Historicizing Life Writing And

Egodocuments In Early Modern Europe

Palgrave Macmillan 2022 Farr James R.
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Historicizing Life-Writing

and Egodocuments
in Early Modern Europe

Edited by

James R. Farr

Guido Ruggiero

Historicizing Life-Writing and Egodocuments

in Early Modern Europe

James R. Farr · Guido Ruggiero

Editors

Historicizing

Life-Writing

and Egodocuments

in Early Modern

Europe

Editors

James R. Farr

Guido Ruggiero

Purdue University

University of Miami

West Lafayette, IN, USA

Coral Gables, FL, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-82482-2

ISBN 978-3-030-82483-9

(eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82483-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

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Contents

Introduction: Historicizing Life-Writing

and Egodocuments in Early Modern Europe

James R. Farr and Guido Ruggiero

Part I

The Self Theorized from a Historical Perspective

Montaigne’s Elusive Self: An Essay

19

John Jeffries Martin

The Life-Enhancing Value of Life-Writing: On

the Uses and Disadvantages of History in Vasari’s

Lives of the Artists

39
Douglas Biow

Benvenuto Cellini Magnanimously Corrects

the Irritating Ignorance of Life Writers in General

and in Regard to My Vita in This Letter from Hell

65

As Written by Benvenuto Cellini to Guido Ruggiero

Part II

Historical Approaches to Egodocuments:

Strengths and Doubts

Conversion and Crossing Frontiers: The Lives

of the Spanish Monks

89

James S. Amelang

vi

CONTENTS

Everard Nithard’s Memorias: The Jesuits Confessor’s

Quest for Re-Fashioning the Self, People, and Events

107

Silvia Z. Mitchell

Egodocuments and The Diary of Constantijn

Huygens Jr.

137

Rudolf Dekker

Writing About the “Other” in One’s Life: Life-Writing

and Egodocuments of King Frederick William I

of Prussia (1713–1740) as Historical Problem

153

Benjamin Marschke

Dimensions of the Self in Autobiographical

Life-Writing: James Boswell’s Journals and William

Hickey’s Memoirs

187

James R. Farr
Part III

Pushing the Limits of Life-Writing with a Wider

Range of Historical Sources

10

Lives in Letters: Italian Renaissance Correspondence

as Life-Writing

209

Deanna Shemek

11

A Dutch Notary and His Clients

243

Mary Lindemann

12

Genres and Modes of Women’s Life-Writing: Anne

Clifford and Anne Marie Louise d’Orléans

269

Mihoko Suzuki

Index

313

Notes on Contributors
James S. Amelang (b. Louisville KY 1952) has recently retired from

his position as Professor of Early Modern History at the Universidad

Autónoma of Madrid, where he began teaching in 1989. He has

published a wide range of works on the urban, social, and cultural

history

of early modern Spain and is perhaps best known for his studies on
the

life writing of artisans in the early modern period, notably The Flight
of Icarus: Artisan Autobiography in Early Modern Europe (Stanford
University Press, 1998). His other books include Honored Citizens of
Barcelona: Patrician Culture and Class Relations, 1490– 1714)
(Princeton University Press, 1986), Parallel Histories: Muslims and
Jews in Inquisitorial Spain (Louisiana University Press, 2013), and
most recently, Writing Cities:

Exploring Early Modern Urban Discourse (Central European

University, 2019).

Douglas Biow is the Superior Oil Company-Linward Shivers Centen-

nial Professor in Medieval and Renaissance Studies and Director of

the Center for European Studies and the France-UT Institute at the

University of Texas at Austin. He is the author of a number of arti-

cles and six books: Mirabile Dictu: Representations of the Marvelous

in Medieval and Renaissance Italy (University of Michigan Press,

1996); Doctors, Ambassadors, Secretaries: Humanism and

Professions in
Renaissance Italy (University of Chicago Press, 2002), the recipient
of a Robert W. Hamilton Book Award; The Culture of Cleanliness in
Renaissance Italy (Cornell University Press, 2006); In Your Face:
Professional vii

viii

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Improprieties and the Art of Being Conspicuous

(Stanford University

Press, 2010); On the Importance of Being an Individual: Men, Their

Professions, and Their Beards (University of Pennsylvania Press,

2015); and his most recent book, Vasari’s Words: The “Lives of the
Artists” as a History of Ideas in the Italian Renaissance (Cambridge
University Press, 2018).

He has been the recipient of a number of scholarly awards,

including NEH, Delmas, and Guggenheim Fellowships.

Rudolf Dekker studied history at the University of Amsterdam and

wrote a dissertation on riots and revolts in the 17th century. He

taught history at the Erasmus University Rotterdam (1981–2010)

and

now directs a research group on autobiographical writing and history

at the Huizinga Institute—Research School for Cultural History. His

books include Family, Culture and Society in the Diary of Constan-

tijn Huygens Jr (Brill, 2013) and translated a selection in The Diary
of Constantijn Huygens Jr, Secretary to Stadholder-King William of
Orange

(Panchaud, 2016). Other books are Humour in Dutch Culture of the

Golden Age (Palgrave, 2001), with Lotte van de Pol The Tradition of
Female Transvestism in Early Modern Europe (Macmillan, 1989), and
with Arianne Baggerman Child of the Enlightenment, Revolutionary
Europe

Reflected in a Boyhood Diary (Brill, 2009). Recently he published

Plagiarism, Fraud and Whitewashing: the Grey Turn in the History of
the

German Occupation of the Netherlands, 1940–1945 (Panchaud,

2020).

