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Quality assessment of surface and sediment pore waters and their behaviours
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reservoir, Morocco

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DOI: 10.1080/10106049.2022.2142970

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Quality assessment of surface and sediment pore

waters and their behaviours using WQI index and
geostatistics approaches. Case study: El Malleh
dam reservoir, Morocco

Nouhaila Mazigh, Abdeslam Taleb, Nihal Baji, Badr El Fathi, Mohammed

Moukhliss & Ali El Bilali

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Moukhliss & Ali El Bilali (2022): Quality assessment of surface and sediment pore waters and their
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GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL
https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2022.2142970

Quality assessment of surface and sediment pore waters

and their behaviours using WQI index and geostatistics
approaches. Case study: El Malleh dam reservoir, Morocco
Nouhaila Mazigh , Abdeslam Taleb , Nihal Baji, Badr El Fathi ,
Mohammed Moukhliss and Ali El Bilali
Department of Process and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Hassan 2
University of Casablanca, Mohammedia, Morocco

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The El Malleh dam reservoir is an important water source for irri- Received 11 April 2022
gation and protection against flooding in the Mohammedia Accepted 28 October 2022
region of the kingdom of Morocco. However, flash floods threaten
KEYWORDS
the sustainability of the reservoir by sedimentation and water
Geostatistics; irrigation;
quality contamination. Pollution sources could arise from sedi- spatial distribution; water
ment mobilization in the reservoir bottom, or carry by water flow quality; Water Quality Index
from the watershed to the dam reservoir. The current study evalu-
ates the surface and pore water quality, focuses on their behav-
iour based on the laboratory results, the Water Quality Index
(WQI) and statistical analysis. The results show that the concentra-
tion of nutrients was not significant. The concentrations of major
elements differ from surface waters to pore waters and from one
parameter to another. For instance, the Cl concentration in the
surface water ranged from 852 mg L
1 to 1065 mg L
1, and from
10 mg L
1 to 7810 mg L
1 for pore water. Besides that, the calcu-
lation of WQI indicated that the sediment pore water quality was
unsuitable, and the surface waters quality was in a poor and very
poor category.

1. Introduction
In Morocco, surface water resources are limited due to low rainfall, prolonged periods of
drought (El Hajjami et al. 2021) and are exposed to soil erosion and siltation (Mazigh
et al. 2022). Also, they are witnessing an intensification of industrial and agricultural
activities as well as a rapid increase in the population. These activities have been intro-
duced in the hydro-systems (rivers, lakes, estuaries, lagoons, oceans … ) and lead to the
discharge of the water column with various pollutants. Once, water flow carries contami-
nants into the river, they deposit onto sediment surfaces, and migrate towards the pore
and surface waters depending on environmental conditions (Cengiz et al. 2017; Lee and
Oh 2018; Tang et al. 2020; El Hajjami et al. 2021; Gabr 2021; Gabr 2022 ). The released
nutrients and heavy metals could arise from internal loading sources (Siriwardana et al.
2019; Tang et al. 2020) besides the concentration of external pollution (Lee and Oh 2018).

CONTACT Nouhaila Mazigh nouhailamazigh@gmail.com

ß 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

The contaminants accumulate in surface waters and the reservoir bottom, change the
quality of water and harmful to environment and human health (Gabr and El-Zahar
2018; Che et al. 2020; Gabr 2021). Moreover, the contamination of surface water by toxic
elements such as Fe, Zn, Pb presents a risk to human health (Rezaei et al. 2019). Indeed,
(Agbasi and Egbueri 2022; Ayejoto et al. 2022; Egbueri et al. 2022) have proven that the
consumption of contaminated water can present carcinogenic health risks. Furthermore,
the direct contamination of plants and animals can affect the human health (Rizzo et al.
2021). Understanding the origins and behaviours of these contaminants is fundamental to
water quality assessment (Herrero et al. 2018; Gabr 2020; M.E.S. Gabr 2020; Elsayed Gabr
et al. 2021 ). The water quality degradation is not linked only to water erosion, sediment
transport, and lands leaching. It could also be associated with sediment mobilization in
the reservoir bottom (Nasrabadi et al. 2018). Therefore, understanding the geochemical
composition of the sediment-water interface is crucial in evaluating the source of pollu-
tants and their behaviours. In El Malleh dam, the vulnerability of water quality degrad-
ation is due to strong agricultural activity, livestock farming, and abandoned mine. Also,
the dam reservoir is located in a semi-arid region with irregular rainfall. The study area
belongs to the catchment characterized by soil degradation with an average erosion rate
of 0.65 t. ha
1.year
1 (Mazigh et al. 2022). However, no published studies (at least to the
author’s knowledge) investigate surface water and pore water contamination of the El
Malleh dam reservoir, neather there behaviour. In this context this study was conducted
on the assessment of surface and sediment pore waters and their comportment.
Several studies in Morocco focus on surface water quality monitoring. Anthropogenic
contamination is identified as the main source of pollution in many rivers and dam reser-
voirs (Barakat et al. 2016; Talhaoui et al. 2020; Chadli and Boufala 2021; El Ghizi et al.
2021; El Hmaidi et al. 2021; Jounaid et al. 2021; Kanga Id
e et al. 2021; Khadija et al.
2021). While surface waters can be also contaminated by natural sources such as atmos-
pheric transport, water erosion (Biswas et al. 2017; Khadija et al. 2021), and sediment
release (Herrero et al. 2018). Therefore, evaluating the quality of river waters should be
done to the surface water river and the sediment river bottom. These methods provide an
overview of contamination processes (Sim et al. 2014; Nadem et al. 2015; Lee and Oh
2018; Li et al. 2019; Shen et al. 2020; El Hajjami et al. 2021; Kong et al. 2021; Poletaeva
et al. 2021). Moreover, assessing surface and sediment pore waters help to identify the
quality status of surface water. To that end, Several methods have been used including
physicochemical, geochemestry, geostatistical analysis, and water quality index to assess
water quality. Pollution parameters were analysed in the laboratory and the dataset results
were then added to Arcgis. Geostatistical approach was applied to highlight the spatial
distribution map of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals. The GIS Kriging
method represents the spatial distribution of the laboratory results of collected samples
and provides a clear visualization of surface and sediment pore waters quality in the El
Malleh dam reservoir (Batarseh et al. 2021). Several water quality indices have been pro-
posed for estimation of water quality for both drinking and irrigation purposes (Biswas
et al. 2017; Soleimani et al. 2018; Adimalla and Qian 2019; Egbueri 2020; Talhaoui et al.
2020; Batarseh et al. 2021; Chadli and Boufala 2021; Elsayed Gabr et al. 2021; Najafzadeh
et al. 2021; Agbasi and Egbueri 2022; 2022; Ayejoto et al. 2022). The most common
model used is Water Quality Index (WQI) through its linkage with a large number of
water quality parameters, including biological, physical, and chemical variables. The WQI
defines the water quality for different purposes and detects pollution levels. the Water
Quality Index (WQI) was used. This kind of mathematical based model permits the iden-
tification of the water quality classes for each station into 5 classes, namely Excellent,
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 3

Figure 1. Location map of the study area and sampling sites.

