Plants and other photosynthetic organisms contain cellular organelles = chloroplasts

- Chloroplasts = has specialized molecular complexes which capture light energy that has
traveled 150M km from sun -> converts it to chemical energy -> stored in sugar and
other organic molecules (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Nourishes almost entire living world directly/indirectly
- 2 MAJOR MODES WHERE ORGANISM ACQUIRES ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IT
USES FOR ENERGY AND CARBON SKELETONS:
a. Autotrophic Nutrition - producers
b. Heterotrophic Nutrition - gets energy from plants, energy

AUTOTROPHS
- “Self-feeders”
- Auto (self); trophos (feeder)
- Sustains self without eating anything derived from other living beings
- Produces organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic raw materials from
environment
- Ultimate source of organic compounds for ALL NON AUTOTROPHIC organisms =
producers
- Almost all plants are autotrophs
- Only nutrients required: water and minerals from soil, carbon dioxide from air
- Plants are PHOTOAUTOTROPHS (organisms that use light as source of energy to
synthesize organic substances)

*Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, certain unicellular eukaryotes, and some prokaryotes
*LAND = plants are predominant producers of food
*AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS = photoautotrophs include unicellular and multicellular algae
(kelp; photo b); some non-algal unicellular eukaryotes (Euglena, photo c); prokaryotes
(cyanobacteria, photo d); other photosynthetic prokaryotes (purple sulfur bacteria, photo e).

HETEROTROPHS
- Obtains organic material by 2nd major mode of nutrition
- Unable to make own food
- Lives on compounds produced by other organisms
- Hetero (other)
- “Biosphere’s consumers”
- “Other-feeding” = animal eats plants or other organisms
- Heterotrophic nutrition may be more subtle
- Some heterotrophs consume remains of other organisms (decomposing and feeding on
organic litter like dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves) = DECOMPOSERS -> most fungi
and many types of prokaryotes get nourishment this way
 - Almost all heterotrophs (including humans) = completely dependent directly/indirectly on
autotrophs for food and oxygen (by-product of photosynthesis)

*FOSSIL FUELS
- formed from remains of organisms that died hundred million years ago
- represents stores of sun’s energy from distant past
- used at a much higher rate than replenished

2 STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Light reactions = captures solar energy and transforms it to chemical energy
2. Calvin cycle = uses chemical energy to make organic molecules of food

CONCEPT 11.2

- Organism’s ability to harness light energy + use it to drive synthesis of organic

compounds = emerged from STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION of cell
- Photosynthetic enzymes are grouped together in a biological membrane -> enables
necessary series of chemical reactions to be carried out efficiently

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Process most likely originated in group of bacteria that had infolded regions of the
plasma membrane containing clusters of such molecules
- In existing photosynthetic bacteria = infolded photosynthetic membranes function
similarly to internal membranes of CHLOROPLAST (eukaryotic organelle)
- ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY = the original chloroplast was a photosynthetic prokaryote
that lived inside an ancestor of eukaryotic cells
- Chloroplasts = present in variety of photosynthesizing organisms

CHLOROPLASTS: SITES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS

- All green parts of plants (including green stems, unripened fruit) contains chloroplasts
- LEAVES = major sites for photosynthesis in most plants (half a million chloroplasts in
chunk of leaf with top surface area of 1 mm^2)
- MESOPHYLL = cells where chloroplasts are mainly found; tissue in exterior of leaf
- STOMATA = where CO2 enters and O exits; (singular = Greek “stoma” -> means mouth)
- H2O absorbed by roots -> delivered to leaves in veins
- Leaves also use veins to export SUGAR to roots and other NONPHOTOSYNTHETIC
parts of plant
- A TYPICAL MESOPHYLL CELL HAS ABOUT 30-40 CHLOROPLASTS (measures
about 2-4 μm by 4-7 μm)
- Chloroplast has 2 membranes surrounding a dense fluid called STROMA
 - Suspended within stroma is a third membrane system made up of sacs = THYLAKOIDS
(lako = naglalako = sako = sacs)(segregates stroma from THYLAKOID SPACE inside
sacs).
- In some places, thylakoid sacs are stacked in columns = GRANA (singular GRANUM)
- CHLOROPHYLL = green pigment that gives leaves their color; resides in THYLAKOID
MEMBRANES of chloroplast (this is what internal photosynthetic membranes of some
prokaryotes are called)
- LIGHT ENERGY ABSORBED BY CHLOROPHYLL = drives synthesis of organic
molecules in chloroplasts

TRACKING ATOMS THROUGH PHOTOSYNTHESIS: SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

- Since the 1800's the photosynthetic equation has been known.
HOW?
- By the presence of light, green parts of plants produce organic compounds and
O from CO2 and H2O.