At the moment he is preparing a book about autobiographies written

by

criminals in the Netherlands from the 16th to the 21st century.

James R. Farr is the Germaine Seelye Oesterle Professor of History

at Purdue University. He is the author of several books and articles

on French and European history, including Hands of Honor: Artisans

and Their World in Dijon, 1550– 1650 (Cornell University Press,

1988); Authority and Sexuality in Early Modern Burgundy, 1550–
1730 (Oxford University Press, 1995); Artisans in Europe, 1300–
1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2000); A Tale of Two Murders:
Passion and Power in

Seventeenth-Century France (Duke University Press, 2005); The

Work of France: Labor and Culture in Early Modern Times (Rowman
and Little-field, 2008); and Who Was William Hickey? A Crafted Life
in Georgian

England and Imperial India (Routledge, 2020). He served as editor

of French Historical Studies from 1991 to 2000. He has been the
recipient of several awards and fellowships during his career, among
them a John

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

ix

Simon Guggenheim Fellowship, an American Council of Learned

Soci-

eties Fellowship, and a residency fellowship at the Shelby Cullom

Davis

Center at Princeton University.

Mary Lindemann is Past President of both the American Historical

Association and the German Studies Association and Professor of
History at

the University of Miami. She is the author of numerous articles and

books

on early modern European history and the history of medicine. Her

most recent publication is The Merchant Republics: Amsterdam,

Antwerp,

and Hamburg, 1648– 1790 (Cambridge University Press, 2015). She

has received many major scholarly awards including: two NEH
Fellowships (1997–1998; 2017–2018), a John Simon Guggenheim
Fellowship
(1998–1999), a Fellowship-in-Residence at the Netherlands Institute
for

Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences (2002–2003),

a Fellowship-In-Residence at the Flemish Academic Centre for

Science

and the Arts in Brussels (2011), a Senior Research Fellowship of the

State of Lower Saxony (at the Herzog August Bibliothek in

Wolfenbüttel,

Germany 2014–2016), and a Humboldt Research Prize and the

Reimar-

Lüst grant jointly awarded by the Humboldt Foundation and the Fritz

Thyssen Foundation (2017–2018).

Benjamin Marschke (Ph.D. UCLA) is Professor of History at

Humboldt

State University. He has held fellowships from the German Academic

Exchange Program, the Fritz Thyssen Stiftung, the Max Planck

Institut

für Geschichte, and the Interdisciplinary Centre for European Enlight-

enment Studies, among others. He is the author of Absolutely

Pietist:

Patronage, Factionalism, and State-Building in the Early Eighteenth-

Century Prussian Army Chaplaincy (Max Niemyer Verlag, 2005), co-

author of Experiencing the Thirty Years War, with Hans Medick (St.
Martins, 2013), and co-editor of The Holy Roman Empire,
Reconsidered

(Berghan Books, 2010), Kinship, Community, and Self: Essays in

Honor of

David Warren Sabean (Berghan Books, 2015), Hallesches

Waisenhaus und Berliner Hof: Beiträge zum Verhältnis von Pietismus
und Preußen (2017), Pietismus und Ökonomie (2021), and
Enlightenment at Court (coming 2022). His research has focused on
Halle Pietists at the Prussian court and

the relationship of Halle Pietism and the Prussian monarchy in the

eigh-

teenth century. He is currently working on changes in political

ceremony,

gender/sexuality, luxury/money, and intellectual/academic culture in

the

early eighteenth century, focusing on King Frederick William I of

Prussia

(1713–1740).

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

John Jeffries Martin is a Professor of History at Duke University.

He is the author of many articles and essays as well as books on
Venetian

and European history, including Venice’s Hidden Enemies: Italian

Heretics in a Renaissance City (University of California Press, 1993),
winner of the Herbert Baxter Adams Prize of the American Historical
Association, Myths of Renaissance Individualism (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2004), and A Beautiful Ending: The Apocalyptic
Imagination and the Making

of the Modern World, forthcoming from Yale University Press. He is

the recipient of several awards and fellowships, among them from
the John

Simon Guggenheim Foundation and the National Endowment for the

Humanities.

Silvia Z. Mitchell is Associate Professor of History at Purdue

University.

She is the author of Queen, Mother, and Stateswoman: Mariana of

Austria

and the Government of Spain (The Pennsylvania State University

Press, 2019) and guest editor of a Special Journal Issue “The
Spanish Habsburg

Court during the Reign of Carlos II,” published in The Court

Historian:

The International Journal of Court Studies (2018).

Guido Ruggiero is College of Arts and Sciences Cooper Fellow and

Professor of History at the University of Miami. He has published

numerous articles and books on Italian Renaissance history and

culture

including most recently the prize winning The Renaissance in Italy: A

Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento (Cambridge

University Press, 2014) and Love and Sex in the Time of Plague: A
Decameron

Renaissance (Harvard University Press, 2021). An elected member of

the Ateneo Veneto, he has been a fellow, member, and/or visitor at
the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton; Harvard’s Villa I Tatti;
the American

Academy in Rome; and the Center for Medieval and Renaissance

Studies

at UCLA among others and held a number of fellowships including a

Guggenheim in 1993.