Acceptable, Poor, Very Poor and Unsuitable (Kadyampakeni et al. 2018; Gupta and
Gupta 2021; Uddin et al. 2021). Pollution parameters can be coupled with statistical
approachs to determine the relationships between all measured parameters by decreasing
the number of data input. Multivariate statistical methods, such as correlation matrix and
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were applied to define the links between variables
and their sampling sites and to interpret a complex datasets (Rezaei et al. 2019; Ustaoglu
et al. 2020).
Objectives are general and must be audited and be more specific, for example; assess
the impact of sediments on water quality. What sediments you mean (riverbed sediments,
flood sediments or subsurface sediments) and which water you mean (Surface water,
Groundwater or pore sediments water).
In this study, we are focused to assess the impact of surface sediments on surface water
quality and to comprehend the interaction between surface sediment and water. Thus, the
specific objectives of this research are: (1) to carry out the physicochemeical and heavy
metal analysis and evaluate surface water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes (2)
to estimate the water quality index for surface and sediment pore water, and (3) to deter-
mine the sources and origins of contaminants, and to detect the behaviours of pollutants
and their effects on surface water quality based on the statistical analysis.

1.1. Study area

The El Malleh dam reservoir is located in the Casablanca Settat region with an area of
300 ha. Its watershed takes sources north of Khouribga at an elevation of 760 m and emp-
ties into the Atlantic Ocean in the city of Mohammedia, the altitude is ranging from 0 to
962 m (Figure 1), between latitudes 33.00 and 33.71 north, longitude 6.45 and 6.55 west
4 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

(Mazigh et al. 2022). It’s bounded on the northeast by the Oued Nfifikh watershed and by
the oceanic basins of Chaouia on the southwest. It covers an approximate area of
3712 km.2 It is the catchment area drained by the Mellah and its affluents Oued Hassar,
Oued Zamrin, Oued Laatach and whose outlet is located in the city of Mohammedia
(Lahlaoi et al. 2015). The El Mellah River is 160 km long and has an average flow of
1.46 m3 s
1. The dam has been crucial in promoting the development of agriculture and
fishing in the region, which are the main activities carried out, in addition to playing an
important role in flood control. Its storage capacity has been reduced due to sedimenta-
tion. However, this study area is subject to pollution from human activities (agriculture,
wastewater discharges, discharges from treatment plants and landfills) favoured by the
natural impacts of the terrain. As a result, the risk of contamination of sediment and
water column is increasing. El Malleh watershed is characterized by a Mediterranean cli-
mate. The annual rainfall ranges from 200 mm to 400 mm, with an average of 320 mm. It
experiences seven months of effective rainfall extending from October to April and five
months of hot and dry season elongating from March to November. While the mean
maximum temperature is 27  C and the minimum temperature is 21  C.
The study area is characterized by a Paleozoic basement dated from the Cambrian
(schist deposits) on which Cambrian-Ordovician formations (quartzites), Permo-Triassic
deposits (pelico-basaltic), Cretaceous (marlstone) and Plio-Quaternary (sandstone-lime-
stone) formations were successively deposited. The whole is covered by continental silts.
The Primary folded and tectonised during the Hercynian orogeny constitutes an imper-
meable substratum, while the unconforming post-primary formations post-primary forma-
tions (Cretaceous and Plio-Quaternary) constitute a permeable cover. A barrier beach
encompasses a sandy formation derived from the sand of the beaches on either side of
the rock and cliff of Cap de Fedala. The rocky projections create a discontinuity in this
system. Behind them lies a depression of clay and silt, the width of which increases at the
level of the plain of the oued Al Maleh (El Bilali et al. 2021).

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Sampling
The samples were taken from a zodiac boat on 29 April 2021 under mild weather condi-
tions (dry weather). We have collected sediment pore water and surface water samples
according to a zoning plan. That is to say, the location of sampling established beforehand
in line with industrial sites, urbanised municipalities, wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs) and landfills and their accessibility (Figure 2). We have collected 20 surface
water and 18 surface sediment samples from the upstream to downstream of El Malleh
dam during two surveys on 24 and 29 April 2021 (Figure 1). We have collected surface
water using 30 cl clean bottles and the surface sediment (at 0-0.5 m depth) in one-litre
polypropylene bags. We have collected three samples for each site. We have added two
drops of sulphuric acid H2SO4 for each sampling used for the determination of chloride.
Then, we have acidified the ones used for sulphate with hydrochloric acid (HCL). We
have not added any conservative agent to the samples intended for nutrients analyses. In
the study area, in situ measurements were carried out using a multi-probes instrument
before adding the conservative agent. The physical parameters measured were pH, tem-
perature, DO, and conductivity. Afterwards, we have labelled all the samples (sample
number, date, and time of collection, GPS Coordinates) and kept them in a cool box. The
guidelines for calibration and cleaning of the measuring devices were followed. It is
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 5

Figure 2. Land use map of El Malleh watershed.

noteworthy that all field measurements were noted down in the hand-held data collection
devices. Quality assurance procedures were carried out during the water and sediment
samples analysis. The field measurements were doubled checked in the laboratory.

2.2. Laboratory analysis

The physicochemical characteristics and major elements were established at Process and
Environmental Engineering laboratory (Mohammedia, Morocco), following the AFNOR
standards (NORMALISATION 1994). For the pore water analysis, we have to introduce
the sediment samples into a centrifuge instrument to separate the liquids from the solids
(Lu et al. 2020; Schroeder et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2020) thereby a rotation speed of
3500 rpm for 15 min. We have progressively increased the rotation speed to a maximum
of 14000 rpm to recover the desired amount of water. One test of centrifugation lasts
from 3 to 5 days to get a volume of 40 ml. This volume is kept in a glass tube placed in
the refrigerator at 4  C until it is analysed in the laboratory (Lee and Oh 2018; Valle
et al. 2020).

2.2.1. Physicochemical parameters analysis

The physicochemical analysis is a method of determination of the interactions between
physical components of water. To monitor the origin of pollution, Some chemical tests
6 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

have been performed on Biological Oxygen Demand BOD5, Chemical Oxygen Demand
COD, Total Hardness TH, the acidity or alkalinity of a solution ph, Electrical
Conductivity EC, Dissolved Oxygen DO, Salinity, as well as Chloride Cl-, Sulphate SO42-,
Phosphate PO43-, Nitrate NO3-and ammonia NH4þ (Rodier 1996; El Ghizi et al. 2021) for
both surface and pore waters .