SUMMARY OF COMPLEX SERIES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS (CHEMICAL

EQUATION):
- In getting the summary of a complex series of chemical reactions we use
molecular formulas.

6CO2 + 12H2O + LIGHT ENERGY -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

- The left side of the equation are the elements that we need in the process of
photosynthesis.
- The right side of the equation is the result of photosynthesis. There is a by-product,
6H2O.
- By-product means waste or excess.
- GLUCOSE (C6H12O6) simplifies relationship between photosynthesis and respiration
- But, the direct product of photosynthesis is actually THREE-CARBON SUGAR that can
be used to make glucose.

Water appears on both sides of the equation because 12 molecules are consumed and 6
molecules are newly formed during photosynthesis. The equation is simplified by
indicating only the net consumption of water:

6CO2 + 6H2O + LIGHT ENERGY -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

- As you’ve noticed, the 12H2O on the right side became 6H2O because as stated
earlier, photosynthesis only requires 6 molecules of water or the H2O.
 TAKE NOTE THAT…
- The Overall process of photosynthesis is the REVERSE of cellular respiration.
- Chloroplasts do not synthesize sugars by simply reversing steps of respiration

In getting the simplest form of photosynthetic equation, divide it by 6 to:

CO2 + H2O -> [CH2O] + O2

- Brackets indicate that CH2O IS NOT AN ACTUAL SUGAR but represents GENERAL
FORMULA FOR A CARBOHYDRATE

More understanding.. Page 116

CH2O
- general formula
- lahat ng sugar may CH2O
- In order to get hexose, specifically glucose, you need to multiply CH2O or the general
formula by 6.

EASIER WAY: ang isang carbon, laging may dalawang Hydrogen at isang Oxygen.

THE SPLITTING OF WATER

- One of the first clues to the mechanism of photosynthesis -> discovery that the O2
(oxygen) released by plants is derived from H2O (water) and not CO2 (carbon
dioxide).
- Chloroplast splits water into hydrogen and oxygen

- BEFORE: The prevailing hypothesis was photosynthesis split CO2 ( CO2 -> C + O2 )
then added water to carbon ( C + H2O -> [CH2O]).
* O2 released during photosynthesis came from CO2
*1930s - THE IDEA WAS CHALLENGED BY C.B. VAN NIEL (Stanford University)

- Van Niel investigated PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN BACTERIA

● Bacteria makes their carbohydrate from CO2 but DO NOT RELEASE O2
● 1ST CONCLUSION: In these bacteria, CO2 is not split into C and O2
● 1 group of bacteria used H2S (Hydrogen sulfide) rather than water for
photosynthesis (formed yellow globules of sulfur as waste)

CO2 + 2H2S -> [CH2O] + H2O + 2S

- Van Niel reasoned that BACTERIA SPLIT H2S AND USED HYDROGEN ATOMS TO
MAKE SUGAR
 - GENERALIZED IDEA: proposed that all photosynthetic organisms require a hydrogen
source but source varies

Sulfur bacteria: CO2 + 2H2S -> [CH2O] + H2O + 2S

Plants: CO2 + 2H2O -> [CH2O] + H2O + O2
General: CO2 + H2X -> [CH2O] + H2O + 2X

- Van Niel hypothesized that PLANTS SPLIT H2O AS SOURCE OF ELECTRONS FROM
H ATOMS, RELEASING O2 AS BY-PRODUCT
- Nearly 20 years later, scientists confirmed Van Niel’s hypothesis by using Oxygen-18
(18O) = heavy isotope used as a tracer to follow path of O atoms during photosynthesis
- Experiments showed that O2 from plants was labeled only with 18O if WATER was the
source of the tracer

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AS A REDOX PROCESS

Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H1206 + 6O2

It is a reduction and oxidation process. (REDOX)

TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PHOTO - Light
SYNTHESIS - To build something

LIGHT REACTION CALVIN CYCLE

- Found inside the thylakoid within - Found in the stroma of chloroplast
chloroplast. - Also known as the dark reaction or the
- Also known as dependent reaction dependent reaction

Why is it called a light and dark reaction?

