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Fusion Reactor Design: Plasma
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Fusion Reactor Design
Fusion Reactor Design
Plasma Physics, Fuel Cycle System, Operation and

Maintenance
Takashi Okazaki
Author All books published by WILEY-VCH are carefully
produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and
Dr. Takashi Okazaki publisher do not warrant the information
2660-29 Mawatari contained in these books, including this book,
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Preface xxv
1 Characteristics of the Fusion Reactor 1

1.1 The Fusion Reactor as an Energy Source 1
1.1.1 Trends in World Energy Consumption 1
1.1.2 Energy Classification 1
1.1.3 Nuclear Fusion Power Generation 2
1.2 Nuclear Fusion Reaction 3
1.2.1 Nuclear Reaction Used in the Fusion Reactor 3
1.2.2 Cross Section of the Fusion Reaction 4
1.2.3 Fusion Reaction Rate 5
1.3 Plasma Confinement Concept 7
1.3.1 Magnetic Confinement 7
1.3.1.1 Linear System (Open-End System) 7
1.3.1.2 Toroidal System 9
1.3.2 Inertial Confinement 13
References 15
2 Basis of the Fusion Reactor 17

2.1 Power Flow 17
2.2 Fusion Reactor Structure 19
2.3 Power Generation Conditions of the Fusion Reactor 20
2.3.1 Power Flow of the Power Plant 20
2.3.2 Plant Efficiency 21
2.3.3 Fuel Supply Scenario 22
2.4 Core Plasma Conditions 22
2.4.1 Break-Even Condition and Self-Ignition Condition 22
2.4.2 Lawson Criterion 22
2.4.3 Typical Reactor Concepts 24
2.5 Requirements of Plasma in the Fusion Reactor 24
2.5.1 Fusion Triple Product 25
2.5.2 β Value 25
2.5.3 Current Drive Efficiency 25
vi Contents
2.6 Operation Scenario 26

2.6.1 Pulse Operation 26
2.6.2 Quasi-steady-state Operation 27
2.6.3 Steady-state Operation 28
2.7 Stepwise Development Research of the Fusion Reactor 28
2.7.1 Experimental Reactor 29
2.7.2 Prototype Reactor 29
2.7.3 Demonstration Reactor/Commercial Reactor 29
References 29
3 Basics of Plasma Analysis 31

3.1 Boltzmann Equation 31
3.2 Plasma Analysis 32
3.2.1 Velocity Information 33
3.2.2 Nonlinear Effects 33
3.2.3 External Electromagnetic Field 33
3.2.4 Numerical Simulation 33
3.2.5 Main Plasma Theories 33
3.3 Magnetohydrodynamic Equation 35
3.3.1 Macroscopic Physical Quantity 35
3.3.1.1 Momentum Flow Tensor P(r, t) 36
3.3.1.2 Pressure Tensor p(r, t) 36
3.3.1.3 Energy Density 𝜀(r, t) 36
3.3.1.4 Internal Energy Density U(r, t) 36
3.3.1.5 Energy Flux Vector Q(r, t) 36
3.3.2 Particle Number Conservation Law (Equation of Continuity) 37
3.3.3 Momentum Conservation Law 38
3.3.4 Energy Conservation Law 39
3.4 Kinetic Equation 39
3.5 Linearized Kinetic Analysis (One Dimension) 41
3.6 Linearized Kinetic Analysis (Three Dimensions) 43
3.7 Quasi-Linear Theory 46
3.8 Turbulence Theory 49
3.8.1 Weak Turbulence Theory 49
3.8.1.1 Wave–Particle Interaction 51
3.8.1.2 Wave–Wave (3 Waves) Interaction 52
3.8.1.3 Nonlinear Wave–Particle Interaction 52
3.8.1.4 Wave–Wave (4 Waves) Interaction 52
3.8.2 Strong Turbulence Theory 53
3.9 Neutron Transport Analysis 53
3.9.1 Transport Equation 53
3.9.2 Interaction Between Neutrons and Materials 54
References 55
Contents vii
4 Plasma Equilibrium and Stability 57

4.1 Plasma Equilibrium 57
4.1.1 Plasma Pressure 57
4.1.2 Equilibrium Equation 59
4.1.3 Tokamak Equilibrium 61
4.1.4 Plasma Cross Section 63
4.2 MHD Stability 64
4.2.1 Energy Principle 64
4.2.1.1 MHD Equation 64
4.2.1.2 Linearized Ideal MHD Equation 66
4.2.1.3 Energy Principle 67
4.2.2 Energy Integral 68
4.2.3 MHD Instability 69
4.2.4 MHD Mode and Resonant Surface 69
4.3 Plasma Positional Instability 71
4.4 Kink Instability 74
4.4.1 Characteristics 74
4.4.2 Dispersion Relation 74
4.4.3 Stabilization Method 76
4.5 Interchange Instability 77
4.6 Ballooning Instability 78
4.6.2 Energy Integral 79
4.7 Resistive Instability 82
4.7.1 Tearing Mode 83
4.7.1.1 Characteristics 83
4.7.1.2 Basic Equations 84
4.7.1.3 Magnetic Island Width 85
4.7.1.4 Magnetic Island Evolution Equation 86
4.7.1.5 Stabilization Method 88
4.7.2 Neoclassical Tearing Mode 88
4.7.2.2 Difference in the Logarithmic Derivative Due to Bootstrap Current 89
4.7.2.3 Magnetic Island Evolution Equation 89
4.7.2.4 Stabilization Method 89
4.8 Drift Instability 90
4.8.1 Density Gradient 90
4.8.2 Density Gradient and Temperature Gradient 90
4.8.3 Resistive Drift Mode 92
4.8.4 Influence of Drift Wave on Plasma Transport 95
4.9 Resistive Wall Instability 96
viii Contents
4.10 Instability Due to High Energy Particles 98

4.10.1 Alfvén Eigenmode 98
4.10.1.2 Dispersion Relation 99
4.10.1.3 Instability Condition and Stabilization Method 100
4.10.2 Fishbone Oscillation 102
4.11 Sawtooth Oscillation 102
4.12 Edge Localized Mode 102
4.13 Locked Mode 103
4.14 Future Challenges 103
Appendix 4A 103
Appendix 4B 107
References 111
5 Plasma Transport and Confinement 113

5.1 Confinement Time 113
5.2 Plasma Transport 114
5.2.1 Diffusion by Collision 114
5.2.2 Diffusion by Turbulence 116
5.2.2.1 Bohm Diffusion 116
5.2.2.2 Gyro-Bohm Diffusion 118
5.2.2.3 Energy Confinement 119
5.3 Scaling Law of Energy Confinement 119
5.3.1 Parameter Dependence of Energy Confinement Time 119
5.3.2 Scaling Law 120
5.3.3 L–H Transition Threshold Power 122
5.3.4 Improved Confinement Mode 122
5.4 Edge Localized Mode 124
5.4.1 Types of Edge Localized Mode 124
5.4.2 Energy Released by ELM 125
5.4.3 Measures Against ELM 127
5.5 β Limit 127
5.5.1 Plasma Current Profile 128
5.5.2 Plasma Pressure Profile 128
5.5.3 Shape of Plasma Cross Section 129
5.5.4 Neoclassical Tearing Mode 129
5.6 Density Limit 129
5.7 Confinement of High-Energy Particles 129
5.8 Disruption 130
5.8.1 Plasma Behavior in Disruption and Cause of the Occurrence 131
5.8.1.1 Plasma Behavior 131
5.8.1.2 Causes of Disruption 133
5.8.2 Effect on Equipment 133
5.8.2.1 Thermal Load 133
5.8.2.2 Electromagnetic Force 134
Contents ix
5.8.3 Countermeasures Against Disruption 135

References 137
6 Plasma Design 141

6.1 Particle and Energy Balances of Plasma (One Dimension) 141
6.1.1 Thermal Conduction Loss Power 143
6.1.2 Convection Loss Power 143
6.1.3 α Heating Power 143
6.1.4 Additional Heating Power 144
6.1.5 Joule (Ohmic) Heating Power 144
6.1.6 Electron-Ion Energy Transfer 144
6.1.7 Radiation Loss Power 145
6.2 Particle and Energy Balances of Plasma (Zero Dimension) 145
6.2.1 Zero-Dimensional Particle and Energy Balances 145
6.2.2 Plasma Temperature and Density in Steady-State Operation 146
6.3 Burn-Up Fraction 148
6.4 Plasma Circuit 150
6.5 Reactor Structure 152
6.5.1 Radial Build 152
6.5.2 Magnetic Flux Required for Operation 153
6.5.3 Magnetic Flux to Be Supplied 154
References 156
7 Blanket 157
7.1 Functions Required for the Blanket 157
7.2 Tritium Production 157
7.2.1 Necessity of Tritium Production 157
7.2.2 Tritium Breeding Ratio 159
7.2.3 Tritium Doubling Time 159
7.2.4 Improvement of Tritium Breeding Ratio 160
6 Li(n, T)α Reaction Cross Section 161
7.2.4.1
7.2.4.2 7 Li(n, n′ T)α Reaction Cross Section 161
7.2.4.3 Tritium Breeding Material 161

7.2.4.4 Neutron Flux 163
7.2.4.5 Blanket Coverage 164
7.2.5 Recovery of Tritium 165
7.3 Taking Out of Thermal Energy 165
7.3.1 Energy Multiplication Factor of the Blanket 165
7.3.2 Power Generation Efficiency and Coolant Temperature 166
7.3.2.1 Temperature of Breeder and Multiplier Materials 166
7.3.2.2 Temperature of the Blanket Structural Material 167
7.3.2.3 Coolant 167
7.3.3 Temperature Profile 168
x Contents
7.3.4 Power Generation Method 170

7.3.4.1 Power Generation Methods of Fission Reactor and Thermal Power
Plant 171
7.3.4.2 Characteristics of Fusion Power Generation 172
7.3.4.3 Combination of Coolants 173
7.3.4.4 Fusion Power Generation 175
7.4 Radiation Shielding Function 175
7.4.1 Blanket Thickness 175
7.4.2 Low Radioactivation 176
7.5 Maintenance 176
7.5.1 Extension of Life 176
7.5.1.1 Wear Amount of Lithium by Burning of Tritium Breeding Material 177
7.5.1.2 Wear Amount of Beryllium by Burning of Neutron Multiplier
Material 178
7.5.1.3 Wear Amount of First Wall 179
7.5.1.4 Nuclear Damage Due to Displacement Damage, Hydrogen and Helium
Productions, Swelling, etc. 179
7.5.1.5 Change in Thermal Life of Structural Materials Due to Cycle Thermal
Fatigue 179
7.5.2 Maintenance Method 179
7.5.2.1 Wear Amount and Replacement Frequency 179
7.5.2.2 Remote Maintenance Method 180
7.6 Blanket Design 181
7.6.1 Blanket Classification 181
7.6.2 Design Conditions 181
7.6.3 Blanket Concept 181
7.6.3.1 Blanket Configuration 181
7.6.3.2 Size of a Blanket 183
7.6.4 Design Example 185
References 189
8 Plasma-Facing Components 191

8.1 Functions Required for Plasma-Facing Components 191
8.1.1 Required Functions 191
8.1.1.1 Impurity Control 191
8.1.1.2 Plasma Particle Control 191
8.1.1.3 Thermal Treatment of Plasma Thermal Energy 192
8.1.2 Limiter and Divertor 192
8.2 Divertor Characteristics (in Steady State) 193
8.2.1 Basic Characteristics of Divertor Plasma 193
8.2.2 Two-Point Model 194
8.2.3 Attached State and Detached State 196
8.2.4 Two-Dimensional Divertor Analysis Model 197
8.2.5 Measures for Reducing Particle and Thermal Loads 200
Contents xi
8.2.5.1 Impurity Control 200

8.2.5.2 Particle Control 200
8.2.5.3 Average Heat Flux to the Divertor Plate 200
8.3 Divertor Characteristics (in Non-steady State) 201
8.3.1 ELM 201
8.3.2 Disruption 202
8.3.2.2 Electromagnetic Force 203
8.4 Structures of Limiter and Divertor 203
8.4.1 Shape and Type of Limiter and Divertor 203
8.4.1.1 Trends in Impurity Control Research 203
8.4.1.2 Limiter and Pumped Limiter 204
8.4.1.3 Divertor 204
8.4.1.4 Comparison of Pumped Limiter and Divertor 205
8.4.2 Comparison of Single Null Divertor and Double Null Divertor 206
8.4.3 Shape of Divertor 206
8.5 Divertor Design 208
8.5.1 Design Conditions and Design Items 208
8.5.2 Material Selection 210
8.5.3 Structural Concept 212
8.5.3.1 Heat Receiving Plate Structure 212
8.5.3.2 Eddy Current Suppression Structure 213
8.5.3.3 Reduction of Stress and Strain 213
8.5.3.4 Cooling Tube 213
8.6 First Wall 217
8.6.1 Particle Load and Thermal Load 217
8.6.2 First-Wall Structure 218
8.6.2.1 Overall Structure 218
8.6.2.2 Protection Structure 218
8.6.2.3 Flow Path Cross Section 218
8.6.2.4 Amount of Wear 220
References 222
9 Coil System 227

9.1 Fusion Reactor Coils 227
9.1.1 Types of Coils 227
9.1.2 Necessity of Superconducting Coil 227
9.2 Basics of Superconducting Coils 228
9.2.1 Characteristics of Superconductivity 228
9.2.2 Superconducting Materials 228
9.2.3 Manufacturing Methods for Superconducting Wires 229
9.2.3.1 NbTi 229
xii Contents
9.2.3.2 Nb3 Sn 230

9.2.3.3 Nb3 Al 230
9.2.3.4 MgB2 231
9.2.3.5 Bismuth-Based Oxide 231
9.2.3.6 Yttrium-Based Oxide 231
9.2.4 Superconducting Wires 231
9.2.4.1 Hysteresis Loss 231
9.2.4.2 Stabilizing Materials (Stabilizers) 232
9.2.4.3 Twist 232
9.2.4.4 Cooling Performance 232
9.2.5 Thermal Load and Cooling Methods 232
9.2.5.2 Cooling Methods 233
9.2.6 Conductor Structure 234
9.2.6.1 Critical Current 235
9.2.6.2 Limited Current 236
9.2.6.3 Stability Margin 236
9.2.6.4 Coil Average Current Density 237
9.2.6.5 Conductor Design 237
9.2.7 Coil Structure 237
9.2.7.1 Structure 237
9.2.7.2 Structural Material 238
9.3 Basics of Toroidal Magnetic Field Coil 238
9.3.1 Functions for Toroidal Magnetic Field Coil 239
9.3.2 Coil Current and Number of Coils 239
9.3.2.1 Coil Current 239
9.3.2.2 Number of Coils 239
9.3.2.3 Stored Energy 241
9.3.3 Electromagnetic Force Generated in Coil 241
9.3.3.1 Extensional Force 241
9.3.3.2 Centering Force 242
9.3.3.3 Overturning Force 242
9.3.4 Coil Shape 242
9.3.4.1 Shape 242
9.3.4.2 Three-Arc Approximation 243
9.3.5 Maximum Magnetic Field 245
9.4 Design of Toroidal Magnetic Field Coil 245
9.4.1 Conductor Design 246
9.4.1.1 Selection of Superconducting Material 246
9.4.1.2 Cooling Method 246
9.4.2 Design of Coil Structure 246
9.4.2.1 Coil Structure 246
9.4.2.2 Selection of Structural Materials 246
9.4.3 Support Structure 247
9.4.3.1 Support Structure for the Centering Force 247
Contents xiii
9.4.3.2 Support Structure for the Overturning Force 249