2.2.2. Trace and major elements TME analysis

Several analytical methods can be used to determine the concentrations of major and
trace elements (MTE), such as Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission
Spectrometry (ICP-AES) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS).
Most studies have used the ICP MS analysis for its low detection limits and ability to sim-
ultaneously detect numerous elements in a short analysis time with precision (Kumar
et al. 2019; Huang et al. 2020; El Hajjami et al. 2021; Khafouri et al. 2021; El Ouaty et al.
2022; Gueddari et al. 2021). Additionally, this analysis method showed good linearity and
a hig correlation in the determination of heavy metal concentrations (Cengiz et al. 2017).
Since the ICP-MS and ICP AES give the same results (Lv et al. 2019), they are suggested
to determine the major and trace elements in pore sediment and surface waters. we have
analysed the major elements (i.e. Ca2þ, Mg2þ, Naþ, Kþ, Cl- and SO42-) and the heavy
metals (Cd2þ, Cr2þ, Se4þ, Fe2þ, Cu2þ, Ni2þ and Pb2þ) using ICP AES analysis at the
Regional Center of Interface (RCI) (Fez, Morocco). The ICP AES procedure determines a
large number of elements in a short time with more precision (Cengiz et al. 2017;
Barbieri et al. 2019; Schroeder et al. 2020; El Hajjami et al. 2021).

2.3. Moroccan surface water quality standards

Moroccan Surface Water Quality Standards (MSWQS) provides quality indicators for lake
and dam water according to characteristics that comply with the limit values listed in the
table of quality standards (http://www.environnement.gov.ma/PDFs/grille_de_qualite_des_
eaux_de_surface.pdf [date unknown]). The water quality standards specified quality levels
for each hydro chemical parameter as excellent, good, poor, very poor, and unsuitable
(Soumaila et al. 2019). Until now, no standard applies to sediment pore waters, either
nationally or internationally. In this sense, the Moroccan standard for surface water qual-
ity was applied to sediment pore waters, given that the sediments were taken from the
surface at a shallow depth of 50 cm.

2.4. Moroccan water quality for irrigation

One of the uses of the El Malleh dam reservoir is supplying water for farming purposes.
For this reason, the water must comply with the standards set. Water quality standards
for irrigation (MWQI) refer to satisfactory concentration values of the physicochemical,
biological parameters, and major elements that exist in surface water intended for irriga-
tion to protect the public and farmworkers, to protect consumers of agricultural products,
to protect irrigation equipment, and to maintain acceptable yield (Water Quality
Standards for Irrigation 2007).

2.5. Water quality index (WQI)

The water quality index is a classification parameter that is widely used for evaluating ero-
sionprspm quality. This technique is based on the comparison of all qualitative
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 7

Table 1. Water quality index weights.

Parameter Unit MWQS Wi
pH _ 8.5 0.0002258
DO (mg/l) >7 0.0002742
EC (ms/cm) <750 2.559E-06
COD (mg/l) <30 6.397E-05
BOD5 (mg/l) <3 0.0006397
NH4þ (mg/l) 0.1 0.019191
NO3\bar (mg/l) 10 0.0001919
PO43\bar (mg/l) 0.2 0.0095955
SO42\bar (mg/l) <100 1.919E-05
Cl\bar (mg/l) <200 9.596E-06
Fe2þ (mg/l) 0.5 0.0038382
Cd2þ (mg/l) 3 0.6397009
Cr2þ (mg/l) 50 0.0383821
Cu2þ (mg/l) 0.02 0.0959551
Se4þ (mg/l) 10 0.1919103
Sum 1
Max. 0.6397009
Min. 2.559E-06
Mean 0.0666667

parameters on drinking water with Moroccan standards (Zahedi 2017; Talhaoui et al.
2020). The WQI was done using the weighted arithmetic index. To calculate the WQI
parameter 3 equations are needed, the first one was computing the relative weight as
follows:
wi
Wi ¼ Pn (1)
w
i¼1 i

Where wi are the weights of each parameter, Wi are relative weights and n is the num-
ber of parameters (Table 1).
Afterwards, the calculation of the quality rate scale qi was done as follows:
Ci
qi ¼  100 (2)
Si
Where qi is the quality rating scale for each parameter that is obtained by dividing the
measured parameter concentration Ci (described in Tables 2 and 3) to its standard limits
Si and multiplying the whole by 100, the sub-quality index was computed for each param-
eter by multiplying the quality rating to its relative weight as follows:
SIi ¼ Wi  qi (3)

Finally, the water quality index was calculated by the following equation:
X
n
WQI ¼ SIi (4)
i¼1

To estimate the WQI of the El Malleh dam reservoir, 15 parameters for surface waters
(ph, DO, EC, BOD5, COD, Cl-, SO42-, PO43-, NO3-, NH4þ, Fe2þ, Cu2þ, Cd2þ, Ni2þ,
Pb2þ) and 15 parameters of pore waters (ph, DO, EC, BOD5, COD, Cl-, SO42-, PO43-,
NO3-, NH4þ, Fe2þ, Cu2þ, Cd2þ, Cr2þ, Se4þ) were analysed according to the Moroccan
standards. The water quality could be classified according to the WQI into five grades
excellent quality (0–25), good quality (25–50), poor quality (50–75), very poor quality
 8