Deanna Shemek is Professor of Italian and European Studies at

the

University of California, Irvine. She is Author of Ladies Errant:

Wayward Women and Social Order in Early Modern Italy

(Duke University

Press, 1998) and In Continuous Expectation: Isabella d’Este’s Reign

of

Letters

(CRRS, 2021). Her editorial collaborations include Phaethon’s

Children: The Este Court and its Culture in Early Modern Ferrara

(MRTS, 2005), Writing Relations: American Scholars in Italian

Archives

(Silvana, 2008), and Itinera chartarum: 150 anni dell’Archivio di

Stato di

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
xi

Mantova (2019). She edited and co-translated Adriana Cavarero’s

Stately Bodies: Literature, Philosophy, and the Question of Gender

(University

of Michigan Press, 1995). Her Selected Letters of Isabella d’Este (Iter

Press, 2017) won the Society for the Study of Early Modern Women’s

2018 prize for the best translation of a woman’s work. She co-directs

IDEA: Isabella d’Este Archive, an online project for study of the

Italian Renaissance.

Mihoko Suzuki is Professor of English and Cooper Fellow in the

Humanities, Emerita, at the University of Miami. She has written

exten-

sively on early modern women’s political writings, in Subordinate

Subjects: Gender, the Political Nation, and Literary Form in England,
1588–1688

(Ashgate, 2003) and in Antigone’s Example: Early Modern Women’s

Polit-

ical Writing in Times of Civil War, from Christine de Pizan to Helen

Maria Williams (Palgrave, 2022) as well as in numerous essays,

including, most recently, “Women’s Political Writing: Civil War
Memoirs,” in Routledge History of Women in Early Modern Europe,
ed. Amanda Capern

(Routledge, 2019); and “Political Theory across Borders,” in Oxford

Handbook on Early Modern Women’s Writing in England,

ed. Sarah

C. E. Ross, et al (Oxford, 2021). She is the editor of The History of

British Women’s Writing, vol. 3, 1610–1690 (2011); and the coeditor

of Debating Gender in Early Modern England, 1500–1700 (2002);
The Rule of Women in Early Modern Europe (2009); Women’s
Political Writings, 1610–1725

(4 vols., 2007); and Early Modern Women: An Interdisci-

plinary Journal

(2011–2018). Her current projects include women’s

manuscript writings as political discourse in early modern England

and

women as authors of epic in early modern Europe.

List of Figures

Fig. 6.1

Alonso del Arco, (1635–1704), Cardinal Juan

Everardo Nithard, 1674, oil on canvas. Museo del

Prado, Madrid, Spain. Inventory P003341 (Photo

credit, Museo Nacional del Prado/Art Resource, NY)

119

Fig. 6.2

Juan Carreño de Miranda (1614–1685), Queen

Mariana of Austria as Governor, c. 1675, oil on canvas.

Museo de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San

Fernando. Inventory 640 (Photo credit, Real Academia

de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid/Art

Resource, NY)

120

Fig. 11.1

Flute ship on a rough sea

259

Fig. 12.1

The Great Picture Triptych (1646) attributed to Jan

van Belcamp (1610–1653). Oil on canvas. Center

panel: 254 × 254 cm; side panels: 254 × 119.38 cm.

AH 2310/81 (Reproduced by courtesy of Abbot Hall

Gallery, Lakeland Arts Trust, England)

277

Fig. 12.2

Lady Anne Clifford, countess of Dorset, Pembroke,

and Montgomery. Circle of Paul van Somer

(1577–1621). c.1618. Oil on canvas. 99 × 79 cm

(Reproduced by courtesy of Titan Fine Art, London)

278

Fig. 12.3

John Bracken (fl. 1660–1721), after Sir Peter Lely

(1618–1680). Anne, countess of Pembroke (Lady

Anne Clifford). 1670. Oil on canvas. 74.8 × 62.7 cm.

AH 730/69 (Reproduced by courtesy of Abbot Hall

Gallery, Lakeland Arts Trust, England)

279

xiii

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 12.4

Charles Beaubrun (1604–1692) and Henri Beaubrun

(1603–1677). Anne Marie Louise d’Orléans, “La

Grande Mademoiselle.” c.1650. Oil on canvas. P

2198. CCØ Paris Musées / Musée Carnavalet, Paris

280

Fig. 12.5

School of Pierre Mignard (1612–1695). Anne Marie

Louise d’Orléans, Mademoiselle de Montpensier,

called “La Grande Mademoiselle.” Oil on canvas. 140

cm × 110 cm. MV3476. Châteaux de Versailles et de

Trianon (Photo: Daniel Arnaudet / Gérard Blot. ©

RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY)