9.4.3.3 Support Structure of Own Weight 249
9.5 Basics of Poloidal Magnetic Field Coil 254
9.5.1 Functions of Poloidal Magnetic Field Coil 254
9.5.2 Waveform Pattern of Coil Current for Control of Plasma Position and
Shape 255
9.5.3 Position of Poloidal Magnetic Field Coil 256
9.6 Current Control of Poloidal Magnetic Field Coil 256
9.6.1 Magnetic Field Configuration to Determine the Plasma Shape 256
9.6.2 Control of Plasma Position and Shape 257
9.6.3 Generation Types of Poloidal Magnetic Field 258
9.6.4 Function-Specific Coil System 259
9.6.5 Hybrid Coil System 260
9.6.5.1 Number of PF Coils 260
9.6.5.2 Determining the PF Coil Position 260
9.6.5.3 Determining the PF Coil Current 260
9.7 Design of Poloidal Magnetic Field Coil 263
9.7.2.3 Support Structure 264
9.8 Basics of Central Solenoid Coil 265
9.8.1 Functions of Central Solenoid Coil 265
9.8.2 Magnetic Field of Central Solenoid Coil 266
9.8.3 Supplied Magnetic Flux 266
9.9 Design of Central Solenoid Coil 267
9.9.2.3 Support Structure 268
References 271
10 Plasma Heating and Current Drive 273

10.1 Necessity of Plasma Heating and Current Drive 273
10.1.1 Plasma Heating 273
xiv Contents
10.1.2 Current Drive 274

10.2 Basics of NBI Heating 275
10.2.1 Ionization of Neutral Particle Beam 275
10.2.2 Trajectory of Ion Beam 276
10.2.2.1 Direction of Injection 276
10.2.2.2 Trapped Condition 277
10.2.2.3 Trajectory of Beam Ion 278
10.2.3 Plasma Heating by Energy Relaxation 279
10.3 Basics of NBI Current Drive 281
10.3.1 Driven Current 281
10.3.2 Current Drive Efficiency 282
10.3.3 Shine Through Rate 284
10.3.4 Current Drive Efficiency Obtained by Experiments 284
10.4 Bootstrap Current 285
10.4.1 Trapped Electron Orbit and Bootstrap Current 285
10.4.2 Ratio of the Bootstrap Current 286
10.5 Basics of Radio Frequency Heating 287
10.5.1 Dispersion Relation 287
10.5.2 Dispersion Relation of Cold Plasma 288
10.5.3 Dispersion Relation of Hot Plasma 289
10.5.4 Dispersion Relation of Plasma with Maxwell Distribution 290
10.5.5 Characteristics of RF Waves 291
10.5.5.1 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity 291
10.5.5.2 Cutoff and Resonance 292
10.5.5.3 Polarization 292
10.5.6 Propagation Characteristics of RF Waves 293
10.5.6.1 When the Wave Number Vector is Parallel to the Magnetic Field 294
10.5.6.2 When the Wave Number Vector is Perpendicular to the Magnetic
Field 296
10.5.7 Principles of Plasma Heating 297
10.5.7.1 Landau Damping 298
10.5.7.2 Transit Time Damping 298
10.5.7.3 Cyclotron Damping 299
10.5.7.4 Absorption Power 299
10.5.8 Propagation in Nonuniform Plasma 300
10.6 Various RF Waves 301
10.6.1 Alfvén Wave 301
10.6.2 Ion Cyclotron Wave 303
10.6.2.1 Right-handed Cut Off and Left-handed Cut Off 304
10.6.2.2 Density at Which the Wave can Propagate 305
10.6.2.3 Characteristics of the Slow Wave 305
10.6.2.4 Characteristics of the Fast Wave 305
10.6.3 Lower Hybrid Wave 307
10.6.3.1 Resonance and Cut Off 307
10.6.3.2 Accessibility Condition 309
Contents xv
10.6.4 Electron Cyclotron Wave 310

10.6.4.1 Absorption Power 311
10.6.4.2 Resonance and Cut Off 311
10.6.4.3 Propagation Path 311
10.7 Basics of RF Current Drive 313
10.7.1 General Theory of RF Current Drive 313
10.7.1.1 Various Noninductive Current Drive Methods 313
10.7.1.2 Normalized Current Drive Efficiency 314
10.7.1.3 Current Drive Using Momentum of the Wave 315
10.7.1.4 Current Drive Using Anisotropy of the Velocity Space 316
10.7.1.5 Current Drive Efficiency 316
10.7.2 Current Drive Using Momentum of the Wave 316
10.7.2.1 Fokker–Planck Equation in One and Two Dimensions 316
10.7.2.2 Driven Current Density and Current Drive Power Density 318
10.7.2.3 LHCD (One-Dimensional Analysis) 318
10.7.2.4 DC Electric Field 318
10.7.2.5 LHCD (Two-Dimensional Analysis) 320
10.7.3 Current Drive with Anisotropy of the Velocity Space 321
10.7.3.1 Two-Dimensional Fokker–Planck Equation 321
10.7.3.2 Relativistic Effect 323
10.7.3.3 Trapped Effect 324
10.7.4 Current Drive Efficiency Obtained by Experiments 327
10.7.4.1 Fast Wave Current Drive (FWCD) 327
10.7.4.2 LHCD 328
10.7.4.3 ECCD 329
10.8 NBI System Design 330
10.8.1 Design Requirements 330
10.8.1.1 Required Functions 330
10.8.1.2 Design Requirements 330
10.8.1.3 System Efficiency 330
10.8.2 System Configuration 331
10.8.2.1 Positive-ion NBI 331
10.8.2.2 Negative-ion NBI 332
10.8.3 Negative-ion Source 332
10.8.3.1 Negative-ion Generator 332
10.8.3.2 Accelerator 334
10.8.4 Beam Transport System 334
10.8.4.1 Beam Profile Control Unit 334
10.8.4.2 Neutralization Cell (Neutralizer) 334
10.8.4.3 Residual Ion Bending Magnet and Residual Ion Dump 335
10.8.4.4 Vacuum Exhaust System 335
10.8.6 Future Challenges 336
10.9 System Design of the Ion Cyclotron Wave 337
xvi Contents

10.9.1.2 ICRF Excitation Method 338
10.9.2.1 RF Source 339
10.9.2.2 Transmission System 339
10.9.2.3 Injection System 340
10.10 System Design of the Lower Hybrid Wave 342
10.10.1.2 LHW Excitation Method 343
10.10.1.3 Plasma Density in Front of the Launcher 344
10.10.2.1 RF Source 345
10.10.2.3 Injection System (Launcher) 346
10.10.2.4 Phase Shifter 347
10.11 System Design of the Electron Cyclotron Wave 350
10.11.1.2 ECW Excitation Method 351
10.11.2.1 Various System Configurations 353
10.11.2.2 RF Source 354
10.11.2.4 Injection System (Launcher) 355
Appendix 10A 358
Appendix 10B 363
Appendix 10C 369
Appendix 10D 373
Appendix 10E 377
References 380
11 Vacuum Vessel 385

11.1 Functions Required for Vacuum Vessel 385
11.2 Holding Ultra-High Vacuum and High-Temperature Baking 385
11.2.1 Degree of Vacuum in the Vacuum Vessel 385
Contents xvii
11.2.2 Holding the Ultra-high Vacuum 386

11.2.3 High-Temperature Baking 387
11.3 Ensuring Electrical Resistance, Plasma Position Control, and Toroidal
Field Ripple 387
11.3.1 Electrical Resistance of the Vacuum Vessel 387
11.3.2 Ensuring Electrical Resistance 390
11.3.3 Plasma Position Control 391
11.3.4 Toroidal Field Ripple 391
11.4 Supporting the Electromagnetic Force and In-Vessel Equipment 392
11.4.1 Supporting the Electromagnetic Force 392
11.4.2 Supporting the Vacuum Vessel 392
11.5 Cooling Performance, Radiation Shielding, Confinement, Assembly, and
Maintenance 394
11.5.1 Cooling Performance 394
11.5.2 Radiation Shielding 394
11.5.3 Confinement of Radioactive Material 394
11.5.4 Assembly and Maintenance 395
11.5.4.1 Assembly 395
11.5.4.2 Maintenance 395
11.6 Design of Vacuum Vessel 396
11.6.1 Structural Standard 396
11.6.2 Design Items 396
11.6.3.1 Holding Ultra-high Vacuum 398
11.6.3.2 Surface Cleaning System 399
11.6.3.3 Ensuring Electrical Resistance, Plasma Position Control, and Toroidal
Field Ripple 400
11.6.3.4 Supporting Electromagnetic Force and In-vessel Equipment 400
11.6.3.5 Cooling of Vacuum Vessel, Radiation Shielding, and Confinement 400
11.6.3.6 Assembly 401
11.6.3.7 Maintenance 401
References 402
12 Fuel Cycle System 405

12.1 Functions Required for the Fuel Cycle System 405
12.2 Configuration of the Fuel Cycle System 405
12.3 Fueling System 407
12.3.1 Fueling Method 407
12.3.2 Fueling Amount 407
12.4 Gas Exhaust System 408
12.4.1 Exhaust Gases by Source 408
12.4.2 Plasma Vacuum Exhaust System 408
12.4.2.1 Types of Vacuum Exhaust Pump 408
12.4.2.2 Configuration 409
xviii Contents
12.4.2.3 Initial Ultimate Pressure 409

12.4.2.4 Helium Pumping Speed 411
12.4.2.5 Cryopanel Area 412
12.4.2.6 Helium Accumulation on the Cryopanel 412
12.4.2.7 Exhaust Time 413
12.5 Fuel Clean-up System 414
12.5.1 Kinds of Recovered Gas and Amount of Exhaust Gas 414
12.5.2 Configuration of the Fuel Clean-Up System 414
12.6 Hydrogen Isotope Separation System 416
12.7 Atmosphere Detritiation System 418
12.8 Water Detritiation System 418
12.9 Fuel Storage System 419
12.10 Material Accountancy of Tritium 420
12.11 Design Example 420
12.11.1 Fuel Cycle System 420
12.11.2 Fueling System 421
12.11.3 Tokamak Exhaust Processing System 422
12.11.4 Hydrogen Isotope Separation System 422
12.11.5 Atmosphere Detritiation System 422
12.11.6 Water Detritiation System 423
12.11.7 Fuel Storage System 423
References 424
13 Cryostat 425
13.1 Functions of Cryostat 425
13.2 Cryostat Structure 425
13.3 Thermal Shield 425
13.3.2 Structure 428
References 433
14 Nuclear Design 435

14.1 Items Required for Nuclear Design 435
14.2 Radiation Shielding 437
14.2.1 Main Shield 437
14.2.1.1 Equipment Shielding and Biological Shielding 437
14.2.1.2 Installation Position of Shields 438
14.2.1.3 Activation of Air and Cooling Water 439
14.2.2 Evaluation Method of Radiation Shielding 440
14.2.2.1 Intensity of Neutron Source 440
14.2.2.2 Nuclear Data 440
Contents xix
14.2.2.3 Analysis Code 440

14.2.2.4 Analysis Procedure 440
14.3 Dose Rate 441
14.4 Nuclear Heating 441
14.5 Radiation Damage 442
14.5.1 Surface Damage 442
14.5.1.1 Sputtering 442
14.5.1.2 Blistering 444
14.5.2 Bulk Damage 444
14.5.2.1 Displacement Damage 444
14.5.2.2 Damage Due to Nuclear Transmutation 445
14.6 Radioactive Waste 447
14.7.1 Neutron Flux 449
14.7.2 dpa Distribution 449
14.7.3 Helium Production 450
14.7.4 Dose Rate 450
14.7.5 Dose Rate by Skyshine 452
14.7.6 Nuclear Heating and So on 452
References 453
15 Operation and Maintenance 457

15.1 Functions Required for Operation and Maintenance 457
15.1.1 High Plant Availability 457
15.1.2 Maintenance Method Consistent with the Reactor Structure 457
15.1.3 Remote Maintenance with High Efficiency and High Reliability 458
15.2 Operation Period 458
15.3 Equipment to be Inspected and Maintained 459
15.4 Frequency of Maintenance 461
15.5 Remote Maintenance Methods 461
15.6 Process of Remote Maintenance 463
15.7 In-Vessel Transport System 465
15.8.1 Frequency of Maintenance and Maintenance Period 466
15.8.2 In-Vessel Transport System 466
15.8.2.1 Maintenance of Blanket Module 466
15.8.2.2 Maintenance of Divertor 467
15.8.3 Ex-Vessel Transport System 468
15.8.4 Piping Cutting/Welding Tool 469
15.8.5 Failure of Maintenance Device 469
15.8.6 Hot Cell Building 469
References 471
xx Contents
16 Cooling System 473

16.1 Functions of Cooling System 473
16.2 Configuration of Cooling System 473
16.2.1 Operation Mode 473
16.2.2 Cooling Method 474
16.2.3 Heat Reservoir 474
16.3 Cooling Performance 476
16.4.1 Configuration of Cooling System 478
16.4.1.1 Tokamak Cooling Water System 478
16.4.1.2 Component Cooling Water System 479
16.4.1.3 Chilled Water System 480
16.4.1.4 Heat Rejection System 480
16.4.2 Decay Heat Removal in Emergency 480
16.4.2.1 Emergency Power Supply 480
16.4.2.2 Natural Circulation Mode 480
References 481
17 Power Supply System 483

17.1 Functions Required for the Power Supply System 483
17.2 Characteristics of the Power Supply System 483
17.2.1 Power Supply Capacity 483
17.2.2 Equipment and Facilities to Which Power Is Supplied 484
17.2.3 Technologies to Reduce Coil Power Supply Capacity 485
17.2.3.1 Hybrid Coil System 485
17.2.3.2 Superconductivity 485
17.2.3.3 Steady-state Operation 486
17.2.4 Configuration of Power Supply 488
17.3 Power Supply for Toroidal Magnetic Field Coil 489
17.3.1 Self-inductance 489
17.3.2 Power Supply Voltage 490
17.3.3 Stored Energy and Coil Protection 491
17.3.4 Protection Resistor 491
17.4 Power Supply for Poloidal Magnetic Field Coil 492
17.4.1 Inductance 492
17.4.1.1 Mutual Inductance 492
17.4.1.2 Self-inductance of PF Coil 492
17.4.1.3 Self-inductance of CS Coil 493
17.4.2 Power Supply Voltage 494
17.4.4 Stored Energy 495
17.4.5 Coil Protection 495
17.4.5.1 At the Time of Quench 495
Contents xxi
17.4.5.2 At the Time of Plasma Disruption 495

17.5.1 Coil Power Supply 496
17.5.2 Power Supply of Plasma Heating and Current Drive System
(H&CD) 497
References 498
18 Operation Control and Diagnostic Systems 501