Table 2. The concentration of physicochemical, major and trace elements of El Malleh surface water and their recommended standard values by the Moroccan water quality standards
and Moroccan water quality for irrigation.
N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Sample pH DO EC TH COD BOD5 NH4þ NO3\bar PO43\bar Turbidity Salinity SO42\bar Cl\bar Cu2þ Fe2þ Ni2þ Pb2þ
Unit _ (mg/l) (ms/cm) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (NTU) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
S1 7.030 7.030 7.030 880 153.60 35.00 0.075 0.481 0.103 5.840 695 83.850 852.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S2 7.150 7.930 1.347 772 85.00 38.40 0.174 1.362 0.016 1.280 675 73.850 781.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S3 8.000 9.410 3.540 820 20.00 19.20 0.121 0.641 0.018 3.730 1770 53.850 923.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S4 8.050 9.130 3.510 776 96.00 10.00 0.087 1.683 0.066 2.740 1755 78.850 1065.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S5 7.570 10.170 1.415 648 105.00 76.80 0.103 1.843 0.001 12.900 710 112.350 1029.500 0.010 0.086 0.010 0.010
S6 7.650 10.370 1.560 880 76.80 45.00 0.168 2.163 0.051 123.000 780 152.850 958.500 0.020 0.023 0.010 0.010
S7 7.710 9.250 3.430 660 76.80 15.00 0.054 2.083 0.004 2.840 1715 132.850 887.500 0.010 0.017 0.036 0.017
S8 8.400 7.580 3.530 784 76.80 10.00 0.048 0.721 0.006 2.610 1765 120.350 816.500 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S9 7.920 9.400 3.370 744 96.00 15.00 0.180 0.321 0.013 1.930 1685 159.350 852.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S10 7.960 7.670 3.400 692 57.60 50.00 0.127 0.321 0.001 3.310 1700 144.850 887.500 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S11 8.060 8.900 3.500 660 76.80 30.00 0.135 0.401 0.016 3.710 1750 126.350 852.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S12 8.000 9.090 3.480 720 96.00 75.00 0.101 0.721 0.023 5.440 1740 200.850 923.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S13 8.090 9.320 3.330 692 60.00 19.20 0.204 1.042 0.011 5.440 1665 97.350 710.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S14 8.030 9.340 3.430 664 57.60 30.00 0.079 0.160 0.021 2.400 1715 190.850 887.500 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S15 8.190 8.970 3.410 636 210.00 96.00 0.091 2.003 0.002 5.860 1705 235.350 994.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S16 8.060 9.230 3.460 700 96.00 30.00 0.044 2.484 0.014 6.120 1730 179.350 923.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S17 8.040 9.180 3.480 640 115.20 45.00 0.121 1.442 0.022 15.000 1740 154.350 781.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S18 8.150 9.240 3.400 680 57.60 20.00 0.075 1.442 0.011 15.000 1700 214.350 852.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S19 8.070 9.030 3.390 620 76.80 45.00 0.046 4.968 0.012 1.710 1695 146.350 852.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
S20 8.140 9.200 3.450 700 85.00 76.80 0.040 3.285 0.008 2.970 1725 250.850 852.000 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
MSWQS 8.5 >7 <0.75 _ <30 <3 0.1 10 0.2 _ _ <100 <200 0.02 0.5 0.02 0.01
MWQI 6.5-8.4 7-5 12 _ 20-25 3.0-5.0 0.1-0.5 20-25 0.2-0.5 _ 7680 250 350 2 5 2 5
Table 3. The concentration of physicochemical, major and trace elements of El Malleh pore water and their recommended standard values by the Moroccan water quality standards
and Moroccan water quality for irrigation.
Samples pH DO EC TH COD BOD5 NH4þ NO3\bar PO43\bar Salinity SO42\bar Cl\bar Kþ Naþ Fe2þ Ca2þ Cd2þ Cr2þ Cu2þ Mg2þ Se4þ
Unit _ (mg/l) (ms/cm) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
S1 8 9.1 1.379 1000 3750 1056 0.010 38.060 0.268 685 1.75 248.5 1.5322 10.97 0.01 1.3785 0.01 0.01 0.0789 2.2244 0.01
S2 8.12 8.46 3.43 1500 500 480 0.010 12.019 0.058 1715 69.25 266.25 3.1895 68.013 0.01 10.729 0.01 0.01 0.01 12.636 0.01
S3 8.26 8.48 1.365 1400 1056 250 0.172 25.240 0.136 682.5 44.25 372.75 2.7544 87.555 0.01 12.276 0.01 0.01 0.01 15.785 0.01
S4 8.28 9.06 3.4 2100 768 250 0.010 0.401 0.037 1700 131.75 550.25 1.4675 23.352 0.01 3.2914 0.01 0.01 0.01 4.7665 0.01
S5 7.8 8.655 0.842 1000 672 250 0.041 2.003 0.029 421 24.25 1562 2.398 58.864 0.0837 10.198 0.01 0.01 0.01 9.63 0.01
S6 7.9 8.25 3.26 3000 800 672 0.020 8.814 0.359 1810 109.25 390.5 0.7808 10.757 0.01 1.7203 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.2849 0.01
S7 7.79 8.31 1.744 2000 384 250 0.051 6.811 0.017 872 11.75 710 1.8225 61.189 0.01 9.7622 0.01 0.01 0.01 10.988 0.01
S8 8.12 8.7 0.478 800 1050 288 0.051 11.218 0.004 239 104.25 887.5 11.977 474.83 0.01 83.372 0.01 0.01 0.0201 96.943 0.01
S9 7.93 8.4 1.354 2800 1300 288 0.112 14.022 0.012 677 64.25 639 2.2297 63.143 0.01 10.44 0.01 0.01 0.01 8.4358 0.01
S10 8.44 8.32 3.04 3700 3450 192 0.041 14.423 0.004 1520 439.25 674.5 0.9446 5.0087 0.0427 0.6006 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.0776 0.01
S11 8.05 8.42 1.199 2500 1050 96 0.071 17.227 0.008 599.5 21.75 497 1.9381 40.357 0.01 6.748 0.01 0.01 0.01 7.4092 0.01
S12 8.01 8.1 1.725 2400 8050 384 0.041 9.215 0.029 862.5 16.75 568 0.859 9.834 0.01 1.9735 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.9519 0.01
S13 8.1 8.37 2.02 2600 2950 1536 0.081 12.019 0.008 1010 196.75 213 0.71 5.9705 0.01 0.5969 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.0429 0.01
S14 8.14 8.46 1.383 4500 672 250 0.020 74.117 0.681 691.5 81.75 142 2.8766 93.658 0.01 14.356 0.01 0.01 0.01 16.439 0.01
S15 8.08 8.3 2.15 2200 672 500 0.030 6.410 0.004 1075 129.25 621.25 0.7371 9.6703 0.01 1.0384 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.6298 0.01
S16 8.37 8.4 3.26 4300 576 250 0.183 13.622 0.012 1630 56.75 443.75 0.7634 6.7217 0.01 0.8321 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.6323 0.01
S17 7.7 8.3 1.492 3900 6400 288 0.051 20.032 0.021 746 156.75 710 0.9184 23.973 0.01 3.7054 0.01 0.01 0.01 3.4385 0.01
S18 7.93 8.37 1.515 2300 2100 192 0.020 12.820 0.017 757.5 124.25 1065 2.5225 65.759 0.01 14.081 0.01 0.01 0.01 13.355 0.01
MSWQS 8.5 7-5 <0.75 _ <30 <3 0.1 10 0.2 _ _ <100 <200 _ 0.5 _ 0.003 0.05 0.02 _ 0.01
MWQI 6.5-8.4 >7 12 _ 20-25 3.0-5.0 0.1-0.5 20-25 0.2-0.5 _ 7680 250 350 69 5 _ 0.01 1 2 _ 0.02
GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL
9
10 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 3. pH and DO values (a) pH levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of pH of surface
waters; (c) Spatial distribution of pH of pore waters; (d) DO levels of surface and pore waters graph; (e) Spatial distri-
bution of DO of surface waters; (f) Spatial distribution of DO of pore water.