280

Fig. 12.6

Pierre Bourguignon (1630–1698). Anne Marie Louise

d’Orléans, duchess of Montpensier, “La Grande

Mademoiselle” as Minerva, Protectrix of the Arts,

posed with a medallion portrait of Gaston de France,

duke of Orléans. c.1672. Oil on canvas. 175 cm × 148

cm. MV 3504. Châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon

(Photo: Gérard Blot / Christian Jean. © RMN-Grand

Palais / Art Resource, NY)

282

Fig. 12.7

a Appleby Castle. b Appleby Castle (detail) “AP 1671”

( Source Author photo)

284
Fig. 12.8

Skypton Castle. “DESORMAIS” ( Source Author

photo)

285

Fig. 12.9

The Countess’ Pillar (detail). The commemorative

inscription can be found below the sundial ( Source

Author photo)

286

Fig. 12.10

Memorial to Samuel Daniel. c. 1654. St. George’s

Church, Beckington (Photo: Michael Peverett)

287

Fig. 12.11

a Château de Saint-Fargeau, cour d’honneur. b

Château de Saint-Fargeau. Montpensier’s coat

of arms with the initials AMLO (Anne Marie

Louise d’Orléans); the crown above was destroyed

during the French Revolution ( Source Author photo)

288
Fig. 12.12

Portrait of the Grande Mademoiselle displaying

the architectural plan of Château de Saint-Fargeau.

Château de Saint-Fargeau (Photo: Michel Guyot)

289

Fig. 12.13a

John Selden, Titles of Honor (1631), title page. STC

22178 copy 3 (Photography by Mihoko Suzuki

from the collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library)

290

Fig. 12.13b

John Selden, Titles of Honor (1631), p. 876. STC

22178 copy 3 (Photography by Mihoko Suzuki

from the collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library)

291

LIST OF FIGURES

xv

Fig. 12.13c

John Selden, Titles of Honor (1631), p. 412. STC

22178 copy 3 (Photography by Mihoko Suzuki

from the collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library)

291

Fig. 12.14

a St. Anne’s Hospital, Appleby. b St. Anne’s

Hospital, Appleby. Plaque in the hospital’s chapel

with a quotation from the Psalms: “Blessed is he

that considereth the Poor and needy … cast me

not away in the time of old age” ( Source Author photo)

297

Map 11.1

Map of Europe, c. 1730 (Created by Isabelle Lewis)

255

Map 11.2

Map of Baltic, Scandinavian, and Russian Trade Routes

(Created by Isabelle Lewis)

256

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Historicizing Life-Writing

and Egodocuments in Early Modern Europe

James R. Farr and Guido Ruggiero

In The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), Jacob

Burckhardt famously proclaimed that the Renaissance individual was
the “first-born

among the sons of modern Europe.” From Burckhardt, the notion of

the autonomous self that exists prior to experience took hold and
has

run deep in the modern notion of identity as it has developed over

the

past 150 years or so. Few scholars today accept the teleological
implica-

tions of Burckhardt’s assertion, but in recent decades significant

critical

approaches to ideas of the individual, the self, and identity have

been

expressed in a wide range of disciplines, including history.

J. R. Farr (B)

Purdue University West Lafayette, West Lafayette, IN, USA

e-mail: jrfarr@purdue.edu

G. Ruggiero

University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA

e-mail: gruggiero@miami.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature

Switzerland AG 2022

J. R. Farr and G. Ruggiero (eds.), Historicizing Life-Writing

and Egodocuments in Early Modern Europe,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82483-9_1

J. R. FARR AND G. RUGGIERO

Scholars in pursuit of the self have found personal narratives, usually

of an autobiographical turn, to be especially useful. This is certainly

true in the field of Life-Writing, which emerged in the 1980s and has
enjoyed

enormous popularity in a wide range of disciplines, including

cognitive,

social, clinical, and counseling psychology, sociology, ethnography,

film

studies, literature, literary criticism, and many more. Life-Writing

focuses on texts that record memories and experiences found in
many genres,

notably autobiography, memoir, diaries, letters, testimonies, and

biog-

raphy.1 Recently, Life-Writing has established itself in institutions like

the Oxford Center for Life-Writing Research at the University of
Oxford
and the International Auto/Biography Association. Curiously,
however,

the discipline of history has been under-represented in Life-Writing

scholarship.

While the field of Life-Writing was expanding, over the same years

many historians turned their attention to the importance of personal

narratives as historical sources, frequently referred to as

“egodocuments.”

Such sources provide an account of privileged information that

brings

insight into the historical meanings of the individual, the self, and
identity.

Initially, according to Jacques Presser who coined the term in the

1950s,

egodocuments were those historical sources in which “the writing

and

describing subject…has a continuous presence in the text” and in

which

“an ego deliberately or accidentally discloses or hides itself.”

However, as the range of egodocuments was broadened to texts
with no clear authorial

personality, those meanings became, and remain, more difficult to

discern.

The overall objective of this volume is to further historicize the

field of Life-Writing by bringing a historical analysis of egodocuments

into it. Both fields—Life-Writing and egodocument history—have

been

following parallel trajectories rather than integrated, and this volume

attempts to highlight their commonalities and advance a scholarly

conver-

sation between them. The individual as a purposive social actor is a

common denominator that both fields share and provides a vehicle

both

theoretical and practical for building a profitable synthesis of two

rather

independent traditions of scholarship.

