jack is very shy.
- Whereas Mark is very confident, Jack is very shy.
 CONTINUING THE SAME IDEA

Sentence Propositional phrase

 And  In addition to
 Moreover  Besides
 Furthermore  As well as
 In addition  Apart from
 Besides
 Also

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
- I want to rent that house. It‟s very large with four rooms and it has a
wonderful sea view.
- I want to rent that house. It‟s very large with four rooms. Moreover, it has a
wonderful sea view.
- I want to rent that house. It‟s very large with four rooms. It also has a
wonderful sea view.
- There are many historical places in Istanbul. Moreover, it has lots of natural
attractions.
- Istanbul has lots of natural attractions in addition to its historical places.
- In addition to its historical places, Istanbul has lots of natural attractions.

 Be careful about besides and beside. Besides means “in addition” and
beside means “at the side of, next to”.
- She has intelligence and charm besides her beauty.
- She sits beside me.
- She has a house beside the sea.

 TO MENTION “PURPOSE”

Sentence Verb (+phrase)

 so that  to
 in order that  in order to
 so as to

- He is studying hard so that/ in order that he can pass the exam.

- He is studying hard to pass the exam.
- He is studying hard in order to pass the exam.
- He is studying hard so as to pass the exam.

 TO GIVE EXAMPLES

Sentence Propositional phrase

 For example  Such as

 For instance
 To illustrate

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
- Frankfurt, Istanbul, Bombay and Sao Paolo are all the economic centres of
their countries.
- For example, Tokyo was the motor for Japan‟s rapid economic
development in the 1960‟s and 70‟s.
- Cities such as Tokyo, Sao Paolo, Bombay and Shanghai are now
considered „mega-cities‟.

 TO MENTION SIMILARITIES

Prepositional Phrase Sentence

 Similar to  Similarly
 Like  Likewise

- The streets in Istanbul are similar to the ones in Athens.

- The streets in Istanbul are like the ones in Athens.
- London is the cultural capital of Great Britain. Similarly, Istanbul is the
centre of music, culture and art in Turkey.
- London is the cultural capital of Great Britain. Likewise, Istanbul is the
centre of music, culture and art in Turkey.

 TO MENTION DIFFERENCES

Prepositional Phrase Sentence

 Different from  In comparison

 Unlike  On the other hand

- Istanbul is completely different from Berlin.

- Unlike cats, dogs are social or group animals.
- He was a loud friendly man. In comparison, his brother was rather shy.
- In Rugby most injuries are related to the neck; on the other hand, football
injuries are most often related to the feet and legs.

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
 TIME

After, Before ,When, Once, While, As soon as, until

- After they arrived in the hotel, the party started.

- The party started after they arrived in the hotel.
- Before the party started, they arrived in the hotel.
- They arrived in the hotel before the party started.
- When / Once I came home, my mother was cooking.
- My mother was cooking when / once I came home.
- I came home while my mother was cooking.
- While my mother was cooking, I came home.
- As soon as he arrives, we will start the meeting.
- We will start the meeting as soon as he arrives.
- Until the train left, I waved my handkerchief sadly.
- I waved my handkerchief sadly until the train left.

 CONDITION

If, Unless, Otherwise

- If you do not study harder, you will fail in the exam.

- You will fail in the exam if you do not study harder.
- Unless you study harder, you will fail in the exam.
- You will fail in the exam unless you study harder.
- You should study harder. Otherwise, you will fail the exam.

TASKS:

A- Fill in the correct conjunctions and linking words from the list. There may be
more than one possibility.

as well as during because either…or

neither….nor when although unless
which so that then so
despite while / whilst such as however

1. __________________ Dad comes home from work he lies down on the sofa
__________________ he is tired.

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
2. Max had a headache yesterday, __________________ he didn‟t come to
basketball practice.
3. This is Toby‟s new mountain bike, __________________ he got from his
parents. He locks it up every evening, __________________ nobody can take
it.
4. __________________ Samantha was very tired, she watched TV until well
after midnight.
5. First, cut out the pictures, __________________ glue them into your album.
6. I would like to learn Japanese, __________________ , I don‟t know anyone
who can teach me.
7. __________________ we were driving through the countryside we saw many
nice villages.
8. The Heming ways are our neighbours __________________ our friends.
9. You can have __________________ tea __________________ coffee for
breakfast.
10. __________________ being a well-known politician, John Smith can also play
the piano very well.
11. __________________ his injury, the boy desperately wanted to play for his
team in the finals.
12. __________________ the hike up the mountains we saw a lot of deer.
13. __________________ you finish that essay you won‟t get anything to eat.
14. __________________ my mother __________________ my father will be able to
attend the meeting.
15. He likes all kinds of sports, __________________ skiing, hockey and volleyball.

B-
Even though Neither….nor during Although
Which In order to In addition Despite
Therefore While So that Whereas
However Due to As well as Both

1. This is Jack‟s new mountain bike, ______________________ he got from his

parents. He locks it up every evening ______________________ nobody can
steal it
2. ______________________ my father loves jazz, he doesn‟t often listen to it.
3. Honda makes cars ______________________ motorcycles.
4. Our flight attendants must be able to speak ______________________ English
and Spanish.
5. The weather was perfect. It was ______________________ too hot
______________________ too cold.

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou
6. Sally invited me to her party last weekend. ______________________, I had to
tell her I couldn‟t come.
7. I started to learn Italian ______________________ my stay in Rome.
8. ______________________ being the better team, we lost the match.
9. ______________________ we hadn‟t eaten for over 12 hours, we weren‟t
hungry.
10. I arrived late for the show, ______________________ the bad traffic.
11. This cell phone costs 5 cents per minute, ______________________ the other
has a flat rate.
12. He spent most of his time hanging around with friends.
______________________, he was not prepared for the exam.
13. She wakes up early ______________________ be on time for work.
14. This car offers 6 air bags and heating for your seats. ______________________,
there is also a world-class stereo system installed.

‘’ Although, life can be such a bitter pill to swallow, the attitude and determination towards our aim
can always prove otherwise’’
Greg Dexter Nkounkou