18.1 Functions of Operation Control and Diagnostic Systems 501
18.2 Basics of Control 502
18.2.1 Control Method 502
18.2.2 Transfer Function 503
18.2.3 Transient Response of a System 504
18.2.4 Feedback Control 504
18.2.5 PID Controller 505
18.2.5.1 Ideal PID Controller 505
18.2.5.2 Practical Noninterference-Type PID Controller 505
18.3 Operation Control System 507
18.3.1 Central Control System 507
18.3.2 Plasma Control 507
18.3.2.1 Control of Fusion Power 508
18.3.2.2 MHD Control 509
18.3.2.3 Disruption Control 509
18.4 Diagnostic Systems 511
18.4.1 Passive and Active Measurements 511
18.4.2 Probe Measurement 512
18.4.2.1 Electrostatic Probe 512
18.4.2.2 Magnetic Probe, Magnetic Loop, and Rogowski Coil 513
18.4.2.3 Diamagnetic Coil 513
18.4.3 Electromagnetic Wave Measurement 514
18.4.3.1 Passive Electromagnetic Wave Measurement 514
18.4.3.2 Active Electromagnetic Wave Measurement 518
18.4.4 Particle Measurement 522
18.4.4.1 Passive Particle Measurement 522
18.4.4.2 Active Particle Measurement 528
18.5.1 Operation Control System 529
18.5.1.1 Plant Control System 530
18.5.1.2 Interlock Level 530
18.5.1.3 Plasma Operation 531
18.5.2 Diagnostic System 533
References 536
xxii Contents
19 Safety 539
19.1 Requirements for Safety 539
19.2 Radioactive Materials 540
19.2.1 Radioactivity 540
19.2.2 Exposure Dose 541
19.2.3 Absorbed Dose 541
19.2.4 Dose Equivalent/Effective Dose Equivalent 541
19.2.5 Equivalent Dose/Effective Dose 542
19.2.6 Committed Effective Dose 543
19.2.7 Tritium Concentration Limit 544
19.2.8 Biological Hazard Potential 544
19.3 How to Ensure Safety 545
19.3.1 Safety Features 545
19.3.2 Goal of the Safety 546
19.3.2.1 In Normal Time 546
19.3.2.2 In Emergency 547
19.3.3 Basic Concept of Ensuring the Safety 547
19.3.3.1 Basic Concept 547
19.3.3.2 Implementation of Ensuring Safety 548
19.3.4 Basic Concept of the Safety Design 548
19.3.5 Evaluation of the Safety Design 550
19.3.6 Waste Disposal 550
19.4.1 Dose Limit 551
19.4.2 Basic Concept of Ensuring the Safety 552
19.4.3 Implementation of Ensuring the Safety 552
19.4.3.1 Reduction of Radioactive Materials 552
19.4.3.2 Confinement Barrier of Radioactive Materials 552
19.4.3.3 Energy That Damages the Confinement Barriers 553
19.4.3.4 Zoning Management 555
19.4.4 Safety Design 555
19.4.5 Event Analysis 556
19.4.5.1 Events for Analysis 556
19.4.5.2 Safety Analysis Code 558
References 560
20 Analysis Code 563

20.1 How to Design 563
20.1.1 Design Flow 563
20.1.2 Flow of Reactor Design 563
20.1.2.1 Requirements as Power Reactor 564
20.1.2.2 Construction of Reactor Concept 564
20.1.2.3 Clarification of Constraints 565
20.1.2.4 Plasma Design 565
20.1.2.5 Design of Reactor Structure 566
20.1.2.6 Plant Design, Safety, and Economic Evaluations 566
Contents xxiii
20.2 Various Types of Analysis Codes 566

20.2.1 Plasma Analysis Code 566
20.2.2 Equipment Analysis/Design Code 567
20.2.3 Safety Analysis Code 567
20.2.4 Detailed Analysis Code 567
20.3 Reactor Design System Code 567
20.3.1 Role of the Code 567
20.3.2 Various System Codes 568
20.4 System Code for Reactor Conceptual Design 570
20.4.1 Power Balance (Energy Balance per Unit Time) 570
20.4.2 Radial Build 571
20.4.3 Volt-Second 572
20.4.4 Shape of TF Coil 573
20.4.5 Electromagnetic Force Acting on the TF Coil 573
20.4.5.1 Tensile Stress Due to Vertical Force 574
20.4.5.2 Bending Stress Due to Centering Force 575
20.4.5.3 Bending Stress Due to Overturning Force 575
20.4.6 Bucking Cylinder 575
20.4.7 Radiation Shield 577
20.4.8 Vertical Build 577
20.4.9.1 TF Coil 578
20.4.9.2 PF Coil 578
20.5 System Codes for Economic Evaluation 579
20.5.1 Cost of Electricity 579
20.5.2 Initial Capitalized Investment 580
20.5.3 Direct Cost of Construction 580
20.5.4 Annual Cost of Component Replacement at Specific Intervals 581
20.5.5 Annual Cost of Operation and Maintenance 581
20.5.6 Annual Fuel Cost and Annual Cost of Waste Disposal and
Decommissioning 581
20.6 System Codes for Plasma Dynamics Evaluation 582
20.6.1 Particle Balance and Energy Balance 582
20.6.1.1 Particle Balance Equation 582
20.6.1.2 Energy Balance Equations 583
20.6.2 β Limit 584
20.6.3 Density Limit 584
20.6.4 Thermal Load on Plasma-Facing Wall 585
20.6.5 Distribution of Nuclear Heating Rate 586
20.6.6 Impurity Contamination Model in Plasma 586
20.6.7 Heat Transfer Model of Reactor Structure 587
20.6.8 Analysis Example 588
References 590
Index 593
xxv
Preface
Many books on plasma physics and fusion reactor engineering have been
published – many popular books ranging from basic to specialized ones for graduate
students and researchers. Fusion research is currently in the construction stage of
the experimental reactor and has entered a new stage of studying a prototype
reactor. Reactor design research is becoming more important. However, there
seems to be few books on fusion reactor design. I thought that a systematic and
easy-to-understand introductory book on the design of fusion reactors is needed.
Therefore, I decided to put together my experience in development research
including plasma heating and current drive, blanket, divertor, and safety into an
introductory book on fusion reactor design.
A fusion reactor consists of many interrelated equipment pieces, so it is important
to proceed with the development based on the understanding of the relationships
between those pieces. Fusion Reactor Design, which explains the underlying rela-
tions, has been written for university and graduate students who are going to study
plasma physics and fusion reactor. For researchers and engineers in this field, I
would be greatly happy if this book would serve as a catalyst to proceed to further
research and development of advanced technologies in this field. This book is cen-
tered around a tokamak fusion reactor. But it would be an unexpected joy if it could
serve as a reference for other confinement fusion reactor designs.
In a paper, to describe the development of mathematical formulas concisely,
it takes time to read it and derive the formulas. In this book, I have tried to show the
derivation of formulas in as much detail as possible so that the development of the
formulas can be followed smoothly. Also, to make physical and structural images
easier to understand, I have tried to use as many figures as possible. And numerical
calculations are shown as examples to get concrete images.
An overview of fusion reactors is given in Chapters 1 and 2. Chapters 3–5 outline
the plasma physics necessary for fusion reactors: Chapter 3 describes the basics
of plasma analysis, Chapter 4 describes plasma equilibrium and stability, and
Chapter 5 describes plasma transport and confinement. Chapter 6 describes the
plasma design. In Chapters 7–18, each equipment piece of the fusion reactor has
been explained, which includes blanket, divertor, superconducting coil, plasma
heating and current drive system, vacuum vessel, fuel cycle system, operation and
xxvi Preface
maintenance, etc. Each chapter describes the functions required for equipment, the
factors to be considered for achieving those functions, the analysis method for eval-
uating the factors, required technology, design examples, etc. Chapter 19 describes
safety and Chapter 20 describes analysis codes necessary for reactor design.
The book discusses the developments that have been evolving in the field, and also
there are some cases that require physical clarification and technology development.
From Chapter 4 onward, such cases are listed as future challenges. As the plasma
analysis discussed in Chapter 3 is applied in these chapters, future challenges of
plasma analysis are shown there.
Needless to say, it is important to make equipment as simple as possible and to
design reactors most cost-efficiently as possible from the outset of development. A
fusion reactor is a huge and complicated device, and it is also a combination of parts
of various sizes, so it is important to construct each part carefully. I hope Fusion
Reactor Design will help accelerate the fusion reactor design.
In writing this book, I referred to many books and literature. This book is based
on a book published in Japanese in January 2019 with modifications. The book
is “Kakuyugo Rosekkei Nyumon”, Maruzen Planet, Maruzen Publishing Co.,
Ltd. (English translation: “Introduction to fusion reactor design”). Therefore,
some Japanese articles are referred to in the book, so I have to apologize for the
inconvenience. If there are inadequate explanations, errors, misunderstandings,
etc. in the book, I would greatly appreciate readers’ feedback.
Books and literature are listed in the reference section. Books and literature that
were referred to when drawing the figures are cited in the text. Figures reprinted
from books and literature are published with the permission of authors and/or
publishers. Through this book, I have been able to introduce those excellent
achievements so far in the field. I would like to express my gratitude to the
concerned people and related organizations.
The publication has been greatly supported by Dr. Martin Preuss, Ms. Daniela
Bez, Ms. Aneetta Antony, Mr. Ranjith Kumar Natarajan, Ms. Claudia Nussbeck,
Ms. Bhavani Ganesh Kumar and Dr. Gudrun Walter at Wiley-VCH. I would like to
express my deepest appreciation for their support.
July 2021 Takashi Okazaki

1
Characteristics of the Fusion Reactor
Many kinds of nuclear fusion reactions and plasma confinement concepts can be
considered in fusion reactors. This chapter shows the characteristics of the fusion
reactor.
1.1 The Fusion Reactor as an Energy Source
1.1.1 Trends in World Energy Consumption

Energy is necessary for humankind to live and work. Human beings have estab-
lished a civilized society by developing and utilizing energy sources. Figure 1.1-1
shows the transition of world energy consumption by fuel. The world energy
consumption increases as the population increases and the economy grows; these
are expected to further increase in the future. Meanwhile, with the increase in the
use of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, carbon dioxide emissions have
greatly increased, causing environmental problems such as air pollution and global
warming. For the future survival and growth of human beings, it is important
that the increase in energy consumption and countermeasures to environmental
problems are compatible.
1.1.2 Energy Classification

Energy taken from nature is called primary energy, and energy converted into a form
that makes primary energy easy to use is called secondary energy. Table 1.1-1 shows
the classification of energy.
Primary energy includes fossil energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, shale
oil, shale gas, methane hydrate, etc.), nuclear fission energy from non-fossil fuels,
hydroelectric power energy, and renewable energy (hydroelectric power, solar light,
wind power, geothermal power, solar heat, heat existing in nature such as atmo-
spheric heat, biomass, etc.). Hydroelectric power, a form of renewable energy, is
particularly targeted at the small and medium scale. Secondary energy includes elec-
tricity generated, oil products, gas products, heat, etc. Secondary energy is delivered
and consumed as final energy. Final energy can be categorized as electric power and
fuel. Electric power, as final energy, is discussed here.
Fusion Reactor Design: Plasma Physics, Fuel Cycle System, Operation and Maintenance,
First Edition. Takashi Okazaki.
© 2022 WILEY-VCH GmbH. Published 2022 by WILEY-VCH GmbH.
2 1 Characteristics of the Fusion Reactor
18 Figure 1.1-1 Transition of world

Renewable energy consumption by fuel
(Gtoe)
World energy consumption by fuel
Hydroelectric (Gtoe: giga toe; toe: tonne of oil
15
Nuclear fission equivalent). Source: Ref. [1].
© 2015 BP p.l.c.
12
Gas
9
6 Oil
3
Coal
0
1965 2000 2035
Year
Although thermal power that combusts fossil fuels can be stably supplied on a
large scale, a large amount of carbon dioxide is generated during the power genera-
tion process. The development of processes to control this carbon dioxide emission
is ongoing. Continuous consumption of fossil fuels will result in depletion of the
resource in the future. Further efforts are needed to extend minable years.
Nuclear fission power can be generated and supplied stably on a large scale. The
fuel supply capacity is comparable to that of fossil fuels, and carbon dioxide emis-
sion is minimal. In addition, social acceptability of issues such as safety, disposal of
radioactive waste, management of plutonium, etc. is important.
Hydroelectric power generation (large scale) has low carbon dioxide emission,
but there is a geographical restriction and less room for development. Renewable
energy also has low carbon dioxide emission, but it is important to mitigate the
effects of climate and sunshine hours. Therefore, considering the characteristics
of these energies, it is important to make a properly combined power supply
configuration (energy mix).
1.1.3 Nuclear Fusion Power Generation

The nuclear fusion reactor is roughly categorized by the type of fusion reaction to
be used, namely, the first-generation DT reactor, the second-generation DD reac-
tor, and the third-generation p11 B (proton-boron) reactor and D3 He reactor. In the
first-generation reactor, deuterium (D) and tritium (T) are used as fuels. Deuterium
is an abundant and almost inexhaustible resource available in seawater. Tritium
is rare in nature, and therefore, it needs to be generated by the reaction between
lithium and neutrons generated from the fusion reaction. Lithium can be recovered
from seawater beside lithium mines. Therefore, it can be said that the nuclear fusion
reactor has abundant resources as a fundamental alternative energy source.
Also, nuclear fusion power generation has no carbon dioxide emissions. In the
case of a DT reactor, tritium, which is a radioactive material, is used. Since neutrons
are generated in the reaction, the reactor structural material is activated and radioac-
tive waste is required to be disposed. The radioactive waste generated is all low level.
Table 1.1-1 Classification of energy.
Primary energy Secondary energy Final energy
Fossil energy Coal Thermal power Electric power

Oil generation
Natural gas
Nuclear fission energy Nuclear fission power

generation
Hydroelectric power energy Hydroelectric power

generation (large scale)
Renewable energy Hydroelectric Hydroelectric power
power generation
(small/medium scale)
Solar light Photovoltaic power
generation
Wind power Wind power
generation
Fossil energy Coal Coal fuel Fuel
Oil Oil fuel
Natural gas Gas fuel
Renewable energy Solar heat Heat, steam
Biomass
Geothermal
The issue of activation is further reduced because neutron energy produced in the
second generation is smaller than in the first and no neutron is generated in the third
(see Section 1.2.1).
Currently, nuclear fusion power generation is in the development stage with an
experimental reactor. Fusion power generation has a high possibility of providing
a stable, large-scale supply. There is a high possibility that it will become the key
energy source in the power supply configuration.
1.2 Nuclear Fusion Reaction

1.2.1 Nuclear Reaction Used in the Fusion Reactor
Nuclear fusion is the fusion of atomic nuclei of certain elements. When the atomic
nuclei are brought close to each other, they electrostatically repel each other. When
colliding with a force greater than its repulsive force, the nuclear force works and the
nuclei fuse together. In various nuclear fusion reactions used as energy sources, the
repulsive force between nuclei needs to be small; that is, the nuclear fusion reaction
occurs at low energy, the reaction cross section is large, and the reaction is exother-
mic. The nuclear fusion reactions currently considered are as follows:
2
1D + 21 D → 32 He(0.82MeV) + 10 n(2.45 MeV), (1.2-1)
2
1D + 2
1D → 3
1 T(1.01 MeV) + 1
1 p(3.03 MeV), (1.2-2)
2
1D + 31 T → 42 He(3.52 MeV) + 10 n(14.06 MeV), (1.2-3)
2
1D + 32 He → 42 He(3.67 MeV) + 11 p(14.67 MeV), (1.2-4)
2
1D + 63 Li → 242 He(22.4 MeV), (1.2-5)
1
1p + 73 Li → 242 He(17.3 MeV), (1.2-6)
1
1p + 63 Li → 32 He + 42 He + 4.0 MeV, (1.2-7)
5 B → 32 He + 8.7 MeV,
1
1p + 11 4
(1.2-8)
where 21 D is deuterium, 31 T is tritium, 11 p is proton, 10 n is neutron, and 42 He is helium