The scholarly analysis of the self was complicated by an

epistemolog-

ical challenge in the 1960s and 1970s, when Roland Barthes, Michel

Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and others displaced the author of any

text

from his or her central place in the determination of its meaning.2

Still, the value of personal narratives as records of subjective experi-

ence and revealing of individual agency continues to be recognized,

INTRODUCTION: HISTORICIZING LIFE-WRITING …

3

and historians have refined their approaches to these kinds of

sources.

As the renowned historian Lynn Hunt recently cautioned, the histori-

an’s attention to cultural and social contexts should not result in our

losing sight of the importance of the individual actor in history, and

the

popular new field of microhistory confirms this.3 Indeed, the

challenge for historians is to explain the ways in which historical
subjectivities are shaped and transformed by the contexts within
which people make their

lives. Egodocuments, like all historical sources, are embedded in

socially

constructed norms and expectations. They highlight the importance

of

the individual in history and the value of analyzing personal

narratives to

reveal the individual as a purposive social actor without losing sight

of

constitutive cultural and social contexts.

Each of the essays in this volume is based on one or several egodoc-

uments. The analysis of personal narratives like these opens up

avenues

for a deeper understanding of human agency, and when placed in

specific
historical contexts, suggestive of the construction of selfhood and
iden-

tity.4 Usually, but not always, personal narratives are

autobiographical in nature, as is the case with the egodocuments
that Martin, Biow,

Ruggiero, Amelang, Mitchell, Dekker, Marschke, and Farr analyze.

But

letters, which are the source of Shemek’s essay, or the images of

Suzuki’s,

or even the notarial records of Lindemann’s, also can be understood

as

personal narratives. Although personal narratives as egodocuments

are

by definition subjective told from the perspective of a unique

individual,

human agency studied in contexts demonstrates that individual lives

and

the narratives through which their meaning becomes manifest in

texts

and/or images are never simply individual, for lives and the
narratives

about them draw upon rules, models, and expectations available in

partic-

ular times and places that determine a narrative logic and as such
can
become meaningful to author and audience alike. Personal
narratives,

indeed, all egodocuments, are fashioned in and through available

literary

conventions and rhetorical strategies, and always have an eye

toward an

imagined reader or audience. The conditions of production and the

antic-

ipated audience dictate what is included in the narrative, and what is

not. Personal narratives, then, are never simple reflections or reports

of

experience, but are always mediated by the narrator. This points to

the

conclusion that these narratives embody not just a discoverable

past, but

an anticipated future as well.

The noted literary theorist Paul John Eakin and others concur

and perceive a direct connection between personal narratives and

the

J. R. FARR AND G. RUGGIERO

construction of selfhood and identity.5 Eakin suggests, in fact, that

the self is a product of narrative constructions, that identity
formation
is fundamentally, socially, and discursively transacted. This means
that

despite our proclivity to imagine that identity somehow emerges

from

some mysterious interiority or is the consistent product of the

developing

individual over the life course (both of which are fictions of the
histor-

ically specific modern self, as Farr suggests in his essay on Boswell

and

Hickey), selfhood and identity are socially constructed (their source

is

other people) and, as Martin demonstrates in his analysis of

Montaigne,

are temporally discontinuous—we are not now who we were.

Modern studies of identity in the early modern period tend to shy

away

from Burckhardt’s formulation that the Italian Renaissance was a

critical

period when an innate sense of self that had been buried by the
powerful

traditional forces of collective identity fostered by family, religion,

and

culture was finally freed up when those forces were cleared away by
the
literally revolutionary changes of that revolutionary age. These
changes,

for Burckhardt, finally allowed the full expression of an innate sense

of the individual self to emerge resulting in the discovery of the
modern individual. Virtually, every essay in this volume asks the
question of whether

or not there is an ahistorical core sense of self that stands at the

heart of that individual’s deepest virtual ontological reality.

A fundamental challenge of this formulation was advanced in the

late

twentieth century by literary scholar Stephen Greenblatt, first

proposed

in his seminal Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to

Shakespeare.6

Greenblatt, in contrast to Burckhardt, argued that the idea of an

inner

sense of an individual self was a modern artifact, an attractive myth

that

obfuscated the reality that there was no transcendent inner core of

self.

Rather, this modern sense of self was in reality a historical construct

formed by the webs of the culture in which one lives, generated by

the

economic, social, and religious realities that actually mold and limit
how
we think of ourselves, even as we feel that we are freely self-
fashioning

individuals. This understanding of the self in many ways was shaped

in

the context of a twentieth-century vision that saw ideas of the

individual

as essentially modern, and a modern fiction at that, perhaps most

recently

pressed by Michael Foucault and his followers with their emphasis on

the role of the disciplinary discourses of the nineteenth and

twentieth

centuries, disciplinary discourses that drive and form the way people
think

of themselves as individuals.