(75–100) and unsuitable for drinking water quality if it is larger than 100 (Ustaoglu
et al. 2020).

2.6. Statistical analysis

Principles Components Analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the correlation between
surface water parameters, sediment pore water, and surface water-sediment pore water
parameters and between sampling sites. This statistical analysis allows the determination
of correlations between complex quantitative data and the links between different parame-
ters (Pitrat and Braga 2012; Benkaddour 2018; Longhini et al. 2022).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Physicochemical parameters and their spatial variation
The pH value of the surface waters of El Malleh dam varies between 7.03 and 8.19
(Figure 3 (a)). Those values do not exceed the Moroccan standards for irrigation. The pH
level of surface water samples is characterized as alkaline (Cengiz et al. 2017), the highest
values of surface water pH are very widespread in the northwest of the dam (Figure 3
(b)). It could be due to the carbonate and bicarbonate concentrations (Arthur et al. 2016).
For pore waters, the pH varies between 7.7 and 8.44, these values representing approxi-
mately neutrality to alkalinity (Che et al. 2020), which can be explained by the presence
of the limestone known for its alkaline pH in this region (Figure 3 (c)). The aquatic
organisms depend strongly on dissolved oxygen (DO), it is sensitive to pollution, and its
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 11

Figure 4. (a) EC levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of EC of surface waters; (c) Spatial
distribution of EC of pore waters; (d) TH levels of surface and pore waters graph; (e) Spatial distribution of TH of sur-
face waters; (f) Spatial distribution of TH of pore water.

level informs us of the degree of self-purification of the watercourse (Chapman 1996).

The highest DO concentrations were recorded at the surface waters, and the lowest were
recorded at the pore waters (Figure 3 (d)). Hence, the surface waters were well-oxygen-
ated. However, the pore waters were depleted. The content DO of the El Malleh reservoir
of surface and pore waters were between 8.94 mg L
1 and 10.37 mg L
1, and between
6.47 mg L
1 and 8.47 mg L
1, respectively. The surface water DO contents respect the
Moroccan quality limitations with a value of >7 mg L
1. The variation of DO concentra-
tions can be explained by the turbulence and agitation caused by the water coming from
the upstream river of EL Malleh. In addition to artificial oxygenation due to aquatic activ-
ities like kayaking and canoeing, paddle and paddle boat (Che et al. 2020). On the down-
stream dam, water stagnates with a laminar flow, which will decrease the dissolved
oxygen to 7.58 mg L
1. Further, the DO values of pore waters for the entire dam were
slightly decreasing. Due to the impact of fertilizers runoff or the absence of non-compli-
ant septic systems, that enriches the lakes with nutrients, promotes the growth of aquatic
plants and algae, and increases organic matter, especially in the spring season
(Siriwardana et al. 2019). The most Electrical Conductivity (EC) values for both surface
and pore waters are higher (Figure 4 (a)). The mineralization of surface and pore waters
translates into a high content of ions suchlike Ca2þ, Mg2þ, Naþ, Kþ, SO42-, and Cl- des-
pite the absence of industries around the El Malleh watershed. The major trace element
sources could be from the geological catchment nature, particularly from the runoff of the
Triassic lands very rich in salts such as halite, gypsum, and limestone layers crossed at El
Malleh watershed. Moreover, the increase in EC concentrations results in lake water evap-
oration (Mahmoud S. M. Abdel Wahed et al. 2014). The Hardness of water is caused by
the presence of calcium ions (Ca2þ) and magnesium ions (Mg2þ). The total hardness
12 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 5. (a) NO3
levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of NO3
of surface waters; (c)
Spatial distribution of NO3
of pore waters.

(TH) concentrations of surface waters of El Malleh dam reservoir vary between 620 and
880 mg L
1 with maximum values of 880 mg L
1 recorded at stations 1 and 6, besides the
content of TH in pore waters exceeds those of surface waters, it varies between 800 and
4500 mg L
1 with an average of 2450 mg L
1 (Figure 4d–f). Those variations could be
explained by the geological nature of the catchment (characterized by limestone and gyp-
sum soils, which are composited particularly with calcium and magnesium), as well as by
the human activity impacts.
The nitrate levels in the surface water samples ranged from 0.16 to 4.94 mg L
1, and
from 0.4 to 74 mg L
1 (Figure 5 (a)). All the surface water samples were found to be
below the standards limits of MSWQS and MWQI, 10 mg L
1 and 20-25 mg L
1,
respectively. In contrast, the recorded nitrate ion concentration of sediment pore water
exceeds the permissible limit of MWQI. Nitrate levels may be attributed to fertilizer and
agricultural practices, as well as agricultural runoff. Human sources such as poor manage-
ment of wastes and sewage lead to the excessive concentration of nitrate. The levels of
surface water NH4þ and PO43-, fall within the ranges 0.040–0.203 mg L
1 and 0–0.10 mg
L
1, respectively. And the concentrations of sediment pore water NH4þ and PO43- rang-
ing from 0.01 to 0.18 mg L
1, from 0.04 and 0.68 mg L
1, respectively (Figures 6 (a) and
7 (a)).
The levels of ammonia of all sediment pore water samples are below the MSWQS lim-
its of 0.1 mg L
1 and the MWQI limits ranged between 0.1 and 0.5 mg L
1. The ammonia
level of all surface water samples respects the MWQI limits and exceeds the MSWQS lim-
its. High ammonia concentration was observed in samples 2, 6, 9 and 13 (Figures 6b and
c). This is probably due to the presence of organic matter, coming mainly from soil leach-
ing (fertilizers) and urban discharges (Benkaddour 2018; Soltani et al. 2021). This increase
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 13

Figure 6. (a) NH4þ levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of NH4þ of surface waters; (c)
Spatial distribution of NH4þ of pore waters.