(α particle).
In order to cause these reactions, a method of injecting particles accelerated by an
accelerator to solid or gas targets can be considered. But this method mostly causes
elastic scattering between accelerated particles and extranuclear electrons of target
particles. Since the number of particles to be accelerated is limited, a large nuclear
fusion reaction may not be expected. Therefore, the method considered involves, as a
whole, a mixture of ions and electrons that are electrically neutral; that is, a plasma
is formed and confined in a certain space, and the temperature is raised to cause
the fusion reaction. In this method, since the collision frequency increases, there is
a high possibility of a fusion reaction. Since it uses high temperature and thermal
motion, this reaction is called a thermonuclear fusion reaction.
Nuclear fusion reactions occur in the Sun. It is not possible to allow unlimited
release of energy through fusion reactions on the Earth. In order to generate power
using the nuclear fusion reaction, it is essential to control the reaction so that it grad-
ually occurs within a limited space. This is why the reaction is called a controlled
thermonuclear fusion reaction.
1.2.2 Cross Section of the Fusion Reaction

As described above, the nuclear fusion reaction occurs in the collision process
between particles of the plasma in a thermal equilibrium state. In general, the like-
lihood of occurrence of the collision process is expressed using a cross section. The
collision cross section when the particle beam is injected into the target is defined
as 𝜎 = (number of collisions occurring per target particle per unit time)/(injected
particle beam intensity).
Figure 1.2-1 shows a schematic diagram of beam injected into a target. Let us con-
sider the case where the particle beam with density n, velocity 𝜐, and beam cross
section S is injected into a thin plate with thickness Δx containing target particles of
density N. The intensity of the injected particle beam is n𝜐. Let Δn be the decrease in
Figure 1.2-1 Schematic diagram of beam injected into

a target. N
υ
n Target
S
Beam Δx
beam particle density due to collision. This decrease occurs due to deflection of the
beam due to Coulomb scattering and nuclear reaction. It is assumed that the cross
section required here includes all effects.
The volume at which the beam particle intersects the target is SΔx. The num-
ber of target particles in the volume is NSΔx. The time for the beam particles to
pass through this region is Δx/𝜐, and the number of collisions occurring during that
time is ΔnSΔx in this region. Therefore, since the number of collisions occurring
per target particle per unit time is ΔnSΔx/(Δx/𝜐)/(NSΔx), the collision cross section
becomes
ΔnSΔx∕(Δx∕𝜐)∕(NSΔx) Δn
𝜎= = . (1.2-9)
n𝜐 NnΔx
Let n(x) be the injected particle density after passing through the target material
by the distance x. A negative sign is added to the decrement of the particle density
of the beam in Eq. (1.2-9). Then it becomes
dn
= −𝜎Nn. (1.2-10)
dx
When it is integrated, it becomes
n(x) = n0 exp(−𝜎Nx), (1.2-11)
where n0 is the particle density before being injected into the target. Notation
barn (=10−24 cm2 ) is used as the unit of collision cross section. When the macro-
scopic cross section is represented by Σ = 𝜎N, the mean free path of the beam is
𝓁 = 1/Σ.
The typical fusion reaction cross sections obtained by experiment are shown in
Figure 1.2-2 [2]. The DD reaction shows the sum of the cross sections of Eqs. (1.2-1)
and (1.2-2). In the experiment, one particle is fixed in the laboratory and the
other particle is injected to obtain the cross section. The DT reaction has a larger
cross section from a lower energy region than other reactions. For this reason,
the first-generation realization of a fusion reactor using the DT reaction is being
pursued.
1.2.3 Fusion Reaction Rate

To obtain the power of a nuclear fusion reaction, it is convenient to use the fusion
reaction rate R representing the number of reactions occurring per unit volume and
unit time. When considering the collision between plasma particles in thermal equi-
librium, Eq. (1.2-9) is not directly used and the average operation in the velocity
space is necessary, since the plasma particles are not at a single velocity.
102 Figure 1.2-2 Cross sections of fusion

reactions. Source: Atzeni and
Meyer-ter-Vehn [2]. © 2004 Oxford
Fusion cross section σ(barns)
10
DT University Press.
p11B
1
D3He
10–1
DD
10–2
Li3He
10–3
TT TT
10–4 T3He
D3He
10–5
1 10 100 1000 10 000
Center-of-mass kinetic energy (keV)
Let n1 , v1 , and f 1 (v1 ) be the density, velocity, and velocity distribution function of
the beam particles and n2 , v2 , and f 2 (v2 ) be the density, velocity, and velocity dis-
tribution function of the target particles, respectively. When particles with density
dn1 = n1 f 1 (v1 )dv1 included in volume element dv1 of velocity space collide with par-
ticles with density dn2 = n2 f 2 (v2 )dv2 contained in volume element dv2 of velocity
space at relative velocity vr = v1 − v2 , the number of collisions occurring in unit time,
dR, becomes
dR = dn1 dn2 𝜎(𝜐r )𝜐r , (1.2-12)
where 𝜐r = ||vr ||.
When Eq. (1.2-12) is integrated in the velocity space, the reaction rate in the unit
volume of the plasma and unit time is obtained as
R = n1 n2 ⟨𝜎𝜐r ⟩. (1.2-13)
Here, the fusion reactivity is given by
⟨𝜎𝜐r ⟩ = dv1 dv2 𝜎(𝜐r )𝜐r f1 (v1 )f2 (v2 ). (1.2-14)

∫ ∫
v1 v2
A velocity distribution function of thermal equilibrium is used to obtain ⟨𝜎𝜐r ⟩. Going

forward, this is simply denoted by ⟨𝜎𝜐⟩.
In the DT reaction, since the reaction energy Ef = 17.6 MeV is given by Eq. (1.2-3),
the nuclear fusion power output generated per plasma volume is
Pf = nD nT ⟨𝜎𝜐⟩DT kEf . (1.2-15)
Here, nD and nT are the densities of D and T, respectively, and k = 1.60 × 10−19 J/eV,
/
1 eV = 1.60 × 10−19 J (1.38 × 10−23 J/K) = 1.16 × 104 K.
The fusion reactivity is shown in Figure 1.2-3 [2]. When the plasma temperature in
the fusion reactor using DT reaction is near 10–30 keV, ⟨𝜎𝜐⟩DT can be approximated
to
⟨𝜎𝜐⟩DT = 1.1 × 10−24 TikeV
2
(m3 ∕s). (1.2-16)
Here, T ikeV = T i /1000 is in the unit of keV [3].
1.3 Plasma Confinement Concept 7
Figure 1.2-3 Fusion reactivity. Source: Atzeni 10–14

and Meyer-ter-Vehn [2]. © 2004 Oxford
p11B
Fusion reactivity 〈συ〉 (cm3/s)

University Press. 10–15
10–16 D3He
DT
TT DD
10–17
DD
10–18
p11B
10–19
T 3He
10–20
1 10 100 1000
Ion temperature Ti (keV)
1.3 Plasma Confinement Concept
Plasma is an electrically almost neutral ionized gas consisting of ions and electrons.
When plasma is confined in a container such as metal, it hits the container wall and
becomes a neutral gas. Therefore, various plasma confinement concepts have been
proposed as listed in Table 1.3-1.
The confinement concepts are divided into magnetic confinement, which uses a
magnetic field, and inertial confinement in which the plasma inertia confines the
plasma before it starts to expand.
1.3.1 Magnetic Confinement

The magnetic confinement concepts have a linear system (open-end system) and a
toroidal system.
1.3.1.1 Linear System (Open-End System)

The simplest of the open-end systems is the simple mirror. As shown in Figure 1.3-1,
it consists of two circular coils, and current flows in the same direction. In this case,
there is an end loss from the open end of the magnetic mirror that the plasma leaves
along the magnetic field lines [4]. The tandem mirror is an improvement of the sim-
ple mirror. As shown in Figure 1.3-2, the end loss can be suppressed by arranging
the coils in tandem [5].
In the cusp field of Figure 1.3-3, currents flow in two circular coils in the opposite
direction. A zero point in the magnetic field is called the minimum magnetic field.
This also has plasma end loss. In the 𝜗 pinch, a plate-shaped coil is wrapped around
a cylindrical container, and a large current is instantaneously flowed in this coil to
induce a magnetic field, in which plasma is confined as shown in Figure 1.3-4.
The ratio of the magnitude of the magnetic field at both ends of the mirror mag-
netic field and the one at the center of the device is called the mirror ratio. As this
ratio becomes larger, more particles are reflected at both ends and confined well.
The yin-yang coil is a coil made to increase the mirror ratio.
Table 1.3-1 Plasma confinement concepts.
Classification Concepts
Magnetic Linear system (open-end system) Simple mirror, tandem

confinement mirror
Cusp
𝜗 pinch
Toroidal No rotational transform system Field reversed mirror
system (FRM)
Field reversed
configuration (FRC)
Rotational Axisymmetric Tokamak
transform system Spherical torus
system
Spheromak
Reversed field pinch
(RFP)
Internal conductor
system
Non-axisymmetric Helical system
system (stellarator, torsatron,
heliotron)
Nonplanar magnetic
axis
Bumpy torus
Inertial Laser Glass laser
confinement Carbon dioxide laser
Excimer laser
Charged particle beam Electron beam
Light ion beam
Heavy ion beam
Coil Figure 1.3-1 Simple mirror.
Coil Figure 1.3-2 Tandem mirror.

Figure 1.3-3 Cusp. Coil
Figure 1.3-4 𝜗 pinch. Coil
1.3.1.2 Toroidal System

In order to eliminate the end loss in the open-end system, an improved toroidal sys-
tem (torus system) is considered by connecting both ends. However, as shown in
Figure 1.3-5a, the magnetic field is large at the center of the torus and decreases as it
goes to the outside with the radial direction. Then the Larmor radius of the particle
is changed and the particle drifts in the direction as shown in Figure 1.3-5b, when
connecting both ends of the toroidal magnetic field simply. As the electrons and ions
drift in the opposite direction, charge separation occurs, an electric field is induced,
and the plasma particles escape out of the system by a E × B drift. In order to prevent
this, a magnetic field (poloidal magnetic field) is needed to connect the upper part
and the lower part of the plasma and short-circuit the space charge.
Combining the toroidal magnetic field Bt and the poloidal magnetic field Bp con-
stitutes magnetic field lines. When turning around the torus along the magnetic field
line, the angle of rotation in the poloidal direction is called the rotational transform
angle. The toroidal system is classified by the method of making this poloidal mag-
netic field, that is, rotational transform.
1.3.1.2.1 No Rotational Transform System

The field reversed mirror (FRM) and the field reversed configuration (FRC) are in
the no rotation transform system without the toroidal magnetic field [4]. In the FRM
shown in Figure 1.3-6, a particle beam is injected into the mirror magnetic field from
the outside to generate a current in the toroidal direction. A poloidal magnetic field
is generated by the current, and the direction of the magnetic field at the center of
Figure 1.3-5 Charge

separation. (a) Profile of
Toroidal magnetic
z + + +
Toroidal magnetic
field E×B
toroidal magnetic field. Ion
(b) E × B drift. B2
B
0
Electron R
field B
Plasma region
− − − E
Major radius R
(a) (b)
Coil Figure 1.3-6 Field reversed mirror.
Bp
Coil Figure 1.3-7 Field reversed configuration.
Bp
the mirror magnetic field is reversed. As a result, a torus-type closed magnetic field
line is created inside the mirror magnetic field. This is the FRM.
At first, FRC creates plasma by generating a magnetic field with a current flowing
through the 𝜗 pinch coil placed outside a cylindrical container. Next, by raising the
coil current in the reverse direction, a magnetic field in the opposite direction to the
one initially produced near the inner wall of the cylindrical container is induced.
As a result, as shown in Figure 1.3-7, a closed poloidal magnetic field is generated
in the plasma.
1.3.1.2.2 Rotational Transform System

Axisymmetric System The rotational transform system with the toroidal magnetic
field is classified into an axisymmetric system and a non-axisymmetric system by
methods of making rotational transform. If the system does not change even if it
is rotated around the torus axis, the system is said to be axisymmetric (also called
rotationally symmetric) and the rest is called non-axisymmetric (rotationally asym-
metric). The non-axisymmetric system has a helical symmetry system that does not
change even if it moves spirally.
The tokamak is a system that confines plasma by a combination of the toroidal
magnetic field produced with coils and the poloidal magnetic field produced with
plasma current that is flowed round the torus as shown in Figure 1.3-8.
Spherical torus (ST, spherical tokamak) is a confinement concept in which the
aspect ratio (A = R0 /a; the major radius R0 of plasma and the minor radius a) is set
to be two or less than two in the tokamak. As shown in Figure 1.3-9, the plasma
cross section becomes a D shape and the appearance looks spherical, so it is called
the spherical torus [6].
Figure 1.3-8 Tokamak.

Plasma Coil
Bt Bp
Ip
R
a R0
Figure 1.3-9 Spherical torus.

Plasma
a R0
Coil
Coaxial plasma gun
N
Electrode Bp
Bp
S
Iz Bt
Bt N
(a) (b)
Figure 1.3-10 Spheromak. (a) Induction method. (b) Plasma gun method.
As shown in Figure 1.3-10, spheromak [7] is a confinement concept where

the toroidal magnetic field is added in the FRC. The generation method of the
spheromak includes an induction method and a plasma gun method. The induction
method is similar to the method of generating the FRC, but electrodes are installed
at both ends as shown in Figure 1.3-10a. The poloidal magnetic field is generated
by injection of the reverse magnetic field. At the same time, a voltage is applied to
the plasma at the electrodes to induce an electric current I z in a pulsed manner in
the axial direction, and the toroidal magnetic field caused by this is also injected.
In the plasma gun method, a coaxial plasma gun is used. At first, a radial mag-
netic field is prepared at the outlet of the plasma gun. When the plasma is in the
coaxial plasma gun, it holds the toroidal magnetic flux. Next, when the plasma is
radiated from the tip part of the plasma gun, the plasma draws out the magnetic
field in the radial direction, obtains the poloidal magnetic flux, and becomes the
spheromak. The plasma cross section is as shown in Figure 1.3-10b. Compact torus
means spheromak, FRM, and FRC.
Like the tokamak, the reversed field pinch (RFP) confines plasma by the toroidal
magnetic field produced with an external coil and the poloidal magnetic field pro-
duced with the plasma current flowing round the torus. The main difference is that
the toroidal magnetic field decreases as the major radius increases in the tokamak
but the toroidal magnetic field decreases as the minor radius increases in the RFP as
shown in Figure 1.3-11. It becomes the opposite near the plasma edge. The magni-
tude of the magnetic field in the plasma has the relation of Bt ≫ Bp in the tokamak
but Bt ≈ Bp in the RFP. In order to generate this reversed magnetic field configura-
tion, there are two methods involving exploiting the property that plasma relaxes
under certain conditions spontaneously into this magnetic configuration and mak-
ing the magnetic field in the opposite direction from the outside at a high speed after
the generation of the plasma [8].
Figure 1.3-11 Magnetic field profile of reversed field