INTRODUCTION: HISTORICIZING LIFE-WRITING …

Greenblatt, taking his analysis back to the Tudor period in

Renaissance

Self-Fashioning in a typically self-referential confession, admitted:

“When I first conceived this book… [i]t seemed to me that the very
hallmark

of the Renaissance [turned on the fact] that middle-class and

aristocratic
males began to feel that they possessed… shaping power over their
lives,

and I saw this power and the freedom it implied as an important

element

in my own sense of myself.”7 In sum, he began his study with a

vision very close to Burckhardt’s. “But as my work progressed,” he
admitted,

“I perceived that fashioning oneself and being fashioned by cultural

insti-

tutions – family, religion, state – were inseparably intertwined. In all

my

texts and documents, there were, so far as I could tell, no moments

of

pure unfettered subjectivity. Indeed, the human subject itself began

to be

remarkably unfree, the ideological product of the relations of power

in

a particular society.”8 The self that life-writing, egodocuments, or

biography attempt to discover, then, Greenblatt realized, was a
fiction and a

“remarkably unfree” one at that.

Indeed, the contributors to this volume, echoing scholars from a

range

of disciplines within Life-Writing (including neuroscience, psychiatry,

and
psychology), recognize the uncertainty of the nature of the self, and
they

fundamentally question the notion of the autonomous self and the

atten-

dant idea of continuous identity unfolding in a unified developmental

self.

Instead, they suggest that the self is variable and unstable in its
historical meanings, and can only be grasped by exploring selves
situated in historical contexts and revealed through a variety of
historical documents. The

very meaning of the self is irrevocably socially and historically

specific, as Eakin has observed. The self is, in Eakin’s words,
“mediated by available cultural models of identity and the discourses
in which they are

expressed.”9

In the opening essay of the first part of this volume—“The Self

Theo-

rized from a Historical Perspective”—John Martin proposes a

“relational

model” of pre-modern identity that opens up to a degree

Greenblatt’s

self, trapped in the webs of power beyond its control by essentially

shifting the frame of reference. Rather than the inner-outer division
that has

typified modern discussions and left the outer dominant for

Greenblatt,
Martin suggests seeing identity in the Renaissance as not about one
or the

other but rather about how the two actually exist in a relationship
that

turns on the problem of the relation of one’s inner experience to

one’s

living and experiencing in the world.10 Neither then is dominant.

And significantly this relational building of self creates a complex
polyvalent

J. R. FARR AND G. RUGGIERO

self that in its interactions with the world is not trapped in the webs
of

culture and institutions, but rather is in a constant process of

reformu-

lating that relationship, as Martin suggests was the case with

Montagne.

What Martin found missing in both Burckhardt and Greenblatt was

the

multi-layered nature of interiority creating a tendency to overlook

the

significance of things such as “experience, meaning, will and the

body”

in the actual historical process of living and interacting with the

world.
Thus, tellingly for Martin, Montaigne’s very provisional nature of self

and continuous re-evaluation of all things including the self offer a

model

for a more humane, kind, and gentle relationship with society,

others,

and one’s sense of self even in today’s troubled times. His essay
offers a

point of departure for the discussions to follow in this book that

make his

observations even more relevant.

Most of the other essays in the volume develop aspects of this

hypoth-

esis of the unstable, constructed self or aspects of it in ways that

complicate and enrich Greenblatt’s original formulation of self-

fashioning.

Douglas Biow, for example, in the very next essay underlines this
vision

with its analysis of the way Giorgio Vasari in his famous Lives
progressively emerged as a biographical subject between the first
and second

editions of the work as Vasari becomes more comfortable with his

role as

an historian and writer of the lives of artists and his success in doing
so. In this, much as suggested by Martin, Biow demonstrates how
an evolving
sense of a relational self emerges in Vasari’s interaction with his
world,

his writing, and his reflections on himself. Biow tackles the complex
rela-

tionship between history and biography with a close examination of

how

the two inter-relate. Using Nietzsche’s reflections on history as a

point

of reference, he analyzes how Vasari’s Lives live up to Nietzsche’s

more positive vision of history (against his more negative concerns)
as a critical tool for forming new modern übermenschen, much
influenced in this again by Burckhardt’s vision of the Renaissance
individual. Nietzsche’s

critical analysis of history, then, provides the frame for an

examination

of Vasari’s Lives, first as history and then as biography. Thus,

crucially for Biow in that attempt to make the past personal via
biography, we see

the progressive emergence of the author, Vasari himself, as a

biograph-

ical subject between the first and second editions of the work. In
this,

much as suggested in Martin’s essay on Montaigne, an evolving

sense of

self emerges in Vasari’s interaction with his world, his writing, and
his
reflections on himself.

INTRODUCTION: HISTORICIZING LIFE-WRITING …

But perhaps the most radical reformulation of the ideas surrounding

a

constructed self and the issues of agency and individual action and
free

will are to be found in the essay written from Hell by Benvenuto

Cellini

and transcribed by Guido Ruggiero. This essay introduces the idea of

“consensus realities” that Ruggiero in his recent books and articles

has

offered specifically to add some room for agency in Greenblatt’s

vision.11

Indeed, this formulation was stimulated by a conversation that

Green-

blatt had with Ruggiero and his students at the University of Miami
early

in this century where he lamented the lack of agency and freedom in

his vision that he saw as the negative heart of self-fashioning.