Figure 7. (a) PO43-levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of PO43-of surface waters; (c)
Spatial distribution of PO43-of pore waters.
14 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 8. COD and BOD5 values (a) COD levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of COD of
surface waters; (c) Spatial distribution of COD of pore waters; (d) BOD5 levels of surface and pore waters graph; (e)
Spatial distribution of BOD5 of surface waters; (f) Spatial distribution of BOD5 of pore water.

in concentration could be explained by the degradation of organic matter due to the nitri-
fication and denitrification conditions (Lee and Oh 2018; Zhu et al. 2020). The levels of
phosphate in all the surface water sampling points are below the MSWQS and MWQI
limits, 0.2 mg L
1 and 0.2-0.5 mg L
1, respectively. The phosphate concentration of
sediment pore water samples is higher than MSWQS set at sites 1, 6 and 14, and exceeds
the MWQI limits at sample point 14 (Figure 7a–c). This is likely due to the surrounding
agricultural lands, and farm fertilizers. Phosphates could originate from natural sources
including phosphate-containing rocks and solid or liquid wastes (Gebresilasie et al. 2021;
Egbueri et al. 2022).
The levels of COD of surface water samples vary between 96 and 1593 mg L
1, and
from 384 to 8050 mg L
1 for sediment pore water samples The BOD5 concentration in
the surface water ranged from 10 to 96 mg L
1, and from 20 and 210 mg L
1 for sedi-
ment pore water (Figure 8(a) and (d)). The levels of organic pollution indicators namely
BOD5 and COD exceed the MSWQS and MWQI standards. The BOD5 values are higher
than the MSWQS limits of < 3 mg L
1 and the MWQI limits of 3-5 mg L
1. The COD
levels in all sample points exceed the MSWQS and MWQI sets, < 30 mg L
1 and 20-
25 mg L
1, respectively. According to the results of the organic matter pollution, the El
Malleh dam reservoir represents very poor quality. The degradation of water quality
might be caused by agricultural runoff, domestic wastewater discharges and industrial
effluents (Soltani et al. 2021). The highest organic matter amount could be linked to the
livestock activities strongly developed upstream of the lake (Benkaddour 2018). Further,
the values of BOD5 and COD of sediment pore waters are greater 3 times than the sur-
face waters values (Figure 8(c) and (f)). That could be explained by the enrichment of
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 15

Figure 9. (a) Cl\bar levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of Cl\bar of surface waters; (c)
Spatial distribution of Cl\bar of pore waters.

sediments with some major elements such as copper, iron and high chloride contents
(Mittal and Ratra 2000).
The values obtained for Chloride contents of surface water are between 710 and
1065 mg L
1 (Figure 9(a)). The chloride concentrations are very high in S4 S5 S6 S15
with the respective values of 1065 mg L
1, 1029 mg L
1, 958.5 mg L
1 and 994 mg L
1
(Figure 9(b)). The chloride values exceed the Moroccan quality standards for surface irri-
gation (350 mg L
1). A high chloride content may indicate pollution by sewage, industrial
wastes or saline water into a freshwater body or aquifer (Benkaddour 2018; El Ghizi et al.
2021). For sediment pore waters, the concentrations vary between 142 and 1562 mg L
1.
the content of Cl- in stations S1 S2 S13 S14 remain lower than the average 586.74 mg L
1
(Figure 9(c)), while the contents in the other stations are higher than the average. This
increased mineral composition could be explained by agricultural contamination or can
be attributed to the saline nature of the soils in the study area, which is marked by the
deposits of Permo-Triassic with an evaporate character very rich in rock salt leaching of
gypsum and halite (Mahmoud S. M. Abdel Wahed et al. 2014). The sulphate content
varies between 53.85 and 250.80 mg L
1 for surface water, and from 1.75 to 439.25 mg
L
1 for sediment pore water (Figure 10a–c). The results show that the sulphate concentra-
tion for surface water is slightly exceeding the recommended standards for irrigation
(< 250 mg L
1) . High concentrations can have adverse effects on the aquatic environ-
ment. The sulphates could be of anthropogenic origin (wastewater, agricultural activities
and industrial wastes especially tanneries). In addition, it could be due to the dissolution
of rocks such as gypsum (CaSO4) and oxidation of sulphide minerals (Mahmoud S.M.
Abdel Wahed et al. 2014).
Potassium levels for sediment pore waters range from 0.71 to 11.97 mg L
1. All
recorded pore water concentrations of the El Malleh dam reservoir were below the
16 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 10. (a) SO42\bar levels of surface and pore waters graph; (b) Spatial distribution of SO42\bar of surface waters;
(c) Spatial distribution of SO42\bar of pore waters.

MWQI limits of 350 mg L
1. The presence of potassium in the dam reservoir is probably
due to the precipitation and dissolution of minerals (Spiegel et al. 2021), besides the
impact of wastewater from the quarries (Poletaeva et al. 2021). The Naþ pore water levels
recorded in the El Malleh dam reservoir range from 5 to 474.83 mg L
1. Most sediment
pore waters had lower sodium contents compared to the MWQI limits of 69 mg L
1, par-
ticularly those situated upstream of the dam reservoir. The high content of sodium is
probably due to the mineralization of water during evaporation in the dry season
(Mahmoud S. M. Abdel Wahed et al. 2014). The sodium concentrations are probably con-
trolled by the precipitation of minerals in the sediment matrix (i.e. halite). Furthermore,
it could be due to the saline sources occurring upstream of the dam. Especially, in the
right bank, at S18 (Poletaeva et al. 2021). In addition, the Naþ values may also be leached
into the dam reservoir under excessive fertilization and irrigation conditions (Li et al.
2018). The recorded results of calcium and magnesium contents of sediment pore waters
vary from 0.60 mg L
1 to 83.3 mg L
1 and from 1.04 to 96.94 mg L
1, respectively. The
sediment pore water mineralization might result from the mobilization of soluble salt
coming from eroded rocks (Poletaeva et al. 2021). Additionally, it could result from the
abandoned gypsum quarry located downstream of the dam reservoir (Khadija et al. 2016).
Finally, it could be due to the leaching processes that enrich the water column with chem-
ical parameters due to water-rock interaction (Gonçalves et al. 2012).

3.2. Heavy metals

Iron levels for surface and sediment pore waters are negligible (<0.01 mg L
1). Iron con-
tents of surface and sediment pore waters respect the MSWQS and MWQI limits, 0.5 mg
L
1 and 5 mg L
1, respectively. (Water Quality Standards for Irrigation 2007). The
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 17