Plasma region pich.
Toroidal magnetic
Tokamak
field B
RFP
0
−a a
Major radius R
Internal conductor system is a device in which copper or superconductor is

installed in a torus vacuum vessel and a magnetic field is generated by flowing
current. The magnetic levitation internal conductor system can be considered by
using the superconducting coil because the supporting structure of the current lead
or the coil crosses the magnetic surface for the copper coil.
Non-Axisymmetric System It is possible to create the poloidal magnetic field with

only the external coil without using the plasma current. As shown in Figure 1.3-12a,
the stellarator uses the toroidal magnetic field coils and 𝓁 pairs of helical coils (𝓁 = 1,
2, 3, …), which have opposite current direction to each other, to create the poloidal
magnetic field.
Torsatron in Figure 1.3-12b and heliotron in Figure 1.3-12c use 𝓁 helical coils
with the same current direction in which coils with opposite current direction are
removed. In the 𝓁 helical coils, the toroidal magnetic field can also be generated. The
torsatron has eliminated the toroidal magnetic field coil by appropriately selecting
the pitch of the helical coil. In the heliotron, toroidal magnetic field coils are used as
an auxiliary. Since the 𝓁 helical coils generate a vertical magnetic field, the vertical
magnetic field coil is installed (not shown in Figures 1.3-12b and 1.3-12c) to cancel
this in the torsatron and heliotron [9].
The toroidal magnetic field and the poloidal magnetic field can be generated by
twisting the toroidal magnetic field coil. When the toroidal magnetic field coil is
arranged so that the magnetic axis of the toroidal magnetic field coil becomes spiral,
the toroidal magnetic field and the poloidal magnetic field can be generated too. This
is the nonplanar magnetic axis (spatial magnetic axis, three-dimensional magnetic
axis). Figure 1.3-13 shows an example of the nonplanar magnetic axis.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.3-12 Confinement concepts using helical coils. (a) Stellarator (𝓁 = 3).
(b) Torsatron (𝓁 = 3). (c) Heliotron (𝓁 = 3). Source: Stacey [9]. © 1984 John Wiley & Sons.
Figure 1.3-13 Nonplanar magnetic axis. Source: Central conductor

From [10]/with permission of The Japan Society of
Plasma Science and Nuclear Fusion Research.
Magnetic Toroidal field coil

flux surface
Figure 1.3-14 Configuration of magnetic field coil

in bumpy torus. Source: From [11]/Lexington Books.
Center line of torus
Magnetic field coil
As shown in Figure 1.3-14, the bumpy torus removes the end loss by arranging sim-
ple mirror coils in a toroidal direction. When mirror magnetic fields are connected
in a torus, the magnetic field becomes larger inside the torus and smaller on the
outside, resulting in charge separation. Generally, when the magnitude of magnetic
field has a gradient, the guiding center of the particle has a drift (∇B drift). Since
the mirror magnetic field has its gradient that decreases radially outward from the
center, the plasma particles rotate in the poloidal direction with this ∇B drift. This
plays the same role as the rotational transform of the stellarator magnetic field and
cancels the charge separation.
Also, the magnetic field between the mirror field coils is smaller and unstable than
near the coil. For this stabilization, there are two methods, one involving applying
a radial electric field to the plasma and confining it by E × B drift. Another method
involves injecting microwave between the mirror coils to form an electron ring com-
posed of relativistic electrons (several 100 keV) and confining the plasma by the
magnetic field made by the electron ring.
1.3.2 Inertial Confinement

Inertial confinement is a method in which energy is injected and nuclear fusion
reaction takes place before the plasma expands and dissipates. This name is given
because of the property that plasma keeps staying on the spot, that is, using inertia.
Figure 1.3-15 shows the principle of inertial confinement fusion (ICF). Small
balls (called pellets) of the target diameter 1–2 mm have a multilayer structure.
Figure 1.3-15a shows the case of a basic three-layer structure. First, the ablator layer
of the pellet’s outermost shell is plasmatized by energy injection with laser light or
the like and is jetted outward. As a result, as shown in Figure 1.3-15b, the pusher
layer is pushed inward by the reaction of the jet of the ablator layer and compresses
Energy Figure 1.3-15 The principle of

injection inertial confinement fusion.
(a) Pellet structure. (b) Implosion
Ablator and ignition.
Pusher
Fusion fuel
(a) (b)
the fusion fuel material such as D, T, etc. inside thereof. This rapid compression
heating (implosion) of the fusion fuel material induces a fusion reaction (ignition).
Fuel pellets should be spherical so that the implosion is performed symmetrically.
In this method, it is also necessary to inject energy uniformly to the pellet surface.
The energy injector is called an energy driver. Although the required specification
for the energy driver varies depending on the structure of the pellet and the inertial
confinement time, the driver may have the requirements such that the pulse width
is about 10 ns, the pulse waveform is close to a rectangle with early rising edge, the
energy absorption efficiency is high in high-density plasma, and the wavelength of
the laser is specified in order to avoid phenomena such as preheat.
There are lasers and charged particle beams in energy drivers. As high-power
lasers, Nd glass lasers, carbon dioxide lasers, and so on are used currently. Xenon
gas lasers and KrF lasers that belong to excimer lasers, solid state lasers, etc. can be
considered as future energy drivers.
Charged particle beams include relativistic electron beams (REB), light ion
beams (LIB), and heavy ion beams (HIB). In the REB, the beam with 1 MeV, 1 MA,
and the pulse width of 1 ns can be generated in the Marx generator. Conversion
efficiency from electric power to beam power exceeds 90%. In LIB, for example
deuterium ions, beam propagation is easier than REB. The conversion efficiency
is smaller than the one of REB, but it is much bigger than the one of laser. In HIB,
by accelerating ions heavier than LIB, such as uranium, it is aimed to reduce the
influence of the magnetic field, to increase the injection momentum, and to inject
energy by nuclear fission.
Classifying by the irradiation method, the direct irradiation method has a laser or a
charged particle beam directly irradiated on a fuel pellet and the indirect irradiation
method has a laser or a charged particle beam changed into X-rays in a cavity of a
heavy metal such as gold and a pellet irradiated with the rays.
Ignition schemes include the central spark ignition scheme and the fast ignition
scheme. The central spark ignition scheme causes a fusion reaction by using the
high-temperature plasma naturally occurring at the center of the imploded plasma.
The fast ignition scheme causes the fusion reaction by injecting an ultrashort pulse,
high-intensity laser into a low temperature and high-density imploded plasma and
additionally heating the plasma [12]. A combination of the irradiation method and
the ignition scheme can be used after considering the characteristics of the energy
driver.
References 15
As described above, there are many conceptual schemes for plasma confinement.
A power plant is required to supply steady and stable power. Since a large plant itself
becomes complex in terms of reactor engineering, it is desirable that the structure is
as simple as possible and is easy to manufacture and maintain. In the fusion reac-
tor, it is necessary to select the plasma confinement concept that can respond to
the steady and stable power supply. The following chapters describe a tokamak-type
nuclear fusion reactor which is considered as one of the concepts satisfying the above
requirements.
References
1 BP p.l.c (2015). BP Energy Outlook 2035. London, UK: BP p.l.c. https://www.ief

.org/_resources/files/events/ief-lecture--bp-energy-outlook-2035/energy-outlook-
2035-presentation.pdf.
2 Atzeni, S. and Meyer-ter-Vehn, J. (2004). The Physics of Inertial Fusion: Beam
Plasma Interaction, Hydrodynamics, Hot Dense Matter. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press http://fdslive.oup.com/http://www.oup.com/academic/pdf/13/
9780198562641.pdf.
3 Kammash, T. (1975). Fusion Reactor Physics, Principles and Technology. Ann
Arbor Science Publishers Inc./The Butterworth Group.
4 Katsurai, M. (1987). Kakuyugo Kenkyu 57 (1): 5. [in Japanese].
5 Yatsu, K., Bruskin, L.G., Cho, T. et al. (1999). Nucl. Fusion 39: 1707.
6 Peng, Y.-K.M. and Strickler, D.J. (1986). Nucl. Fusion 26: 769–777.
7 (a)Yamada, M., Furth, H.P., Hsu, W. et al. (1981). Phys. Rev. Lett. 46: 188. (b)
Jarboe, T.R., Barnes, C.W., Henins, I. et al. (1984). Phys. Fluids 27: 13.
8 Bodin, H.A.B. (1990). Nucl. Fusion 30: 1717.
9 Stacey, W.M. Jr., (1984). Fusion: An Introduction to the Physics and Technology of
Magnetic Confinement Fusion. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, Wiley.
10 Nagao, S. (1984). Kakuyugo Kenkyu 51 (2): 81–100. [in Japanese].
11 Hagler, M.O. and Kristiansen, M. (1980). Introduction to Controlled Thermonu-
clear Fusion Lexington Books 1977 translated by S. Takeda Toumeisya. USA:
Aero Publishers Inc. [in Japanese].
12 Azechi, H., Mima, K., Fujimoto, Y. et al. (2009). Nucl. Fusion 49: 104024.
17
Basis of the Fusion Reactor
The purpose of nuclear fusion research is to realize a nuclear fusion reactor and to
put fusion power generation into practical use. In this chapter, the conditions for
establishment of the tokamak-type fusion reactor are described as the basis of the
fusion reactor.
2.1 Power Flow
The tokamak is a system that confines plasma by forming magnetic surfaces with
the toroidal magnetic field and poloidal magnetic field. The magnetic surface is cov-
ered by the rotation around the poloidal direction when the magnetic field line goes
around the torus. The plasma particles that are charged are free to move along the
magnetic field line with the winding. The magnetic surface has a closed magnetic
surface and an open magnetic surface. The separatrix is the boundary between the
magnetic surfaces.
The plasma cross section is shown in Figure 2.1-1. The plasma confined by the
closed magnetic surface is called the main plasma (plasma, or core plasma in the
case of the fusion reactor). The surrounding plasma with the open magnetic surfaces,
which covers the main plasma, is called a scrape-off plasma or a scrape-off layer.
The fusion reactor has a finite size, and the open magnetic surface eventually hits
the boundary wall (plasma-facing wall). The plasma-facing component includes a
first wall, a limiter, and a divertor.
In the reaction shown in Eq. (1.2-3), neutrons and α particles are generated. The
neutrons and α particles obtained here have the nuclear fusion power. The power
flow from the main plasma is shown in Figure 2.1-2.
Neutrons can move in all directions without winding around the magnetic field
lines. The first wall is set where it first receives the power of the neutrons.
α particles that are charged move while winding around the magnetic field lines
and heat the plasma particles with the power. Part of the power of the plasma parti-
cles goes in all directions to the first wall by Bremsstrahlung radiation, synchrotron
Fusion Reactor Design: Plasma Physics, Fuel Cycle System, Operation and Maintenance,
First Edition. Takashi Okazaki.
© 2022 WILEY-VCH GmbH. Published 2022 by WILEY-VCH GmbH.
18 2 Basis of the Fusion Reactor
Separatrix First wall Figure 2.1-1 Plasma cross section.

Closed magnetic Open magnetic
surface surface
Divertor chamber
Plasma Exhaust duct
Scrape-off layer Divertor plate
Fusion power Neutrons

Alpha Bremsstrahlung
particles radiation
Synchrotron
radiation
Radiation by First wall

impurities
Plasma particles
Radiation by
going to scrape-
impurities
off layer
Charge exchange
Plasma particles
Radiation by
going to divertor Divertor
impurities
region chamber
Charge exchange
Plasma particles
Divertor
going to divertor
plate
plate
Figure 2.1-2 Power flow from the main plasma.
radiation, radiation by impurities, etc. The plasma particles having the remaining
power are transported from the main plasma to the periphery by thermal conduc-
tion or convection while winding around the magnetic field lines. That is, they move
from the closed magnetic surface to the scrape-off layer.
In the way of being transported to the divertor region through the scrape-off layer,
a part gives power to the first wall by radiation by impurities or charge exchange.
The remaining plasma particles move along the magnetic field lines to the divertor
region.
The wall where the magnetic field lines hit the divertor region is called a divertor
plate. The plasma generated in the region is called divertor plasma and what sur-
rounds the plasma is called a divertor chamber. In the chamber, part of the power
of the plasma particles is dispersed by radiation by impurities or charge exchange.
The plasma particles with the remaining power arrive at the divertor plate along the
magnetic field lines where they are neutralized and released to the divertor cham-
ber as neutral particles. The released neutral particles ionize again and head toward
the divertor plate along the magnetic field lines. With this recycling, the density
of the divertor chamber rises and pressure equilibrium is maintained at a certain
value. The divertor plate is exposed to the plasma under this pressure equilibrium
and receives its thermal load.
2.2 Fusion Reactor Structure 19
2.2 Fusion Reactor Structure
Figure 2.2-1 shows the configuration of the tokamak fusion reactor using the DT
reaction. In the plasma, a vacuum vessel that holds high vacuum and a vacuum
exhaust system that maintains the vacuum are required to generate and hold the
plasma. Also, coils are needed to create the magnetic field to confine the plasma.
When a superconducting coil is used, a cryogenic system is necessary. Furthermore,
a cryostat is required for maintaining the superconducting coil at a low temperature.
In order to cause a nuclear fusion reaction, it is necessary to raise the plasma tem-
perature and a plasma heating system is required. In the tokamak, a plasma current
drive system is necessary because the magnetic field generated by the plasma cur-
rent is used for plasma confinement. In the case of inducing the plasma current by
electromagnetic induction, a coil is necessary, and in the case of driving the plasma
current by non-electromagnetic induction, the plasma current drive system using a
particle beam or a radio frequency wave is required.
In the DT reaction, neutrons with 80% of the generated energy go to the
plasma-facing wall without being bound by the magnetic field. In order to convert
this energy into thermal energy, a blanket is installed around the core plasma.
By collecting the thermal energy generated by the blanket, generating steam, and
turning the turbine, electricity is generated. The blanket also generates tritium
consumed in the DT reaction. The thermal energy from the exothermic reaction
during tritium production is effectively used for power generation. The fusion
reactor that uses the DT reaction contains a fuel cycle.
The α particle energy generated by the DT reaction is used for heating the DT
plasma. But, as described in Section 2.1, part of the energy becomes radiated and goes
to the plasma-facing wall like neutrons. Since the neutron load and the thermal load
cause damage to the equipment as a result of radiation, heat treatment is performed
by installing the first wall on the plasma-facing wall. The thermal energy can also
be recovered and used for power generation.
The divertor has the role of processing heat transported by plasma particles and
radiation. Furthermore, since neutral particles and impurities generated by the
plasma particles striking the divertor plate enter the core plasma and adversely
affect the fusion reaction, the divertor has the role of impurity control to suppress
it. α particles after heating plasma are also exhausted so as not to adversely affect
Primary cooling system Secondary cooling system

Blanket Turbine Generator
Seawater Steam
Electric
Fueling
D power
Separation Plasma
T Discharge channel
Exhaust Cooling water
Exhaust
Alpha Water Condenser
particle Fuel cycle system Steam generator
Figure 2.2-1 Configuration of tokamak fusion reactor.

the fusion reaction. The thermal energy generated here can also be recovered and
used for power generation.
In order for repairment of equipment damage caused by neutrons, compensation
of the consumption of tritium breeding material, etc., maintenance of the equipment
is necessary. Considering maintenance methods, it is necessary to build a reactor
structure including vacuum vessel, coil, blanket, divertor, and other equipment. In
the outer side of the blanket, a shield for neutrons and γ rays is placed to prevent
equipment from neutron irradiation damage and protect radiation workers (the
workers).
A cooling system is required for cooling nuclear heat generated in the blanket
or the vacuum vessel. A fuel cycle system is required for recovering tritium pro-
duced in the blanket and separating, purifying, storing, and injecting fuel into the
plasma. In order to operate these systems, a control system and a diagnostic system
are necessary. In addition, a power supply system is needed for each equipment.
These systems constitute the fusion reactor.
2.3 Power Generation Conditions of the Fusion Reactor