Essentially, Ruggiero’s suggestion is that pre-modern identity was
actually largely an
imagined reality, but no less real for that: a series of consensus
realities, then, that individuals negotiated with the various groups
that surrounded

one and judged who one really was in the small intimate world of
the

day. In those negotiations that a Renaissance individual conducted

with

the groups that surrounded him, or significantly her as well, in

society, a

person played a meaningful role in fashioning their “consensus

realities”

and their individual often polyvalent selves, through interaction with

the

different groups of friends, family, peers, fellow workers, neighbors,

and

so forth who populated their world. In these ongoing negotiations,

one

had a certain agency in creating selves, albeit limited by cultural and

institutional constraints and the limits of imagination in a particular
historical moment, and perhaps more significantly by the groups
with whom one

interacted, but with considerable room for play and agency within
those

limits. Significantly, in this more complex vision, there is more space

for
the role that non-elites, women, and less visible institutions and
everyday

culture play in the process of negotiating a self, and a wider social

context that is largely lacking in Greenblatt’s more “top down” vision
of society.

The concept of “consensus realities” often figures explicitly or

implicitly

in subsequent essays in this volume, notably when women and non-

elites

are considered.

Cellini ends his essay/tirade, arguing more radically that modern

biog-

raphers often err in trying to construct a unified vision of the self for
their subjects, because, especially in the early modern period, a
person was, in

fact, a multiplicity of selfs negotiated in different forms with different

groups. In that world of multi-layered negotiated selfs, a unified self

was

simply not possible, in this way adding to Martin’s and Biow’s vision
of

an evolving sense of self, a polyvalent self, that reappears in most of

the

essays of this volume.

J. R. FARR AND G. RUGGIERO

Part Two of this volume—“Historical Approaches to Egodocuments:

Strengths and Doubts”—continues the exploration of the historical

mean-

ings of the self through analysis of biographical and autobiographical

texts with studies by James Amelang, Silvia Mitchell, Rudolf Dekker,
Benjamin

Marschke, and James Farr.

Amelang introduces his essay with a brief analysis of the impact of

the trajectory of the careers of many of the contributors to this

volume

from quantitative social history to cultural history, suggesting the

weight

of the personal biography even on the writing by historians on biog-

raphy. In that vein, he describes his own developing fascination with

autobiographies by non-elite figures which has characterized his own

scholarship.12 In this essay, he discusses two fascinating purported

autobiographies printed in England in the 1620s by the Spanish ex-
friars, Juan

Nicolás y Sacharles and Fernando Tejeda. Both rejected their

Catholic

upbringing to embrace Protestantism and published books to justify

their conversions, The Reformed Spaniard (1621) and Textus

Retextus (1629). Examining these texts, then, as examples of
autobiography deeply
colored by confessional issues, Amelang raises deeper questions
about the

sincerity and truthfulness of autobiography. But moving beyond

those

well-discussed concerns, what chiefly interests Amelang is how life-

writing

was used in these works to support and reflect on the individual and

mobility (both geographical and confessional) and, in turn, once

again

on an evolving self from both perspectives in the early modern

period.

Suggestively, in light of the earlier essays in this volume, Amelang’s

focus on mobility of place and belief offers another example of an
evolving sense

of self that was layered, complex, and not particularly unified (at
least

over time), even in these works that claim a more traditional

Augustinian

autobiographical narrative toward grace and salvation. And, he

concludes

that the focus of biography and autobiography on the individual and

the

particular (much like microhistory) allows a scholar to move beyond

the

necessary suspicion of half-truths and fictions to consider the more

impor-
tant and ultimately perhaps more knowable historical question, why:
why

were these lives told and what did that telling mean for
understanding

their time and their subjects.