- Because they can proceed without the existence of light energy.
LIGHT REACTION PROCESS:
1. The light dependent reaction oxidizes H2O (water) and results to O2 (oxygen gas)
- If oxidation happens there is a loss of electrons.
2. NADP+ picks up the electrons and reduced into to NADPH
3. Some energy transfer by light produce is used to make ATP from ATP and phosphate
- ATP is produced by chemiosmosis; in which the power of addition of phosphate
groups to ATP is a process called photophosphorylation.

Products Reactants
Oxygen gas (O2) Water (H2O)
ATP NADP+
NADPH ADP + P

CALVIN CYCLE PROCESS:

Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation
1. The calvin cycle takes in the CO2 and reduces it into sugar (glucose)
- It is a reductive process, so there is oxidation.
2. NADPH oxidize back into NADP+
- NADPH gives up its electrons turn it into NADP+
- CO2 automatically receives the electrons and eventually turns it into glucose.
3. ATP is used to power up the process
- As it converts the ATP to ADP + P, it energizes the calvin cycle by giving the
energy it needs to convert it into glucose.

PRODUCTS REACTANTS
Glucose CO2
ANDP+ ATP
ADP +P NADPH
11.2 THE LIGHT REACTION CONVERT SOLAR ENERGY INTO
CHEMICAL ENERGY OF ATP AND NADPH

H: ATP, adenosine triphosphate is an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all

living things including plants. Adenosine triphosphate captures chemical energy obtained
from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes.
But take note that adenosine triphosphate is not a storage molecule for chemical energy
because it is the job of carbohydrates. ATP serves as a shuttle, why?, because ATP is
delivering energy to places within the cell where energy-consuming activities take place.

CHLOROPLAST : organelle found in plants where photosynthesis takes place.

: chloroplast is present to all the green parts of the plant but the best place to find them is
in the leaf.
(next slide/picture of chloroplast)
The interior structure of a chloroplast is highly organized. Inside a chloroplast there are
packed thylakoid membranes and these thylakoids form a tight region which is called
grana. These thylakoids are closely packed as you can see with their structure dikit dikit
sila. Around the thylakoid and grana it is surrounded with a stroma which is a jelly-like
matrix and stroma, you cannot see it because stroma is a colorless fluid. Lumen is the
compartment where molecular oxygen is produced from water during photosynthesic
light-dependent reactions.
*Grana is plural and granum is singular*
THYLAKOID :
GRANUM :

THE NATURE OF SUNLIGHT

LIGHT : is a form of energy known as electromagnetic spectrum, also called
electromagnetic radiation.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM : electromagnetic spectrum refers to the many
types of radiation that comes from the stars or released by the stars which includes the
sun.
: electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range of radiation.
: electromagnetic energy travels in rhythmic waves.
(next slide)
WAVELENGTH : is the distance between the crests of the electromagnetic waves is
called the wavelength.
: it measures the length of an individual wave in meters.
FREQUENCY : describes how many waves per second a wavelength produces.

Hash ~ to further explain the electromagnetic spectrum let me show you this figure. The
following are the types of radiation that comes from the stars. Radio waves have the
longest wavelength and lowest frequencies in the spectrum. A single wave of a radio
wave has the length of a football field.
*explain*
Microwaves, which produce more energy than radio waves due to shorter wavelengths
and high frequency. So the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelengths. Under
microwaves are cell phones, radar, and microwave ovens.

INFRARED LIGHT : we cannot see infrared light but we can feel it and we feel it as
heat. Living creatures and other heat sources produce infrared light. Are you familiar
with the one na nasa airport, the one that has red, oranges, yellow and green color. The
red color indicates that the surface is hot.*
VISIBLE LIGHT : this is the segment of the ES that the human eye can view. It
occupies a narrow slice of the ES and it is between UV and infrared. Typically, the
human eye can detect wavelengths from 380nm to 750nm.(nm=nanometer) DITO NAG
STOP

All ES is light, but we can only see a small portion of this radiation which is the visible
light, that's why it is called visible light because nakikita natin siya visible siya sa mga
mata natin. Compared to the other radiations, visible light only occupies a small portion
of the ES. In our eyes there are cone-shaped cells that act as receivers. These are
photoreceptor cells that have different responses to light of different wavelengths of the
ES. It is responsible for the color vision of the human eye.
*going to the transverse waves next slide*
Other portions of the spectrum meroong wavelengths na masyadong malaki and
masyadong maliit.
*explain*
The wavelengths are separated to the different colors present as visible light, because
each color is a different wavelength. The colors present in the visible light are colors of
the rainbow, so this is ROYGBIV.
H: going to the colors, red has the lowest frequency and longest wavelength of visible
light at around 750nm. Because the right side of the ES has wavelengths that are long and
the left side where the color violet is located it has the shortest wavelength at around
380nm.
*next slide*