2.3.1 Power Flow of the Power Plant
The energy balance in a power plant using fusion energy is as follows. Figure 2.3-1
shows the power flow of the power plant. In the fusion reactor, the plasma is heated
while compensating for energy loss such as radiation until fusion reaction occurs.
Let Ph be the plasma heating power. In the DT reaction, let Pf be the fusion power, P𝛼
be the α particle power, and Pn be the power of the neutron. Then the fusion power
is expressed as Pf = P𝛼 + Pn .
Considering that the neutron power is multiplied by M times with the nuclear
reaction through the blanket, the shield, etc. and that the α particle power P𝛼 and
the heating power Ph moving along the magnetic field line are increased by N times
through the divertor, the total thermal power becomes
Pt = N(P𝛼 + Ph ) + MPn . (2.3-1)
Let He be the power generation efficiency (thermal efficiency) when the generator
converts from thermal power to electric power. The generated power is written as
Pge = He Pt . (2.3-2)
By subtracting the heating power Pde and the consumption amount Pre in the plant
e
from the electric power generated, the net electric power Pnet transmitted to the out-
side of the plant is obtained as
e
Pnet = Pge − Pde − Pre . (2.3-3)
When the conversion efficiency 𝜂 d from the electric power Pde to the heating power
Ph in the heating system is used, the heating power is expressed by
Ph = 𝜂d Pde . (2.3-4)
2.3 Power Generation Conditions of the Fusion Reactor 21
Figure 2.3-1 Power flow of power Divertor

plant. N(Pα + Ph)
Blanket Generator
MPn He
Plasma Pt Pge Penet
Pf + Ph Plasma heating/
Ph current drive ηd Pde
Power
consumption
in plant Pre
The power ratio and the energy ratio are the same in the steady state and the energy
multiplication factor is denoted by Q = Pf /Ph .
With Pn = (14.06/17.58 MeV) Pf = (4/5)Pf and P𝛼 = (3.52/17.58 MeV) Pf = (1/5)Pf ,
the following is obtained:
Ph Pf Pt
Pde = = = . (2.3-5)
𝜂d 𝜂d Q 𝜂d Q{(N + 4M)∕5 + N∕Q}
2.3.2 Plant Efficiency

Let 𝜂 = Pnet
e
∕Pt be the plant efficiency (net thermal efficiency) that gives the power
generation efficiency of the power plant. Then the following is obtained:
1 Pe
𝜂 = He − − r. (2.3-6)
𝜂d Q{(N + 4M)∕5 + N∕Q} Pt
From Eq. (2.3-6), it can be seen that to raise the plant efficiency, it is necessary to
increase He , 𝜂 d , Q, N, and M and to reduce Pre . This becomes another expression:
e
Pnet + Pre 1
=1− . (2.3-7)
Pge He 𝜂d Q{(N + 4M)∕5 + N∕Q}
e
Figure 2.3-2 shows the relationship between the power Pnet and the energy multi-
plication factor Q in the case of He = 0.3, 𝜂 d = 0.5, and N = M = 1. If Pre is assumed
to be constant, it is understood that the vertical axis represents the power ratio out-
e
side the plant and the Q value needs to be increased in order to increase Pnet . Since
e e e
(Pnet + Pr )∕Pg converges to a certain value as the Q value increases, it is necessary to
set the Q value considering the whole balance of the plant.
Figure 2.3-2 The relationship between 1.0

e
the power Pnet and the energy
multiplication factor Q in the case of 0.8
He = 0.3, 𝜂 d = 0.5, and N = M = 1. e
Pnet + Pr e 0.6
Pge 0.4
0.2
0
0 30 60 90 120 150
Q
The power generation efficiency He is determined by the power generation

method. The value 𝜂 d is determined by the current drive system. Values N and M
are determined by the kind of the coolant used and the cooling method. Quantity
Pre is determined by plant configuration such as cryogenic system, fuel cycle system,
and their power supply systems. Q value is determined by the plasma design
condition. In order to increase the power generation efficiency, it is necessary
to appropriately set these values, which will give the conditions for power plant
development. Increasing the plant efficiency will improve economic efficiency.
2.3.3 Fuel Supply Scenario

The fusion plant needs to produce not only the amount of tritium to be consumed
in the plant itself but also the amount of tritium initially loaded for a new plant. The
introduction rate for the fusion plant is determined by tritium doubling time. This
time is discussed in Section 7.2.3.
2.4 Core Plasma Conditions
2.4.1 Break-Even Condition and Self-Ignition Condition

Quantity Q = 1 is referred to as the break-even condition, in which the external
heating power is equal to the fusion power. Quantity Q = ∞ is referred to as the
self-ignition condition, in which α particles generated by the DT reaction are con-
fined in the plasma and heat the plasma, and the external plasma heating power is
zero. Because the ratio of the fusion power to the plasma heating power by α parti-
cles is Pf /P𝛼 = 5, Q = 5 is one milestone when converting the heating power in the
hydrogen plasma experiment to the power P𝛼 in the DT experiment.
In the tokamak, when constantly injecting the current drive power to the plasma
for driving the plasma current, the burning plasma is maintained by the α heating
power and the current drive power. Therefore, it is impossible to operate at Q = ∞,
and it is necessary to operate at Q < ∞ (subignition). The larger the Q value is, the
better the plant efficiency will be. However, as mentioned in Section 2.3.2, when
e e
the Q value becomes too large, Pnet approaches Pge . In order to further increase Pnet ,
e
the current drive power Pd is decreased from Eq. (2.3-3). The burden on the devel-
opment of the current drive system increases excessively. Therefore, it is necessary
to select the Q value properly to make the whole system well-balanced.
2.4.2 Lawson Criterion

Lawson focused on the power generation efficiency He and gave the plasma condi-
tion of the fusion reactor from the energy balance. Lawson used the energy loss of
plasma as the sum of the power Pbr of Bremsstrahlung radiation and the loss power
PL due to heat conduction and particle escape from the plasma. The power required
to compensate for this loss and maintain the fusion reaction was set to 𝜂 L times the
total power of the plasma including the fusion reactionPf .
Pbr + PL = 𝜂L (Pf + Pbr + PL ). (2.4-1)
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« il y aurait du nouveau ». Il était bien sûr d’une chose : Albert ne
faillirait pas tant qu’elle habiterait avec son mari. « Et, songeait-il, par
respect pour sa mère et pour sa sœur, Albert hésitera quelque
temps avant de l’enlever dans l’intention de me forcer au divorce et
de l’épouser ! »
Il était sûr en revanche qu’après un an, après deux ans, il
retrouverait le même amour au cœur d’Albert. Le jour où Marie serait
libre, Albert oublierait tout et l’épouserait.
C’était bien cela, en effet. Albert se nourrissait en silence de
rêves passionnés. Il vivait du souvenir des longues journées
passées avec Marie. Le pauvre théoricien ne raisonnait plus ! Le
positiviste était dompté par la force impondérable. L’objectif et le
subjectif s’embrouillaient pour lui. Il attendait, fiévreux, les soirs,
devenus rares, où enfin, par politique vis-à-vis des sœurs et de la
mère, Paul arrivait, amenant Marie et Annette.
Annette, presque tous les jours, se faisait accompagner chez
Pauline. Pauline venait souvent chez Annette. Paul maintenant
n’admettait guère que sa femme vît sa petite sœur ailleurs qu’à
table. Il le lui avait dit. Injure nouvelle, sanglante, qui ajouta à tous
les ressentiments de Rita.
La petite avait ses leçons. Les professeurs lui prenaient une
partie de ses journées. Paul l’emmenait de temps à autre dans les
musées — et ce fut, une fois ou deux, avec Pauline, dont la vue lui
inspirait maintenant de profonds regrets, de tendres vénérations.
Ah ! le brave cœur, pensait-il. Et sa pensée évoquait malgré lui les
dernières recommandations de sa mère.
Il s’entretenait souvent avec l’abbé, lui demandait des conseils.
— « Je suis heureux d’être encore bon à quelque chose… quoique
prêtre », lui disait l’abbé avec un sourire de malice.
Il n’y avait pas deux mois d’écoulés depuis la mort de la
comtesse, lorsque, après une de ses conversations avec l’abbé,
Paul alla voir dans sa chambre sa chère Annette.
— Je viens te parler sérieusement, ma mignonne. C’est très
grave.
Depuis la mort de sa mère, Annette, si finement espiègle
autrefois, avait toujours comme un voile de tristesse qui
l’embellissait en lui donnant un air de petite femme, mais qui
effrayait Paul.
— Elles se mettent à se ressembler, ces deux petites, disait
Madame de Barjols.
Eh bien ! il ne voulait pas cela. Il ne voulait pas surtout que leurs
destinées à toutes deux devinssent pareilles.
Annette écoutait.
— Il faut avant tout, chère mignonne, que tu saches une chose.
C’est que, depuis que notre mère n’est plus là, ma chère sœur
Annette est devenue ce que j’aime le plus en ce monde.
Vite, elle dit :
— Même plus que tu n’aimes Albert ?
Il sourit.
— Même plus que je n’aime Albert.
— Ah !
Et elle devint pensive.
C’est bien à cause de ces airs pensifs, sur des mots semblables,
qu’il songeait à l’éloigner de sa maison. Il y avait, dans cette maison,
une atmosphère d’inconnu, d’attente, d’orage, de soupçons flottants.
Il y avait trop de prétextes à questions embarrassantes, de motifs à
songeries d’enfant.
— Quoi que je te demande, poursuivit-il, tu es donc bien sûre,
n’est-ce pas, que ce sera pour ton bonheur ?
— J’en suis sûre, Paul.
Elle mit dans les mains de son frère sa douce main confiante. Il
prit cette main, il prit aussi l’autre. Il les regarda toutes les deux, et
songea aux mains de sa mère, pareilles, petites, nerveuses, mais
déjà flétries, et toutes tremblantes au moment de sa mort. Dans une
indicible émotion, il couvrit de baisers les deux mains de la jeune
fille.
Elle le regardait, un peu étonnée, les lui abandonnant dans une
pose de divine enfance.
— Je viens de penser, dit-il, que tes deux petites mains
ressemblent à celles de maman. Je les reconnaîtrais, tes mains,
sans te voir… Oui, ce sont les siennes.
— Ah ! dit-elle, avec deux brillants de larmes au coin des yeux.
— Et, à présent que tu sais combien je t’aime, Nanette, — voici. Il
faut me quitter… Oh ! ne t’effraie pas… il faut aller au couvent.
— Si tu le veux, dit-elle, mais j’ai tant besoin de toi… et…
— Et ?
— Et de Pauline !
Il sourit encore.
— C’est pour mieux te la rendre, dit-il. Je ne peux pas
t’expliquer… ou plutôt… pourquoi pas ? Vois-tu, je ne sais pas si je
réussirai, mais je veux qu’un jour mon cher Albert — puisque tu
l’aimes — soit ton mari… Et pour cela, tu dois me quitter quelque
temps. Tu n’as plus la protection de ta mère, et tant qu’il n’est pas
ton fiancé, il ne doit pas te revoir, précisément parce que tu l’aimes.
— Cependant… Paul…
— Enfin, c’est comme ça… Crois-tu en moi ?
— De tout mon cœur. Comme je croyais à maman.
— Bien. C’est elle, vois-tu, qui te parle en moi. Alors ?…
— Alors…
Elle n’acheva pas et, se suspendant à son cou et pleurant en
silence, elle l’embrassa de toutes ses forces.
Le lendemain, elle était au couvent.
IV
Rita, elle, décidément, avait pris son parti. — Elle se ferait

enlever par Albert… C’était une affaire de temps, mais elle voulait
tenir sa promesse, exécuter la menace qui avait tué cette mère dont
elle portait le deuil…
« Le deuil, c’est fait pour toi », lui disait Berthe, qui n’attachait à
ce mot rien de symbolique ni de cruel.
Paul et Albert se voyaient rarement.
Paul avait rencontré Berthe chez lui deux ou trois fois : « Ses
anciens amis reviennent, songeait-il. Cela, de sa part, signifie sans
doute le franc retour au vrai soi-même… » Il se surprenait à écouter
à la porte, furtivement, une seconde, avant d’entrer, lorsqu’elle était
avec quelqu’un. Cela devenait une habitude. Quand la honte l’en
prenait, il se répétait le mot de sa mère : « Contre ça, tout est bon »,
ajoutant : « État de guerre, soit, y compris l’espionnage ! Voilà
cependant comment, peu à peu, elles démoralisent un homme,
altèrent sa probité et pourraient parvenir à le transformer
entièrement. »
Et il concluait : « Pauvre Albert ! »
Elle, elle attendait une occasion de dire à Albert : « Je suis trop
malheureuse. Enlevez-moi, puisque je vous aime. Sinon… je
mourrai ! » Mais l’occasion, comment se présenterait-elle ? Fallait-il
écrire ? Non. C’était brutal et trop dangereux. Il fallait attendre un
mot de passion qu’il lui soufflerait tout bas, un soir, chez sa mère,
dans un coin du grand salon, — un mot qu’elle provoquerait.
Sa sœur vint la voir et lui demanda de l’argent.
De l’argent ? Elle réfléchit tout de suite que si elle partait un de
ces matins, il lui en faudrait beaucoup.
D’autre part, elle n’osa refuser, puisqu’elle avait pris, autrefois,
toutes les valeurs au porteur qui étaient chez leur mère… Si sa sœur
allait s’en plaindre, crier au voleur ! Voilà qui pourrait servir les
projets de son mari ; il la dénoncerait à Albert !… Elle paya donc et
se fit donner des reçus, qu’elle mit dans un petit sac de voyage
toujours tout préparé, pour un cas de départ subit, dans un coin sûr.
La pauvre sœur aux grandes lunettes n’eut pas le loisir de se
plaindre beaucoup de son sort…
— Tu es heureuse, toi ! interrompit Rita. Si tu savais ce que c’est !
Tiens, je t’envie. La pauvreté, avec la liberté… Ah ! si j’avais ça !…
Mais je suis tombée chez des gens vraiment trop honnêtes ! Tout est
devoir ici ; on n’est libre de rien !
Et de son accent gouailleur et veule :
— Ah ! malheur !
Elles parlèrent de leur mère, un moment, — mais, depuis la mort
de Madame Déperrier, il avait soufflé de tels vents d’orage dans le
cœur de Rita, que ce passé lointain n’existait plus pour elle. Du
reste, elle ne tenait plus compte jamais que de la sensation
présente. Elle n’était attachée à rien. Elle flottait comme une méduse
de mer, espèce de fleur vivante sans racine et venimeuse, à la
surface des abîmes de la vie.
— Ta mère ? dit-elle à sa sœur. Ah ! oui, elle nous a bien élevées
pour notre bonheur, ta mère !
Elle disait « ta mère ». Elle n’en voulait plus pour elle-même, de
cette mère-là.
— Toi, encore, tu as un métier… Moi, je suis mariée ! Ça ou
cocotte, quand on se marie comme moi, ça n’est pas plus honorable,
au fond, et c’est moins gai, je t’assure ! Tu vois, je ne suis pas fière ;
je te dis ça pour te consoler. Je suis malheureuse… La voilà, ta
comtesse !
La sœur partit, ahurie, navrée, n’y comprenant rien, trouvant la
vie bête, les hommes méchants, le monde fou, et répondant par un
mépris vague à l’indifférence qui l’assistait aujourd’hui de mauvaise
grâce, après l’avoir dépouillée autrefois.
Théramène fut plus heureux dans une visite qu’il fit à son
ancienne élève.
Il porta lui-même une lettre. Il avait eu soin d’écrire en grosses
lettres sur l’enveloppe : « Il y a une réponse. » On le prit pour un
commissionnaire.
La lettre disait :
« Madame la Comtesse,
« Un vieux comédien, qui a eu l’honneur de vous donner

autrefois quelques leçons de déclamation, sollicite la faveur de
vous exposer lui-même sa triste situation actuelle. Il attend à la
porte de votre hôtel la réponse dont votre bonté daignera sans
doute l’honorer.
« Je suis, Madame la Comtesse, avec le plus profond
respect, votre très humble et très dévoué serviteur.
« Pinchard, de la Comédie-Française. »
— Faites monter le porteur de cette lettre.