presence of iron in the El Malleh dam is probably due to an abandoned iron mine, who’s
located mainly along N’fifikh and El Malleh wadis. Moreover, it could rely on the indus-
trial discharge of clay quarries in Sidi Moussa. Furthermore, this may be explained by
erosion and leaching of the Paleozoic formations (Khadija et al. 2016). In addition, the
iron concentration decreased in the water column due to the increase of nitrates in the El
Malleh dam reservoir (Ben Bayer et al. 2019), as a consequence of iron oxidation in the
water column and the formation of the Fe-PO4 complex in sediments (Dijkstra et al.
2014; Ben Bayer et al. 2019). For copper, the values obtained for surface and sediment
pore waters are less than 0.01 mg L
1 except for stations 1 and 2 for sediment pore water.
Their concentration is 0.08 mg L
1 and 0.02 mg L
1. the concentration of surface waters
respects the Moroccan limitations for irrigation (2 mg L
1) (Water Quality Standards for
Irrigation 2007). The presence of copper in the El Malleh dam reservoir is probably due
to the leaching and the runoff from acidic agricultural lands with high pesticide and min-
eral fertilizer contents. And the geological nature of the El Malleh catchment.
Additionally, Cu contents in the study area may be influenced by the organic matter pre-
sent in the water column, which removes the dissolved Cu that enriches sediment (Pitrat
and Braga 2012; Ben Bayer et al. 2019; El Hajjami et al. 2021). Furthermore, the variations
of Cu could be affected by seasonal variability in rainfall and freshwater discharge.
Consequently, the Cu content migrates from pore waters to the water column by diffusion
or advection and influences the sediment-water interface (Gonçalves et al. 2012). The
evaluation of the chromium in the sediment pore water indicates the absence of pollution
at all the sampling stations. The concentration of chromium is less than 0.01 mg L
1. The
presence of Cr in sediment pore water could be caused by two reasons. The first one is
anthropogenic: chromium generated by landfill leachate (Souabi et al. 2010), industrial
activities such as tanneries, and the incineration of coal or municipal waste for energy
generation and the production of second-generation fertilizers (Tumolo et al. 2020). The
second one is natural: the Cr abounds in rocks and plants (Mani Tripathi and Chaurasia
2020). The levels of nickel, cadmium and lead in surface water samples taken for the pre-
sent study were far lower. The concentrations of heavy metals are not exceeding 0.01 mg
L
1. Our results show that the Ni, Cd and Pb values respect the recommended water irri-
gation standards, namely 2 mg L
1, 0.01 mg L
1, and 5 mg L
1 (Water Quality Standards
for Irrigation 2007). Therefore, we can conclude the absence of metal contamination
through natural processes or anthropogenic activities (Kabriti et al. 2021). Cadmium and
selenium were also detected at much lower levels in sediment pore waters. Their contents
do not exceed 0.01 mg L
1. The low selenium concentration could probably be due to its
natural abundance in rocks at depleted levels (Gerson et al. 2022). The absence of indus-
tries for the production of paints, pigments alloys, batteries as well as plastics (Engwa
et al. 2019) explains the negligible content of cadmium. Moreover, the El Malleh dam res-
ervoir is characterized by alkalinity. Consequently, the migration of cadmium is weak
because its cations are more mobile in an acid environment (El Hajjami et al. 2021).

3.3. Water quality index

The research aimed to evaluate the quality of surface and sediment pore waters of the El
Malleh dam reservoir using the water quality index to communicate the water quality.
The resulted index of surface and pore waters ranges from 72.84 and from 240.39 to 321
presented in Figure 11, respectively. Based on the WQI indexes, the surface water quality
is divided into 3 classes, the first class compromising 7 sample sites (S4, S8, S14, S16, S18,
S19, S20) characterized as poor with WQI means of 71.86 and 74.98. All parameters in
18 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 11. WQI values and water quality classes of Surface and Sediment Pore Waters.

this class are lying within the limits of their standard except BOD5, COD, Cl and EC.
The water in this class is slightly impacted and can be used in irrigation and industries.
The second class is labelled as very poor at stations (S1, S2, S3, S5, S6, S9, S10, S11, S12,
S13, S15, S17) with quality index comprising between 75.53 and 79.49. The final class is
attributed to sampling site 7 with a WQI value of 133 classified unsuitable for drinking
due to the significant contents of EC, COD, BOD5, Cl, SO42-, Ni, and Pb (Figure 12(a)).
The water in the last class can be recommended for use after a treatment. In contrast, the
sediment pore water quality classes are unsuitable at all the stations. High values of WQI
of pore water are found due to the high concentrations of EC, Cl, NO3- and SO42-
(Figure 12(b)).

3.4. Statistical analysis

In the present study, Principle component analysis (PCA) is one of the statistical techni-
ques used in recent years for evaluating surface and sediment pore water quality, making
a large number of interrelated variables to a small number of independent factors, this
analysis was used to establish a relationship between sample sites, physicochemical param-
eters, nutrients, organic matter, and major and trace elements (MTA) according to surface
and sediment pore waters quality.
In this study, 3 components were recognized for both surface water and pore sediment
waters based on their eigenvalues that elucidated 57.23% and 58.79% of the total variance,
respectively. For surface waters, TH and PO43- indicate a high negative loading on PC 1
(23.73% of total variance), with a correlation value near
1. Total hardness exhibited a
strong relationship with phosphate, thus indicating that they have common sources. On
the same component, we also notice a very significant positive loading, it concerns SO42-,
DO, BOD5, NO3-, pH with a correlation coefficient (r > 0.5) (Figure 13(a)). the station S8
is anti-correlated (negative correlation) with PC1, representing significant relationships
with NO3-SO42-, DO, BOD5, it might be the results of the decomposition of plant resi-
dues and organic matter in the upstream of the watershed, particularly due to the plants
and trees located at the dam banks. In addition, the presence of these elements could be
due to animal waste or agricultural runoff, and leaching of agricultural soils. Cu, Fe, and
NH4þ showed a high positive loading on PC2 (17.94%) whereas EC had a negative
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 19

Figure 12. Spatial distribution map of WQI; (a) WQI of sediment pore water; (b) WQI of surface water.

loading, the stations S2, S7, S10, S11, S13, S15, S17 and S19 are positioned in the negative
part of the axis PC2 (Figure 14a and b), These stations are characterized by low levels of
Cu, Fe and NH4þ. Thus, stations S3 and S16 occupy the positive part on the PC2 axis.
This could be contributed to the geologic nature of the study sites, the iron and copper
may be explained by the erosion and leaching from agricultural lands. The runoff of Fe
and Cu rich in salts increase the concentration of EC. Especially in the dry season, when
the dam reservoir volume decrease and the dilution decrease too. Consequently, the El
Malleh dam’s surface waters are rich with ammonium coming probably from point pollu-
tion sources (domestic wastes) and non-point pollution (agriculture). Elevated positive
loading on PC3 (15.56%) was observed for COD, BOD5, TP and Cl at stations S1 and
S20, the presence of those parameters downstream of El Malleh lake on the right bank
are probably coming from soil organic substances decomposition and leachate after pre-
cipitation to the reservoir dam also it could be due to the fishes excrement. To better
identify the pollution sources influencing El Malleh water quality, factor analysis was
applied to sediment pore waters. The obtained results showed PC1, PC2 and PC3 account
for respectively 28.69%, 16.66% and 13.44% of the total variance. The first component
was significantly correlated with K, Ca, Na and Mg (loading higher than 0.9) (Figure
13(b)), indicating that they are derived from common sources (Figure 14(c)). The domin-
ant processes controlling this correlation are local and depend on basin characteristics
such as land use, including agriculture. Moreover, major elements concentrations in pore
waters link to the topography and lithology. The PC1 is negatively correlated with EC
and TH (r >
0.6), these correlations are well confirmed in stations S1, S6, S12, S13,
S17 (Figure 14(d)). The mineralisation of sample sites 1 and 6 is due to the dam bank
erosion and the absence of vegetation on the left bank, the non-point pollution observed
20 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 13. Pearson’s correlation matrix plots of the physicochemical parameters for (a) Surface waters; and (b)
Pore waters.

