PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. **Definition**: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria
convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose, utilizing carbon dioxide and
water.

2. **Key Players**:
- **Chloroplasts**: Specialized organelles found in plant cells where photosynthesis takes
place.
- **Chlorophyll**: Green pigment in chloroplasts that captures light energy.
- **Carbon dioxide (CO2)**: Absorbed from the atmosphere or dissolved in water, it is a
carbon source for photosynthesis.
- **Water (H2O)**: Taken up by plant roots and split into oxygen and hydrogen during
photosynthesis.
- **Light Energy**: Captured by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy.

3. **Stages of Photosynthesis**:
- **Light-dependent Reactions**: Occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts.
- **Photon Absorption**: Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, exciting electrons.
- **Electron Transport Chain (ETC)**: Electrons are passed along proteins, generating ATP
and NADPH.
- **Water Splitting**: Water molecules are split, releasing oxygen as a byproduct and
providing electrons to replace those lost from chlorophyll.
- **Light-independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)**: Take place in the stroma of the
chloroplasts.
- **Carbon Fixation**: CO2 molecules are incorporated into organic molecules with the help
of the enzyme Rubisco.
- **Reduction**: ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are used to convert the
fixed carbon into carbohydrates like glucose.
- **Regeneration of RuBP**: A series of reactions regenerate ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP),
allowing the cycle to continue.
4. **Factors Affecting Photosynthesis**:
- **Light Intensity**: Higher light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis until a certain
point where saturation occurs.
- **Carbon Dioxide Concentration**: Increased CO2 levels can boost photosynthetic rates,
especially in environments with low CO2 concentrations.
- **Temperature**: Photosynthesis is temperature-dependent, with an optimal range for
enzyme activity.
- **Water Availability**: Water is essential for photosynthesis, and drought can limit the
process.

5. **Importance of Photosynthesis**:
- **Oxygen Production**: Photosynthesis is the primary source of oxygen in the atmosphere.
- **Food Production**: Plants produce glucose, which serves as a source of energy for
themselves and other organisms in the food chain.
- **Carbon Sequestration**: Plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis, playing a crucial role
in mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas levels.

6. **Variations in Photosynthesis**:
- **C3, C4, and CAM Pathways**: Different photosynthetic pathways evolved in response to
environmental conditions, optimizing carbon fixation and water use efficiency in various plant
species.

Understanding photosynthesis is fundamental not only for biology but also for understanding the
interconnectedness of life on Earth and the role of plants in sustaining ecosystems.