Silvia Mitchell considers how the Jesuit Everard Nithard’s Memorias

can be seen as a revealing form of historical egodocument. For

although

it was a hybrid work, in over 8000 pages and twenty-one volumes

that

mixed documents and a historical/biographical personal narrative

that

claimed to be based upon those documents, it served as a self-

justifying

INTRODUCTION: HISTORICIZING LIFE-WRITING …

work that reveals much about his sense of self and his time. In it,
Don

Juan, the illegitimate son of the late Philip IV of Spain, became the

villain who maneuvered to break up Nithard’s close relationship with

Mariana of Austria, widow of Philip IV and queen regent for her

minor
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 — « Quelle perte pour moi — pour nous, se reprit-elle avec une
magnanime générosité, et elle ajouta dans un murmure : « pour le
monde entier »… Aux dernières lueurs du crépuscule je pouvais
distinguer la lumière de ses yeux pleins de larmes, de larmes qui ne
voulaient pas couler.
— « J’ai été très heureuse, très fortunée, très fière, continua-t-
elle. Trop fortunée, trop heureuse pendant quelque temps. Et
maintenant je suis malheureuse pour toujours… »
« Elle se leva. Ses cheveux blonds semblaient recueillir, dans un
scintillement doré, tout ce qui restait de clarté dans l’air. Je me levai
à mon tour.
— « Et de tout cela, fit-elle encore, avec désolation, de tout ce
qu’il promettait, de toute sa grandeur, de cette âme généreuses de
ce cœur si noble, il ne reste plus rien — rien qu’un souvenir… Vous
et moi…
— « Nous nous souviendrons toujours de lui !… » fis-je
hâtivement.
— « Non, s’écria-t-elle. Il est impossible que tout soit perdu,
qu’une vie comme la sienne soit sacrifiée sans rien laisser derrière
elle — sinon de la douleur… Vous savez quels étaient ses vastes
projets. Je les connaissais aussi. Peut-être ne comprenais-je pas.
Mais d’autres étaient au courant. Il doit demeurer quelque chose.
Ses paroles au moins ne sont pas mortes !…
— « Ses paroles resteront, dis-je…
— « Et son exemple, murmura-t-elle, comme pour elle-même. On
avait les yeux fixés sur lui. Sa bonté brillait dans toutes ses actions.
Son exemple…
— « C’est vrai, fis-je. Son exemple demeure aussi. Oui, son
exemple, je l’oubliais…
— « Mais non, je n’oublie pas. Je ne puis, je ne puis croire
encore, je ne puis croire que je ne le reverrai plus, que personne ne
le verra plus jamais… »
 « Comme vers une image qui s’éloigne, elle joignit ses mains
pâles et tendit ses bras qui, à contre-jour de l’étroite et pâlissante
lueur de la fenêtre, apparurent tout noirs. Ne plus jamais le revoir !
— Je le revoyais à ce moment bien assez distinctement !… Toute ma
vie, je reverrai ce loquace fantôme, et je la verrai elle-même, ombre
tragique et familière, pareille dans son attitude, à une autre,
également tragique, et ornée de charmes impuissants, qui étendait
ses bras nus, au-dessus du scintillement du fleuve infernal, du fleuve
de ténèbre. Soudain, elle dit, très bas : « Il est mort comme il a
vécu… »
— « Sa mort, fis-je, cependant qu’une sourde irritation montait en
moi, a été de tous points digne de sa vie.
— « Et je n’étais pas auprès de lui, » murmura-t-elle.
« Mon irritation céda à un sentiment de pitié sans bornes.
— « Tout ce qui pouvait être fait… », bredouillai-je.
— « Ah ! J’avais foi en lui plus que quiconque au monde !… Plus
que sa propre mère… Plus que lui-même. Il avait besoin de moi…
Ah ! J’aurais jalousement recueilli le moindre de ses soupirs, ses
moindres paroles, chacun de ses mouvements, chacun de ses
regards. »
« Je sentis une main glacée sur ma poitrine. « Ne l’ai-je pas
fait ?… » dis-je d’une voix étouffée.
— « Pardonnez-moi !… J’ai si longtemps pleuré en silence, en
silence. Vous êtes demeuré avec lui, jusqu’au bout… Je songe à son
isolement… Personne auprès de lui pour le comprendre, comme je
l’aurais compris… Personne pour entendre…
— « Jusqu’au bout, fis-je d’un ton saccadé… J’ai entendu ses
derniers mots… » Je m’arrêtai, saisi.
— « Répétez-les, murmura-t-elle d’un ton accablé. Je veux, je
veux avoir quelque chose avec quoi je puisse vivre… »
« Je fus sur le point de lui crier : « Mais ne les entendez-vous
pas ? » L’obscurité autour de nous ne cessait de les répéter dans un
chuchotement persistant, dans un chuchotement qui semblait
s’enfler de façon menaçante, comme le premier bruissement du vent
qui se lève : « L’horreur ! L’horreur !… »
— « Son dernier mot : que j’en puisse vivre !… » reprit-elle. « Ne
comprenez-vous donc pas que je l’aimais, je l’aimais, je l’aimais ! »
« Je me ressaisis et parlant lentement :
— « Le dernier mot qu’il ait prononcé : ce fut votre nom… »
« Je perçus un léger soupir et mon cœur ensuite cessa de battre,
comme arrêté net par un cri exultant et terrible, un cri d’inconcevable
triomphe et de douleur inexprimable : « Je le savais, j’en étais
sûre !… » Elle savait. Elle était sûre. Je l’entendis sangloter : elle
avait caché son visage dans ses mains. J’eus l’impression que la
maison allait s’écrouler avant que je n’eusse le temps de m’esquiver,
que le ciel allait choir sur ma tête. Mais rien de pareil. Les cieux ne
tombent pas pour si peu. Seraient-ils tombés, je me le demande, si
j’avais rendu à Kurtz la justice qui lui était due ?… N’avait-il pas dit
qu’il ne demandait que justice ? Mais je ne pouvais pas. Je ne
pouvais lui dire. C’eût été trop affreux, décidément trop affreux… »
Marlow s’arrêta et demeura assis à l’écart, indistinct et silencieux,
dans la pose de Bouddha qui médite. Personne, pendant un
moment, ne fit un mouvement. — « Nous avons manqué le premier
flot de la marée », fit l’administrateur tout à coup. Je relevai la tête.
L’horizon était barré par un banc de nuages noirs et cette eau, qui
comme un chemin tranquille mène aux confins de la terre, coulait
sombre sous un ciel chargé, semblait mener vers le cœur même
d’infinies ténèbres.
ACHEVÉ D’IMPRIMER
LE 30 JUILLET 1925
PAR F. PAILLART A
ABBEVILLE (SOMME).
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JEUNESSE,
SUIVI DU CŒUR DES TÉNÈBRES ***

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