*take note*
The segment most important to life is the narrow band from about 380nm to 750nm in
wavelength. Because this is the only light visible to the human eye.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS: The Light Receptors

*explain*
Photosynthetic pigments: are pigments that have the ability to absorb energy from sunlight and
make it available to the photosynthetic apparatus. *take note na it is the only pigment*
In plants, there are two classes of these photosynthetic pigments, these are chlorophylls and
carotenoids which we will discuss more later on.

When visible light meets matter, the light may be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed.
Pigments are known as substances that absorb visible light. Take note that different
pigments absorb light of different wavelengths. Because visible light is consist of
different colors of rainbow and they are in different wavelengths, the color of the pigment
comes from the visible light that are reflected or those wavelengths that are not absorbed.
If a pigment is illuminated with white light, the color that we will see is the color that is
mostly reflected or transmitted by the pigment.

Why are the leaves of some plants not green ?

We usually see green leaves and it is found everywhere but there are also other colors of
leaves such as red, purple, yellow, or blue. We are able to see different colors of leaves it
is because there are different types of pigments present sa iisang dahon. If there is a high
concentration of Chlorophyll sa dahon then it gives the green color. And for other type ng
pigments they give leaves a different color, that's why others have yellow, purple, blue or
red. But it doesn't mean that leaves of another color do not perform photosynthesis, they
are just different in color because there is a different type of pigment present sa dahon but
they still perform photosynthesis.

*if hindi naman siya yellow or brown or parang lata it means that leaves have an
abundance of other pigments.

But to further explain why leaves are green let’s proceed to the next slide.
 (Figure 11.8). The chlorophyll molecule of the chloroplast absorbs violet-blue and red
light. Those are the colors that are effective in driving photosynthesis. As the chlorophyll
molecule absorbs the light it will reflect or transmit green light. That’s why we see leaves
as green. To make it easier to understand, we see the green color of leaves because the
chlorophyll inside the chloroplast absorbs violet-blue and red light while transmitting and
reflecting green light. And for those wavelengths that are absorbed they disappear.

SPECTROPHOTOMETER:
The ability of pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light can be measured with an
instrument called Spectrophotometer. This is an optical instrument for measuring the
intensity of light relative to wavelength.

Going to the next slide,,, determine absorption spectrum uses the scientific technique
which is spectrophotometry which measures the intensity of light either transmitted
through or reflected from gas, liquid or solid samples. For this one the sample here is
chlorophyll, I will further explain the process that is shown in the image. Using a
refracting prism, white light is separated into colors. One by one, the different colors of
light passed through the sample which is this, the chlorophyll. The light that was
transmitted or the one that passed through the chlorophyll strikes to the photoelectric
tube, this photoelectric tube converts the light energy to electricity. And with the use of
the galvanometer the electric current is measured. *explain more*
The meter indicates the fraction of light transmitted through the sample, from which we
can determine the amount of light that was absorbed. If you have noticed in the image
that yung red pointer ng galvanometer is pointed sa 100, and it states that the high
transmittance reading indicates that chlorophyll absorbs very little green light. Pag high
and transmittance ibig sabihin is mababa yung light absorption. For sample number one
the color is green and for sample number two is blue.
The second sample did the same process in determining the absorption spectrum. The
light is separated into colors by the prism and passes through the sample which is
chlorophyll and the light strikes to the photoelectric tube and then the galvanometer's red
pointer is pointed at 0. Low transmittance reading indicates naan na the chlorophyll
absorbs most of the blue light, meaning na high and absorption. Don’t be confused, high
transmittance meaning low absorption, mattes yung electric current Nina but the light na
naabsorb is low. On the other hand, low transmittance means high absorption.

3 TYPES OF PIGMENTS: (read lang sa slide)

● Chlorophyll a
 ● Chlorophyll b
● Carotenoids

(next slide)
H: The spectrum of chlorophyll a suggests that violet-blue and red light work best for
photosynthesis, since they are absorbed. While green is the least effective color in driving
photosynthesis.(repeat) It is confirmed by an action spectrum for photosynthesis, which
profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving the
process. Action spectrum describes the wavelengths that actually drive photosynthesis. It
is the electromagnetic radiation of light that plants use for photosynthesis.