Quand il entra, elle eut un cri :
— Ah ! Théramène !
Il s’avançait, un peu gêné, bien qu’il eût joué des rôles de
marquis dans des décors très chics ; et il oubliait d’avoir grand air.
Elle alla à lui… Il saluait plusieurs fois de suite.
— Embrasse-moi donc, va ! Je ne vaux pas mieux qu’avant…
Étonné, il ouvrit les bras. Elle y tomba avec un sanglot…
C’était donc quelque chose de regrettable, son passé de liberté
bohème, les mardis-Pinchard, avec la théorie de Samson : —
« Quand vous rentrez chez vous, qu’est-ce que vous faites ? — Je
prends mon bougeoir chez ma concierge ! »
— Te souviens-tu, hein ?
— Si je me souviens ! Je déjeunais, en ce temps-là !
— Assieds-toi là. Te rappelles-tu le charcutier du coin ?
— Oui, celui qui ne vendait pas de saphirs… Tu n’es pas
devenue fière.
La seule vue de Pinchard la ramenait au temps de leur bohème
libre, et elle se mit, avec volubilité, à lui parler sa langue.
— Fière ? non, vieux, je ne l’ai jamais été. Orgueilleuse, ça, oui !
Et puis, mon vieux Pinchard, si tu savais ! Il y a un tas de pièges,
« dans le sein des grandeurs », comme tu disais. J’étais bien plus
sincère autrefois, dans mon milieu. J’étais une déclassée, je vois,
mais à mon rang de déclassement… On nous fait donner des
diplômes, des brevets, des éducations au-dessus de nos moyens.
On nous dit ensuite de nous ficher de la morale, et qu’il n’y a ni bon,
ni mauvais, ni Dieu, ni diable, ni rien, et de mépriser ceux d’en bas,
de mépriser nos pareils, de mépriser ceux de la haute, et cependant
de nous conjoindre à eux, à cause de l’argent et des honneurs. On
nous habille en princesses, et un jour nous le devenons. Mais, va te
promener ! Il y a un tas de choses qu’il faudrait savoir, justement ce
qu’on n’a pas appris : des sentiments, quoi ! — Alors, querelle. On
est chien et chat. Le nègre et le blanc… Si tu savais comme j’en ai
assez, ô Ruy Blas, des grands d’Espagne ! Voilà pourquoi je te
retrouve avec plaisir, vieux maître… T’es du temps, je te dis, où
j’étais sincère… relativement.
Il la considérait, ébloui ; puis, contristé tout à coup :
— Comment ! tu n’es pas heureuse ? fit-il.
— Ah ! ouiche ! Je ne sais pas faire ce qu’il faudrait pour ça, à ce
qu’il paraît ; mais console-toi : je ne saurai jamais… Il faut apprendre
quand on est petit. Il faut qu’on nous mette ça dans les sangs,
comme disait ma concierge… Aussi, à présent que j’ai reconnu mon
incapacité pour « le d’voir ! » ils n’ont qu’à se bien garder, les autres !
J’vas me lâcher, gare la bombe !
Le vieux bouffon secoua lentement la tête.
— Je vois bien qu’on t’a fait du gros chagrin, petite, je ne sais pas
lequel et je n’ai pas besoin de savoir. Mais… faudrait pas devenir
mauvaise.
— Devenir mauvaise ? C’t’idée ! Je l’ai toujours été, au fond !
Elle cessa de parler, sur ce ton demi-plaisant, l’argot familier à
Théramène. Une rage plus profonde la saisit et la rendit grave. Elle
poursuivit avec la noblesse des douleurs vraies :
— Est-ce qu’on n’a pas été mauvais avec moi, toujours, depuis
l’amant de ma mère, jusqu’à Lérin, en passant par tous les vieux,
après avoir passé par tous les jeunes ? On me reproche l’égoïsme ?
Mais je n’ai jamais vu autre chose, en bas, en haut, toute petite et
plus grande, et toujours… Tiens, il n’y a guère que toi qui ne m’aies
pas fait de mal.
Sur cette idée, elle s’apaisa un peu, et ajouta, avec son accent
de gouaillerie :
— T’étais peut-être trop vieux, hein ! Pinchard ? C’est égal, ça
prouverait tout de même qu’on peut avoir quelque chose comme du
cœur sans chair !
Elle s’était levée, et, debout dans la franchise de son âme
malade et révoltée, elle était belle. Ses yeux lançaient la haine et la
perfidie. Les coins de sa bouche s’affaissaient avec une sorte de
sourire morne qui éveillait des idées de mal infini, triste de se
reconnaître.
— Parlons de toi. Que deviens-tu ? Toujours traînant la misère,
hein ? Et je te vois venir, avec tes gros sabots : tu viens demander
cinq cents francs ! Je les ai refusés à ma sœur… Oh ! n’aie pas
crainte : elle en voulait quinze cents : je ne lui en ai donné que mille ;
— seulement, je ne sais pas, tu me touches, tu es inoffensif, toi. Tu
es un bon être, au fond.
— Tu vois, s’écria-t-il, tu sais ce que c’est que d’être bon ! Je
voyais bien que tu te calomniais tout à l’heure. Mais cinq cents
francs ! — poursuivit-il, en levant les bras au ciel, — misère de moi !
où est-ce que je mettrais tout ça ? Je ne dormirais plus, pour sûr,
comme le financier ; — et puis, je vais t’expliquer : cinq cents francs,
je sais trop bien que je ne pourrai jamais te les rendre, et, d’une
femme, on ne peut pas accepter ça.
Il était très sérieux, digne ; il poursuivit :
— Donne-m’en cinquante. Je ne te les rendrai pas davantage,
c’est sûr, mais, — tu vas rire, — je pourrai du moins m’imaginer que
je pourrai peut-être te les rendre un jour. Alors, ça devient honnête.
— Tiens, en voilà cent. Tu es un ange… Et le métier ?
— Euh ! fit Théramène, l’Art s’en va. Je suis allé à la Comédie-
Française, avant-hier. Faible. Le niveau est faible.
— Mais toi, toi, que fais-tu ?
— Je crève toujours, dit-il simplement, sur un ton comique à faire
pleurer.
— Pauvre Théramène !
— C’est même si fort que j’ai pensé à me remettre à dire mes
monologues dans les cours. Mais ça ne peut plus se faire. On me
prend pour un anarchiste. On ne me laisse plus entrer.
— Toi, Théramène ?
— Moi. Au reste, il y en a un, d’anarchiste, — à la crèmerie où je
vais voir ceux qui mangent, — il y en a un qui a voulu m’enrôler…
Elle eut dans les yeux un éclair étrange :
— Tu as accepté, au moins ?
— Ne plaisante pas là-dessus, ma petite Rita !
— Je ne plaisante pas, dit-elle… Ah ! je voudrais être un homme !
Elle serra les dents.
— Tiens ! ça me fait plaisir de le dire enfin à quelqu’un : Ils ont
raison, ceux-là ! Et ils trouveront de l’appui auprès de gens sur
lesquels ils ne comptent guère.
— Auprès de qui ? questionna machinalement Théramène
abasourdi.
— Auprès de moi, par exemple !
— Tu veux rire. Ça n’est pas drôle. Je ne comprends pas !
— Tu ne comprends pas, Théramène ?
Elle eut comme une volonté rageuse de faire contre elle-même
de la justice mauvaise :
— Vois-tu, dit-elle, il y a, dans tous les mondes, des gens qui
détestent les autres et qui se font horreur à eux-mêmes ; des gens
que le suicide attire, parce qu’ils ont assez de tout… Eh bien ! ceux-
là, en crevant, ça ne leur serait pas désagréable de faire une
dernière fois le plus de mal possible à ceux qui les ont rendus
mauvais et qui les ont faits malheureux… Voilà. Je te dis que la vie
est pleine de gens qui voudraient bien sauter, à condition de faire
sauter le monde… Ils n’ont pas le courage d’allumer la mèche…
Mais peut-être bien qu’ils donneraient le sac.
Pinchard regardait Rita, et ne la reconnaissait plus. Il pensait
qu’elle aurait été superbe dans la tragédie, et il laissa échapper ces
quatre mots :
— Tu me rappelles Rachel.
Elle n’y prit pas garde, tant elle était sincère à ce moment. Une
fureur sourde la secouait, une envie terrible d’action, de batailles, de
représailles et de mort… Oh ! disparaître avec tout, avec tous, dans
un cataclysme final !… Elle regardait droit devant elle, dans le vide,
avec des yeux clairs et froids comme l’acier.
Pinchard haussa les épaules.
— Toi ! toi ! tu serais, toi, de ceux qui veulent détruire le monde,
et fumer des cigarettes sur les décombres ? fit-il d’un ton goguenard.
Tu peux causer, ma fille ! Je n’y crois pas.
Elle s’assit, un peu calmée par cette raillerie, déjà prête à sourire
de sa violence, à se rattacher aux joies terrestres que n’avait pas
cessé de lui promettre l’avenir inconnu.
— Ça n’est pas précisément ce que tu dis, mon bon
Théramène… Je voudrais la fin du monde pour moi, — pour finir
avec !
— Ah ! je comprends. Tu veux de la compagnie ? Rien que tout le
monde ! Excusez du peu, ma fille !
Il ne la croyait pas. Elle disait vrai, pourtant.
S’il y a des êtres de pitié et de tendresse qui se résignent avec
horreur à l’idée d’employer la violence et la mort, pour assurer,
espèrent-ils, le triomphe final de la tendresse et de la pitié, — il y a
aussi des âmes damnées qui appellent l’enfer pour tout le monde.
Après un silence d’un moment, Pinchard reprit :
— Alors, vrai, tu es malheureuse à ce point, dans tout ce luxe ?
— Tu crois encore au luxe, toi ! dit-elle. Moi, je ne crois même
plus à ça. J’ai des robes de reine ; et après ?… Je souhaitais une
femme de chambre. Je crois bien que j’en ai trois, mais ça ne
m’amuse pas !
— Alors, fit Pinchard, je te comprends de moins en moins. Ceux
qui veulent tout chambarder, c’est qu’ils veulent de ça, pas vrai ?
Il secouait son billet de cent.
— Eh bien ! dit-elle, quand ils en auront, envoie-les-moi. Je
voudrais voir s’ils seront heureux alors. Avec la fortune, mon vieux,
on peut tout au plus éclabousser les gens, et le bonheur, vois-tu,
c’est d’écraser les autres ; voilà la vérité nouvelle ; et je te réponds
que je la sens bien !… La fortune empêche.
— Tiens, tu m’affliges ! soupira-t-il.
— Comme le gueurnadier, fit-elle.
— Ne ris donc pas, répliqua alors Pinchard gravement. Je ne t’ai
jamais dit des choses que je pense, parce que tu ne m’as jamais dit
des choses comme aujourd’hui. Eh bien ! ma pauvre petite, puisque
l’occasion se présente, je vas t’en donner pour cinquante francs, de
la vérité. Restera à cinquante, et nous serons quittes !… Le bonheur,
ma fille, c’est là et là.
Il toucha sa tête et son cœur.
— Quand je cause avec toi, je suis heureux ; j’oublie que je suis
seul au monde… car je t’aime, moi ! Je ne sais pas bien comment ça
se fait, mais c’est comme ça… C’est le cœur ! Quand je récite,
même en pleurant, dans les cours, tu en penseras ce que tu
voudras, mais je suis heureux… autant qu’on peut l’être en ce
monde, corrigea-t-il bien vite… Ça, c’est l’esprit ! Le bonheur, ça se
porte en dedans, partout, sous tous les costumes, ou bien alors,
c’est qu’on est décidément parmi les incurables qui ont toujours
quelque chose à se reprocher. Rigole tant que tu voudras ! Un brave
homme a une manière de souffrir qui n’est pas sans agrément. Et un
brave homme, qu’est-ce que c’est ? C’est un bon cœur… Moi, par
exemple, sans me flatter, je suis un brave homme ! — Tiens, sur ton
billet de cent, je prendrai quelque chose pour une pauvre bougresse,
ma voisine de taudis, qui est en train d’accoucher… Elle a gueulé
toute la nuit. Eh bien, elle en aura un peu, un tout petit peu… Et ça
me fera plaisir… Encore le cœur… Pan !
Il se frappa le cœur.
— Veux-tu encore un exemple ? Quand je suis dans ma
chambre, au milieu de mes tableaux, — je crois que tableaux est
pompeux, — quand j’ai revêtu mon velours râpé, ma soie usée, ma
chemise sale à longues manchettes, — trop longues, oui, je sais,
mes manchettes, — alors je suis un prince, je suis Ruy Blas, je me
sens le collaborateur nécessaire des plus grands génies.
Il frappa rudement sa tête qui rendit un son mat.
— Encore l’esprit, pan ! Pas creuse, hein, la caboche ?
Il s’anima :
— Et ils viendraient tous avec des millions me dire : « Pinchard,
voici la fortune, mais rendez le talent ! » je leur répondrais : « Zut !
j’aime mieux ma part ! » Et, acheva-t-il, ce qu’il y a de plus raide,
c’est que je n’en ai pas des masses, de talent ! Amour, art, illusion,
ma chère, on n’a pas fait mieux…
Il déclama :
— Illusions des nuits, vous jouez-vous de moi ?
— J’ai dit. Mais « tant qu’à » faire du mal à une mouche, pour
assurer mon succès sur n’importe quel théâtre, tu me croiras ou non,
ça me gâterait tout mon bonheur. Tiens, j’ai essayé une fois de
détester un directeur de théâtre : Oh ! ça, c’était bien naturel ? j’ai
pas pu. Quant aux camarades, ils m’ont écrasé plus souvent qu’à
mon tour. Que faire à ça ?… je me dis aujourd’hui que peut-être ils
avaient un peu plus de génie que moi, — ou seulement plus de
chance. Eh bien ! après ? Il n’y a pas d’égalité dans la nature… Je
me contente donc d’être, dans l’ombre, supérieur à mon siècle.
Il prononça ces derniers mots avec une ironie gaie et
déclamatoire…
— J’ai été long… si long !… J’achève donc. Voici ma noble
péroraison : Pense, par-ci par-là, au vieux bouffon, ma fillette. Si tu
te dis qu’il t’aime bien et qu’il saurait te le prouver à l’occasion, ça te
fera chaud dans le cœur. Ah ! le cœur, tout est là, je te dis ! J’en ai,
moi, vois-tu ; et s’il y a un bon Dieu partout, comme on disait de mon
temps, je lui demanderai une place dans le théâtre du paradis… Ça
me reposera des paradis de théâtre… Je pense qu’il n’y en aura pas
seulement pour l’opéra, là-haut. Ça serait trop raide… Là-dessus, je
vous baise les mains, comtesse.
Il s’inclina, et dit, avec le ton qu’il eût pris pour lire une lettre :
— Votre très humble, très respectueux et très fidèle serviteur.
Signé : Pinchard.
Elle songeait, les yeux vagues.
— Adieu, vieux… Allons, va, embrassons-nous encore. Qui sait
si nous nous reverrons ?
— Pourquoi pas, petite ? D’abord, je m’engage à revenir dans six
mois chercher encore un petit bleu pareil. Cette image me plaît.
— Dans six mois, dit-elle, je crois bien que je ne serai plus là.
Adieu, Pinchard.
Elle-même l’embrassa sur les deux joues, avec une petite larme
qui ne parvint pas à tomber.
Il paraît que Monsieur d’Aiguebelle avait entendu quelque chose
de cette conversation.
Comme Pinchard allait sortir du vestibule dans la cour, le comte
parut :
— Monsieur Pinchard, dit-il, quand vous aurez besoin de moi,
n’oubliez pas de venir frapper à ma porte.
Et comme Théramène écarquillait les yeux :
— J’aurai toujours quelque chose à la disposition de vos pauvres,
Monsieur Pinchard.
Le comte souriait. Il ajouta :
— Entre hommes, on peut s’entr’aider, n’est-ce pas ?
Pinchard, profondément surpris, étrangement ému, se précipita
sur la main qu’on lui tendait. Il ne put articuler un seul mot, et s’en
alla, plus fier, plus heureux que jamais, — sans rien réciter.
Il s’en allait, le vieux bouffon au cœur simple et pur, l’artiste
rêveur aux dehors sordides. Pour éclairer sa route de misère, il avait
pris quelque chose aux lumières des plus sages. Dans sa misérable
lanterne, il portait, ce pauvre, une lueur tremblotante et douce, jolie
comme une étoile du ciel.
V
Un jour, au moment où le comte Paul sortait, il rencontra dans le