on the left bank of the dam, including the agricultural lands is probably the main cause
of the strong mineralisation at stations S12, S13 and S17 with correlation coefficient
(r ¼
0.75). The second PC is significantly correlated with Fe and Cl (r ¼
0.7), which
reflect that they have the same origin. It can be linked to the sediment solid transport
coming from the bank dam erosion at S7, to the lithological land characterized by gypsum
at S18, near the saline source. The PC2 is moderately correlated with NO3-, TP, Cu, and
BOD5 this may explain by nutrient excess resulting from eutrophication, nutrients are
most often derived from fertilisers and waste (S16).

3.5. Surface water sediment pore water interface

The interquartile ranges (IQR) and whiskers of the boxplot show the distribution of sur-
face and pore water quality data in the El Malleh dam reservoir. The results reveal that
the physicochemical characterizing the pore water does not differ significantly from those
of surface water except for EC, TH, salinity and chloride boxes, which are significantly
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 21

Figure 14. (a) The correlations between surface water parameters; (b) projection of surface water stations; (c) the cor-
relations between sediment pore water parameters; (d) projection of sediment pore water stations.

larger than the surface water boxes. While the DO is significantly lower than the surface
water box (Figure 15). The pH was alkaline for both sediment pore and surface waters,
7.7 > pH > 8.44 and 7.04 > pH > 8.4, respectively. The main value of DO for sediment
pore waters was 8.5 and for surface, waters were 9. The dam reservoir is characterised by
a generally high natural salinity, with sediment pore and surface waters samples having
EC values that exceed 1000 lS cm
1. the value of the physicochemical parameter
increases upstream of the lake and decrease downstream. This salinity can be attributed
to the combination of water-rock interactions and the dissolution processes of rocks. The
surface and sediment pore water samples analysed showed high Cl- and SO42- concentra-
tions. Chloride and sulphate indicate that the chemical composition of surface and sedi-
ment pore waters is related to leaching phenomena coming from sedimentary rocks. High
Cl- and SO42- content in surface and sediment is likely to originate from pollution sour-
ces, such as domestic wastes and fertilisers. The high concentration of major elements
mainly Na, Mg, Ca, and K in the sediment pore water was due to the dissolution of evap-
orate rocks including calcite, gypsum and halite located on the right bank of the dam
downstream favoured by leaching of fertilizers. The increase in the concentrations of these
ions in the sediment pore water, occurs locally, upstream of the lake on the left bank of
the river, due to the impact of water erosion and bare soil lands (Mazigh et al. 2022). The
concentrations of trace metals (Cr, Ni, Cu, Se, Cd, and Pb) in pore sediment waters were
higher than those in surface waters. The increased content of trace elements could be due
22 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

Figure 15. Boxplot of surface and pore water quality of physicochemical parameters results.

to the release of metals after their sedimentation or may release metals after surface sedi-
ment suspension, during storms events.
The analysis of the pore water explains the quality of the sediments indirectly. El
Malleh dam reservoir quality alteration is due to the major and trace elements contamin-
ation. The degradation of water quality originates from the natural source, explained by
the dissolution of rock salt upstream of the dam, resulting from the soil losses in the El
Malleh catchment and the leaching of agricultural land, justifying the presence of a high
quantity of dissolved anions and cations in the water column. In addition, the hydro-
logical factor participates in this degradation, by the main of flash floods and the surface
runoff during storms events, which release heavy metals into the water column. Not only
do the natural catchment characteristics impact the water quality but also the anthropo-
genic intervention, two types of anthropogenic pollution have been identified in the
waters of the El Malleh reservoir. This pollution is caused by:

 Agricultural, caused on the one hand by the leaching of uncontrolled fertilisers and
pesticides use, and on the other hand by livestock farming;
 Urban, caused by the domestic wastes, particularly on the right bank of the lake.
 GEOCARTO INTERNATIONAL 23

The results of this study reveal that several locations and frequency of sampling
improve the monitoring of water quality and assess the sources of contamination.
although, water quality programme should concern sediments and their contributions to
water quality deterioration. Moreover, the studied watershed requires implementation of
soil and water conservation practices to reduce the soil erosion and siltation, thereby
mechanical and biological treatments at the watershed scale, dredging and raising the
existing dams. Farmers should advocate rational fertilization in the rural zone to protect
water quality in watershed scale.

4. Conclusion
This study analyzed the spatial distribution and origin of El Malleh dam reservoir pollu-
tion through the analysis of physicochemical and TME pollutants. In the light of the
results obtained from surface and sediment pore waters collected from the El Malleh dam
reservoir, it can be seen the predominance of major elements, such as (Na, Ca, Mg, K),
trace elements as (Cr, Ni, Cu, Se, Cd, Pb) and the low quantity of nutrients, which
explains the absence of eutrophication in the dam.
These findings are confirmed by the WQI index, where the WQI of major and trace
elements (MTE) represents 95% of the total water quality index. Concerning WQI, the El
Malleh surface waters are characterized as poorer to very poorer quality, and the sediment
pore waters quality is characterized as unsuitable. Consequently, the El Malleh dam reser-
voir should not be used as drinking or domestic water unless it has been treated. Indeed
it could be used for surface irrigation.
Findings of statistical analysis based on the correlation matrix and PCA method reveal
a strong impact of anthropogenic sources of pollution combined with soil losses in El
Malleh basin. The proposed methodology approach could strength the surface water qual-
ity monitoring for eventual uses. Furher studies should be carried out to analyse the bot-
tom sediment in the El Malleh dam reservoir.

Acknowledgement
The authors also thankfully acknowledge the Hydraulic Basin Agency of Bouregreg staff members for the
import permission of the surface and sediment-water samples from the El Malleh dam reservoir, the
authors are very grateful to the Laboratory of Organometallic, Molecular and Environmental Materials
Engineering, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Science Dhar El Mehraz Fez which has
graciously placed its ICP AES equipment at our disposal and for their assistance in the analysis of
the samples.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID
Nouhaila Mazigh http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9859-7022
Abdeslam Taleb http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7634-1715
Badr El Fathi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6069-9509
Mohammed Moukhliss http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7941-0365
Ali El Bilali http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5744-3086
24 N. MAZIGH ET AL.

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