*proceed with the graph FIGURE 11.10*

Absorption , action, and classic experiment by Theodor W Englemann reveal which
wavelengths of light are photosynthetically important. This figure shows which colors
correspond to the wavelengths of light that are strongly absorbed by each pigment.
(a)ABSORPTION SPECTRA : The following curves present are the ones that show the
wavelength of light that is best absorbed by the three types of chloroplast pigments.
The 3 types of chlorophyll pigments absorb wavelengths in the blue-violet region of the
light spectrum which is between 400 and 500 nanometer. Chlorophyll a and b also absorb
wavelengths in the red region of the light spectrum, yung chlorophyll b is nasa region na
siya ng red-orange. So sa absorption spectra, mas specific yung pag lagay kung which
part of the wavelength is absorbed by the three types of chlorophyll pigment. While sa
action spectrum it lumps all of the photosynthetic activity of all three pigments into one.

According to campbell, action spectrum is prepared by illuminating chloroplasts with

light of different colors and the plotting wavelength against some measure of
photosynthetic rate, such as the carbon dioxide consumption or release ng oxygen. The
action spectrum was first demonstrated by Theodor W. Englemann, a German botanist,
in 1883. Bago pa maimbento yung equipment for measuring oxygen levels si Englemann
ay may expreiment na siya na ginawa and ang ginamit niya is bacteria to measure yung
rates of photosynthesis in filamentous algae. His results are a striking match to the
modern action spectrum which itong figure 11.10(b). (explain)
In conclusion, the action spectra, confirmed by Englemann’s experiment, show which
part or portions of the spectrum are most effective daw in driving photosynthesis.
*next slide*
There is a slight difference between the structure of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b
which is enough to cause the two pigments to absorb at slightly different wavelengths in
the red and blue parts ng spectrum. (see figure 11.10 a)
Because of the slight difference between the chlorophyll a and b, chlorophyll a appears
blue green here (point the graph) and chlorophyll b is olive green under the visible light.
Carotenoids absorb violet and blue-green light that is why it shows the shades of yellow
and orange.
(proceed sa porphyrin ring)
This is the structure of chlorophyll molecules in chloroplasts of plants. The chlorophyll
molecule consists of a central magnesium atom that is surrounded by a
nitrogen-containing structure called porphyrin ring. Attached to the ring is a long
carbon-hydrogen side chain.
These are the 2 main types of chlorophyll, named a and b. They differ only slightly in the
composition of a sidechain.
In the light-absorbing head of a molecule, methyl group is present in chlorophyll a and
aldehyde is present in chlorophyll b. Chlorophyll b differs from chlorophyll a by the
presence of aldehyde residue instead of methyl. Both of these chlorophyll are very
effective photoreceptors because they contain a network of alternating single and double
bonds.

(next slide)
*read first sentence only*
An important function of carotenoids is photoprotection.
PHOTOPROTECTION: Ang photoprotection is a biochemical process na tumutulong
sa mga living organisms to cope with molecular damage na nacacause ng sunlight. Ang
excessive light kasi can damage the chlorophyll and the cell, so in order not to damage it,
ang function in photoprotection is to absorb the excess light.
*example sa tao need ng sunscreen*
EXCITATION OF CHLOROPHYLL AND LIGHT

What happens when chlorophyll and other pigments absorb light?

- The colors corresponding to absorbed wavelengths disappear from spectrum of
transmitted and reflected light, but ENERGY CANNOT DISAPPEAR
- When a molecule absorbs photon of light, one of molecule’s electrons is elevated
to an orbital where it has more potential energy.
- Electron (in normal orbital) = pigment molecule is in GROUND STATE
- Absorption of photon -> electron (boosted to orbital of higher energy) = pigment
molecule is in EXCITED STATE
- THE ONLY PHOTONS ABSORBED are those whose ENERGY IS EXACTLY
EQUAL to the ENERGY DIFFERENCE between GROUND STATE AND
EXCITED STATE
- This energy difference VARIES from one kind of molecule to another =
PARTICULAR COMPOUND ABSORBS ONLY PHOTONS
CORRESPONDING TO SPECIFIC WAVELENGTHS -> Each pigment has
UNIQUE ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
- Once absorption of photon raises electron to excited state, THE ELECTRON
CANNOT STAY THERE LONG
- Excited state (high-energy state) = UNSTABLE
- Generally, when isolated pigment molecules absorb light, their excited electrons
drop back down to ground state orbital in a billionth of a second = RELEASES
EXCESS ENERGY AS HEAT
- The conversion of light energy to heat is what causes the top of car to be hot on a
sunny day (white cars are coolest = reflects all wavelengths of visible light ->
black absorbs and white reflects)
- In isolation, some pigments including chlorophyll emit light and heat after
absorbing photons
- As excited electrons fall back to ground state, PHOTONS ARE GIVEN OFF ->
afterglow (FLUORESCENCE)
- This is best seen by illuminating with ultraviolet light (chlorophyll absorbs) as if
viewed under visible light, fluorescence would be hard to see against the green
color of solution (reflected because absorbed least).
PHOTOSYSTEM: REACTION-CENTER COMPLEX ASSOCIATED WITH
LIGHT-HARVESTING COMPLEXES