vestibule un jeune homme en train de parlementer avec son valet de
chambre.
La comtesse était absente.
— Ah ! dit le jeune homme, d’un air embarrassé. Je suis heureux
de vous voir, Monsieur.
Mais il ne semblait pas heureux du tout.
— Je ne vous reconnais pas, Monsieur, riposta le comte.
— C’est que, Monsieur, lorsque vous m’avez vu, je portais
l’uniforme de lieutenant aux chasseurs.
Il se nomma :
— Léon Terral.
Le comte Paul eut un sursaut ; il reconnaissait enfin cette figure.
Il revoyait tout à coup, comme présente, une scène entièrement
perdue depuis longtemps dans l’ombre de sa mémoire. Il revoyait
Léon Terral en costume d’officier, causant avec sa femme, aux
Bormettes, le soir même de son mariage. N’était-ce pas surtout à ce
moment, que, regardant Marie, il avait songé : « C’est étrange. On la
dirait toute changée. On dirait une autre ? »
Un rapprochement se fit, seulement alors, dans son esprit, entre
trois choses, qui étaient : d’abord, son pressentiment triste de ce
soir-là ; puis, les lettres qui, quelques heures après, lui avaient tout
révélé ; — et enfin le retour actuel de cette figure d’homme, bien
changée maintenant.
Terral était amaigri ; le teint plombé. Ses yeux se détournaient
trop vite quand le regard les cherchait. Son costume flambant neuf
disait sa misère. C’était un complet gris, tout raide, coupé avec
l’élégance des gravures accrochées aux vitres des raccommodeurs
d’habits. Les poches de sa jaquette étaient gonflées, comme s’il
portait sur lui tout un attirail de voyage. Il avait des manchettes trop
luisantes, en celluloïde sans doute, un col pareil, une cravate bleue
éclatante, — mise sans soin. Il portait un chapeau melon couleur
bois, qui, sous un apprêt luisant, renouvelé de la veille, laissait
entrevoir des taches anciennes.
— Vous désirez voir ma femme ?… Elle est sortie, dit froidement
le comte.
— On me le disait, Monsieur, répondit Léon Terral, mais
pardonnez-moi, je ne le croyais pas… Madame la comtesse
d’Aiguebelle, ajouta-t-il gauchement, d’un air humble de domestique,
a-t-elle un jour ?
— Elle n’en a pas, Monsieur, dit Paul sèchement.
Il s’acheminait vers la rue, suivi du jeune homme.
— Je me présenterai donc, au petit bonheur, un de ces jours,
Monsieur, dit Léon.
Ils se saluèrent.
Et dès qu’il se fut éloigné, le comte revint dire au valet de
chambre :
— N’oubliez pas cette figure. Ni madame, ni moi nous n’y serons
jamais pour ce Monsieur Terral, entendez-vous… Sous aucun
prétexte ne le laissez entrer… Et même soyez attentif à ses
moindres paroles, pour me les rapporter exactement.
Habitué à des visites de pauvres diables, dont quelques-uns,
reconnus pour des professionnels de la mendicité, étaient
impitoyablement évincés, le valet de chambre s’inclina, bien décidé
à obéir scrupuleusement aux ordres qui lui étaient donnés.
Dans l’après-midi, tout en courant à ses affaires, qui étaient
celles des autres, celles des pauvres, le comte Paul songeait
obstinément à cette figure louche de Léon. Et un autre souvenir
s’éveilla en lui… Il avait lu, peu de jours auparavant, dans un journal,
une de ces histoires comme les gazettes en rapportent
fréquemment… Un malheureux jeune homme, qui était allé tenter la
fortune en Amérique, après avoir donné depuis six mois à peine sa
démission d’officier, venait de rentrer en France. On ne le nommait
pas, par respect pour une famille honorable, disait le journal, car la
police le recherchait activement. Il était mêlé à une affaire bizarre, le
lancement d’un produit nouveau, « la vitréine », destiné à détrôner le
celluloïde. La vitréine servait à tout, on en pouvait faire des cols de
chemises, des fleurs, des bijoux, des assiettes et même des vitraux
d’église. Pour monter cette affaire immense, deux ou trois maîtres-
chanteurs, associés, s’étaient procuré des fonds par des moyens
douteux. On soupçonnait l’ex-officier d’avoir connu leurs
agissements, et même, etc., etc… Bref, il paraissait évident que M.
Léon Terral était entré dans la grande confrérie des flibustiers. « Ce
n’est pas la première fois, disait le journal, que l’espoir d’enlever une
Manon entraîne un galant homme aux pires compromissions. »
— Cela devait finir ainsi, murmurait le comte. C’est cela. C’est
mon homme. C’est lui l’auteur des lettres à Rita !… Peut-être est-ce
pour elle que ce misérable enfant est allé tenter fortune. C’est un de
ces imbéciles que la première venue peut enlever à tous leurs
devoirs et qui finissent par le bagne, ou par le revolver… Misère de
moi !… Nous surveillerons cela… Léon Terral ?… Au surplus, j’irai
aux informations…
Il y alla.
Il se rendit au siège d’une société bien connue de lui, une de
celles qui ont pour but le relèvement du mendiant par le travail.
Afin de garder les membres de l’association contre les tentatives
des faux nécessiteux, la société forme des dossiers où sont inscrits
les noms d’un grand nombre de mendiants à domicile. La préfecture
de police même vient prendre là quelquefois des renseignements.
En échange, elle en fournit à la société.
Paul traversa une salle encombrée d’étoffes, de vêtements
destinés à des pauvres et confectionnés par des pauvres. Il
demanda à l’un des nombreux secrétaires s’il connaissait le nom de
Léon Terral.
— Si vous l’avez ici, c’est depuis peu de jours…
— Oui. Voici son dossier, Monsieur Terral (Léon), Affaire de la
vitréine, ex-lieutenant aux chasseurs. A démissionné le 20
septembre 1886.
« Cinq jours après mon mariage », pensa le comte Paul.
Quelques découpures de journaux donnaient toute l’odyssée
lamentable du jeune homme. Elle se terminait ainsi : « Se cache à
Paris depuis peu de temps. A fait la traversée de New-York au Havre
sous un un nom d’emprunt : Delsigny. A écrit sous ce nom à M. le
baron de Rothschild qui lui a envoyé cinquante francs. Quand cette
somme est arrivée à l’hôtel, sous pli recommandé, Léon Terral, se
sachant surveillé par la police, avait disparu, etc., etc.
— Est-il venu vous demander de l’argent ? interrogea l’employé.
— Non, Monsieur, dit le comte Paul, mais c’est un malheureux
auquel je m’intéresse.
Trois jours plus tard, Léon Terral se présentait vainement chez la

comtesse. Les domestiques lui interdisaient formellement la porte. Il
laissa échapper un mouvement de colère :
— C’est bon ! J’écrirai à Madame d’Aiguebelle. On vous fera
repentir de ces façons-là.
Et il sortit fièrement ; mais, dépouillé de l’uniforme, le pauvre
garçon n’avait plus d’allure. Il portait mal son affreux complet gris,
qui, mouillé plusieurs fois depuis l’autre jour, n’avait même plus son
vilain luisant, ni sa fâcheuse raideur. L’étoffe en était fripée et terne
comme du papier décollé.
Informé de tous ces détails, le comte Paul dit à son valet de
chambre :
— A partir d’aujourd’hui, vous ne laisserez entrer ni un journal, ni
une lettre, ni un paquet quelconque sans me les avoir présentés
d’abord.
Et il ouvrait les journaux, cherchant s’il n’y rencontrerait pas des
mots soulignés, examinait les suscriptions des enveloppes, regardait
le fond d’une boîte, d’un envoi de magasin.
— Si je rencontrais l’écriture des fameuses lettres, je crois bien
que je la reconnaîtrais.
Un matin, on lui présenta, parmi d’autres, un pli jaune, qui avait
l’air d’envelopper un banal prospectus des Grands Magasins. Sous
la transparence exagérée de l’enveloppe, on apercevait en effet
toute une imagerie de prospectus. L’adresse était écrite à la
mécanique, en lettres bleu pâle : Madame la comtesse d’Aiguebelle,
etc.
Il ouvrit ce pli, en se répétant : « Contre ça, tout est bon ! » Il
déploya soigneusement l’imprimé, s’apprêtant à y chercher des mots
épars, soulignés çà et là, et qui, rapprochés, feraient une phrase…
Un papier blanc en tomba. C’était une lettre… écrite, comme
l’adresse, à la machine. L’auteur de la lettre ne signait pas, n’écrivait
pas de sa main, ne se désignait que par ces mots : « … Vous qui
aviez gardé mes lettres de jeunesse… »
Évidemment, au moyen de ces précautions, l’auteur entendait
que, dans le cas où cette lettre serait trouvée, elle perdrait toute
valeur d’interprétation non seulement contre lui-même, mais contre
la destinataire. Il y parlait d’une dette, d’une échéance, élevait de
pressantes réclamations sous lesquelles on sentait comme une
menace passionnée. Et enfin, il disait :
« J’attends votre réponse aux initiales P. J. no 131, bureau

14, — mardi dans la matinée. Vous n’aurez qu’à répondre que
je puis me rendre chez vous, dans l’après-midi du même jour, à
trois heures précises, ce jour et cette heure m’étant
particulièrement commodes. »
C’était tout. C’était assez. Paul remit cette missive, sous une
nouvelle enveloppe, dans les plis du prospectus, et fit en sorte
qu’elle parvînt à la comtesse à table, vers la fin du déjeuner, au
moment où on lui remettait son propre courrier.
Tout en parcourant son journal, il surveillait sa femme, de ce
regard de côté, de cette vue subtile qui peut se rendre compte avec
certitude de certains furtifs mouvements, et il la vit ouvrir
l’enveloppe, lire le message imprimé. Durant une seconde, elle parut
étonnée ; puis, ne se croyant pas observée, elle fit disparaître ce
papier dans sa poche.
Il leva aussitôt les yeux d’un air naturel, et alors il reconnut sur
ses lèvres le sourire plein d’arrière-pensées, le même, qu’elle avait
eu entre ses bras, le soir de leur mariage, avant de rire
impudemment.
Elle sortit dans l’après-midi, avec sa voiture. Elle ne sortait pas
autrement. C’était l’ordre du comte.
Le lendemain il fit venir le valet de pied.
— A quel bureau de poste mes lettres ont-elles été mises, hier ?
Une de ces lettres n’est pas parvenue.
— Au Palais-Bourbon, répondit ingénument le domestique…
Mais il n’y en avait qu’une.
— Bien… je le savais. Mais pourquoi, reprit le comte d’un air
sévère, pourquoi laissez-vous votre maîtresse descendre de voiture
pour jeter elle-même des lettres à la boîte ? Je passais par là ; vous
ne m’avez pas vu. Qu’est-ce que cette étourderie inqualifiable ?
— Monsieur me pardonnera, répondit le valet pris au piège.
Madame la comtesse ne m’a pas permis…
— En ce cas, c’est différent, dit le comte souriant… Pardonnez-
moi, Monsieur Jean, ajouta-t-il avec une grâce à laquelle ses
domestiques étaient habitués, et pour laquelle il était aimé d’eux.
Puis avec intention :
— Et n’oubliez pas qu’il faut, en effet, quand votre maîtresse
donne un ordre, fût-il opposé aux miens, lui obéir aveuglément…
Allez.
Toute cette campagne de ruses semblait devoir réussir.

Fusion Reactor Design Plasma Physics Fuel Cycle System Operation and Maintenance 1St Edition Takashi Okazaki Full Chapter

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Fusion Reactor Design: Plasma

Physics, Fuel Cycle System, Operation

Plasma Physics, Fuel Cycle System, Operation and

Bibliographic information published by the

© 2022 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12,

All rights reserved (including those of

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-41403-1

Typesetting Straive, Chennai, India

Printed on acid-free paper

1 Characteristics of the Fusion Reactor 1

2 Basis of the Fusion Reactor 17

2.6 Operation Scenario 26

3 Basics of Plasma Analysis 31

4 Plasma Equilibrium and Stability 57

4.10 Instability Due to High Energy Particles 98

5 Plasma Transport and Conﬁnement 113

5.8.3 Countermeasures Against Disruption 135

6 Plasma Design 141

7.2.4.3 Tritium Breeding Material 161

7.3.4 Power Generation Method 170

8 Plasma-Facing Components 191

8.2.5.1 Impurity Control 200

9 Coil System 227

9.2.3.2 Nb3 Sn 230

9.4.3.2 Support Structure for the Overturning Force 249

10 Plasma Heating and Current Drive 273

10.1.2 Current Drive 274

10.6.4 Electron Cyclotron Wave 310

10.9.1.1 Required Functions 337

11 Vacuum Vessel 385

11.2.2 Holding the Ultra-high Vacuum 386

12 Fuel Cycle System 405

12.4.2.3 Initial Ultimate Pressure 409

14 Nuclear Design 435

14.2.2.3 Analysis Code 440

15 Operation and Maintenance 457

16 Cooling System 473

17 Power Supply System 483

17.4.5.2 At the Time of Plasma Disruption 495

18 Operation Control and Diagnostic Systems 501

20 Analysis Code 563

20.2 Various Types of Analysis Codes 566

July 2021 Takashi Okazaki

Characteristics of the Fusion Reactor

1.1 The Fusion Reactor as an Energy Source

1.1.1 Trends in World Energy Consumption

1.1.2 Energy Classiﬁcation

18 Figure 1.1-1 Transition of world

1.1.3 Nuclear Fusion Power Generation

Table 1.1-1 Classiﬁcation of energy.

Primary energy Secondary energy Final energy

Fossil energy Coal Thermal power Electric power

Nuclear fission energy Nuclear fission power

Hydroelectric power energy Hydroelectric power

1.2 Nuclear Fusion Reaction

where 21 D is deuterium, 31 T is tritium, 11 p is proton, 10 n is neutron, and 42 He is helium

1.2.2 Cross Section of the Fusion Reaction

Figure 1.2-1 Schematic diagram of beam injected into

1.2.3 Fusion Reaction Rate

102 Figure 1.2-2 Cross sections of fusion

⟨𝜎𝜐r ⟩ = dv1 dv2 𝜎(𝜐r )𝜐r f1 (v1 )f2 (v2 ). (1.2-14)

A velocity distribution function of thermal equilibrium is used to obtain ⟨𝜎𝜐r ⟩. Going

Figure 1.2-3 Fusion reactivity. Source: Atzeni 10–14