- Chlorophyll molecules excited by absorption of light (photons) produce very

different results in an intact chloroplast than they do in isolation.
*Isolation - no electron acceptor (dissipates light and heat)
*Intact chloroplast - present electron acceptor (absorbs)

- PHOTOSYSTEM = complexes of organized chlorophyll molecules with other

small organic molecules and protein in thylakoid membrane
- It is composed of a REACTION-CENTER COMPLEX surrounded by several
LIGHT-HARVESTING COMPLEXES.
- REACTION-CENTER COMPLEX = organized association of PROTEINS
holding a special pair of CHLOROPHYLL α MOLECULES and a PRIMARY
ELECTRON ACCEPTOR.
- LIGHT-HARVESTING COMPLEX = consists of various pigment molecules
(chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, multiple carotenoids) BOUND TO PROTEINS.
- The number and variety of of pigment molecules ENABLES PHOTOSYSTEM
TO HARVEST LIGHT OVER A LARGER SURFACE AREA AND LARGER
PORTION OF SPECTRUM versus any pigment molecule alone
- Together, these light-harvesting complexes act as an ANTENNA for the
reaction-center complex -> when pigment molecule absorbs a photon, energy is
transferred from pigment molecule to pigment molecule within a light harvesting
complex (like “human wave” in sports arena) until it is passed to the pair of
chlorophyll a molecules in reaction-center complex.
- The pair of chlorophyll a molecules are special (location, other associated
molecules) enables them to USE ENERGY FROM LIGHT:
a. To boost one of their electrons to a higher energy level
b. Transfers electron to a different molecule (PRIMARY ELECTRON
ACCEPTOR) -> molecule capable of accepting electrons and reducing it.

- FIRST STEP OF LIGHT REACTIONS: solar-powered transfer of electron from

reaction-center chlorophyll a pair to primary electron acceptor
- As soon as the chlorophyll electron is excited to a higher energy level -> primary
electron acceptor captures it = REDOX REACTION (reduction and oxidation)
 - Each photosystem functions in chloroplast as a unit -> converts light energy to
chemical energy which will ultimately be used for synthesis of sugar
- The THYLAKOID MEMBRANE is populated by 2 TYPES OF
PHOTOSYSTEMS that cooperate in light reactions:
1. Photosystem II (PS II)
2. Photosystem I (PS I)
*They were named in order of discovery but PS II FUNCTIONS FIRST IN
LIGHT REACTIONS

- Each has a characteristic reaction-center complex (a particular kind of primary

electron acceptor next to a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules associated with
specific proteins).

REACTION-CENTER CHLOROPHYLL a OF PS II:

- aka “P680”
- The pigment works best at absorbing light having a wavelength of 680 nm (red
part of spectrum)

REACTION-CENTER CHLOROPHYLL a OF PS I:
- aka “P700”
- Most effectively absorbs light of wavelength 700 nm (far-red part of spectrum)

*The two pigments are nearly identical but their ASSOCIATION WITH DIFFERENT
PROTEINS in the thylakoid membrane affects the ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION in the
2 pigments and accounts for SLIGHT DIFFERENCES IN THEIR LIGHT-ABSORBING
PROPERTIES.

electrons move to an electron acceptor molecule located in electron transport chain

to replace electrons leaving PSII, H2O is split which releases O2, 2 H+ ions, and 2 electrons.

excited electrons move down electron transport chain where they release energy as they move and
create ATP.

electrons released by the PSI and hydrogen ions are used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH.

Plants need both light and water to survive, without this, light reactions would shut down.